Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10639-024-13092-1
Abs ac
In he las wo decades, compu a ional hinking has gained wide ele ance in in-
e na ional educa ional sys ems. The inclusion o his new ype o hinking poses
educa ional challenges wi h some unde lying esea ch ques ions ha need o be an-
swe ed o mee hese challenges wi h quali y. Thus, his s udy ocuses on analyzing
he di icul ies ha eache s in ini ial aining expe ience ha e, when ca ying ou
ansla ion asks o p og amming languages used by ce ain educa ional obo s, in
his case, he Cube o. Fo his pu pose, a speci ic lea ning sequence has been de-
signed o wo k wi h di e en p og amming languages (Cube o, Bee-Bo , Sc a ch)
and na u al language. The wo k o ea ly childhood and elemen a y ainee eache s
in hese asks has been analyzed using a desc ip i e app oach. The main esul s a e:
(1) some o he di icul ies encoun e ed a e clea ly caused by he Cube o ha dwa e
( ega dless o he language o which i is ansla ed) and (2) he designed lea ning
sequence has enabled coding skills o be imp o ed ema kably. We conclude ha
ansla ion asks be ween p og amming languages a e necessa y in ini ial eache
aining o imp o e hei abili y p og amming and hei compu a ional hinking, and
o hem o be able o de ec he disad an ages and bene i s o educa ional obo s
in hei ansposi ion o he class oom.
Keywo ds Coding · Compu a ional hinking · P e-se ice eache s · Ea ly
childhood and p ima y educa ion
1 In oduc ion
The g owing in e es in compu a ional hinking wi hin educa ional se ings has g ad-
ually led o i s in eg a ion in o school cu icula, s a ing om he ea lies educa ional
s ages. Following his idea, compu a ional hinking should be de eloped in Ea ly
Recei ed: 16 Feb ua y 2024 / Accep ed: 1 Oc obe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
The impo ance o coding and ansla ion be ween
p og amming languages in sequen ial ac i i ies o p e-
se ice eache s: an app oach
AinhoaBe ciano1· As idCuida2· Ma ía-LuisaNo o2
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
Childhood Educa ion (BOE, 2022) h ough “p ocesses o obse a ion and manipu-
la ion o objec s” (p. 23) ha enable child en o “p og am sequences o ac ions o
ins uc ions o he esolu ion o analog and digi al asks, he eby de eloping basic
compu a ional hinking skills” (p. 25).
The e o e, conside ing he new skills o be de eloped a his educa ional s age
and he challenge o achie ing meaning ul lea ning ha os e s compu a ional hink-
ing (CP), i is necessa y o p o ide eache s wi h aining scena ios which enable
hem o unde s and wha compu a ional hinking ep esen s. The acquisi ion o his
knowledge implies: (1) o iden i y i s e ms, (2) o achie e a good a i ude owa ds
i s lea ning, (3) a o he de elopmen o indispensable skills which can success ully
add ess he de elopmen o compu a ional hinking in school (Yada e al., 2017) and
(4) p o ide a pedagogy ha enhances he de elopmen o compu a ional hinking o
he ea ly educa ional s ages (Zapa a e al., 2021).
Acco ding o hese conside a ions, eache s in ini ial aining mus be ained o be
compe en in all aspec s ela ed o compu a ional hinking, including p og amming.
Rega ding p og amming, Be s (2017) aises se en associa ed big ideas: modula -
i y, debugging, ep esen a ion, ha dwa e/so wa e, algo i hms, con ol s uc u es, and
design p ocesses.
Focusing on ha dwa e/so wa e, we can es ablish a g adua ion in he complexi y
o impe a i e p og amming, depending on whe he physical manipula ion is equi ed
in he coding p ocess (Ma ín e al., 2002). Thus, we ha e angible p og amming,
ca ied ou h ough objec s wi h angible in e aces and wi h he capaci y o be p o-
g ammed ( o example, educa ional obo s: Bee-Bo , Code-a-pilla , Code ‘n Lea n
Kinde bo , Cube o, Bluebo , …) and non- angible p og amming, ca ied ou h ough
so wa e (compu e s and able s). In his sense, some p e ious esea ch sugges s ha ,
o de elop compu a ional hinking a ea ly ages, p og amming mus be angible, wi h
emphasis on unde s anding he ype o p og amming in ol ed in each educa ional
obo (Misi li & Komis, 2023; Be s e al., 2014).
Fu he mo e, his dimension, ha dwa e/so wa e, del es in o he impo ance o
he ansla ion p ocesses be ween na u al language and he language used by he
p og ammable objec , and he necessi y o unde s anding ha i is no su icien o
me ely ind a heo e ical solu ion o a gi en p oblem. I is equally c ucial o know
how o accu a ely ansla e his solu ion in o he espec i e p og amming en i on-
men o ensu e he ins uc ions a e con eyed co ec ly.
Thus, gi en he ele ance o he dimension ha dwa e/so wa e and he language
in ol ed, di e en au ho s ha e been conce ned wi h he e o s in p og aming and
compiling cos s in p og aming lea ning. In pa icula , he co ec ion o he code
equi es a cons an assis ance om he eache s and he e ision o i could be a
be e ool o eache s and s uden s o imp o e hei knowledge (Zelle , ci ed by
Fe nández-Medina e al., 2011). I is necessa y ha esea ch goes deepe and ana-
lyzes he ypes o e o s ha s uden s do in p og amming asks o be e unde s and
his p ocess (Fe nández-Medina e al., 2014).
So, he aim o his wo k is o espond o he need men ioned in he p e ious pa a-
g aph, p esen ing as a no el y o esea ch he in e es in be e unde s anding he
eaching and lea ning p ocesses o p og amming h ough he de ec ion o e o s made
by s uden s. Ou in e es is ocused on explo ing he di icul ies ha ainee each-
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
e s ha e in impe a i e language ansla ion p ocesses, whe e implied language is
comple ely de e mined by he ha dwa e used, in his case, an educa ional obo . The
inal objec i e is o be e unde s and he p ocess o p og amming lea ning in ol ed
in eache ini ial aining o go u he in hei compu a ional hinking skill de elop-
men , designing be e asks ha help hem o be able o use educa ional obo s in
hei p ospec i e schools. The de ec ion o e o s will allow us o design a sca olding
sys em o asks ha will help ainee eache s o iden i y hei e o s and o e come
hem, imp o ing hei compu a ional hinking.
Cen e ing ou in e es in ainee eache s (Ea ly Childhood and P ima y Educa-
ion), we wan o analyze hei e o s and he de e mina ion o he na u e o hese
e o s, when hey lea n he use o educa ional obo s. Fo his end, s a ing om
a lea ning sequence speci ically designed and implemen ed o pe o m ansla ions
be ween he educa ional obo Cube o (an objec wi h angible p og amming) and
Bee- bo (ano he wi h angible p og amming) o Sc a ch (one wi h non- angible p o-
g amming), we in end o answe he ollowing ques ions:
RQ 1) Wha a e he e o s made by ainee eache s in he ansla ion om Cube o language o
Bee-Bo and Sc a ch languages, hei na u e, and he ex en o casuis y in ol ed?
RQ 2) How does he ainee eache s’ abili y o sol e a ansla ion ask om he Cube o language
o na u al language e ol e h oughou he lea ning sequence?
RQ 3) To wha ex en does his lea n-sequence help ainee eache s in he ansla ion skills o
in e -impe a i e languages?
RQ 4) Wha a e he e o s by ainee eache s in he ansla ion om na u al language o Cube o?
Nex , he heo e ical amewo k is desc ibed, explaining he ela ionship be ween
compu a ional hinking, p og amming and coding, hen, i s po en ial in Ea ly Child-
hood Educa ion is explained, as well as he need o eache aining o he de elop-
men o compu a ional hinking. Subsequen ly, he esea ch me hodology, he esul s
and he main discussions and conclusions o his esea ch a e desc ibed.
2 Theo e ical amewo k
2.1 Compu a ional hinking, p og amming and coding
Compu a ional hinking, de ined as a b oad spec um o easoning skills o o mula e
and sol e p oblems algo i hmically, and de elop a sense o echnological luency
(Ga cia-Peñal o & Mendes, 2018; Wing, 2006, 2011), which can be applied in o he
con ex s (Lee e al., 2011), has aken on g ea ele ance in ecen yea s; a ele ance
o which educa ion has no been obli ious.
Thus, ecen s udies ha e in es iga ed he ea men o Compu a ional Thinking
in he educa ional ield; showing in many cases a close ela ionship be ween com-
pu a ional hinking, ha is, p og amming, and coding; whe e p og amming is he
p ocess o cons uc ing p og ams, i.e. algo i hms exp essed in a speci ic language o
an au oma ic p ocesso (Knu h, 2005); an abili y inc easingly demanded in socie y
(Ching e al., 2018), which enables e ec i e pa icipa ion in a socie y whe e he e
is an inc easing ubiqui y o digi al de ices (Be s, 2018; Ka ai, 2016); and coding o
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code-li e acy is he abili y o c ea e new socially si ua ed symbolic sys ems ha , in
u n, enable new ypes o exp essions, as well as he ex ension o p e-exis ing o ms
o communica ion (Vee, 2017); a skill ha , acco ding o Wing (2006), is essen ial in
he p ocess o lea ning compu a ional hinking.
Thus, a de ailed analysis o hese h ee concep s, compu a ional hinking, p o-
g amming, and coding, allows us o highligh ha hey a e closely ela ed, bu clea ly
dis inc ; ha is, compu a ional hinking is an exp essi e p ocess ha enables new
ways o communica e ideas while p og amming can be seen as a ool o eaching
compu a ional hinking and coding as w i ing connec ed o echnology.
Rega ding p og amming in he educa ional ield, se e al esea che s p opose he
need o wo k on i as an essen ial aspec in ol ed in he de elopmen o compu-
a ional hinking, because: (1) i helps “[…] child en o de elop as compu a ional
hinke s” (Resnick & Rusk, 2020, p.122 ), (2) i empowe s child en o sol e p oblems
(Be s, 2018; Ga cía-Valcá cel & Caballe o-González, 2019), (3) i in ol es a p ac i-
cal way o eaching inqui y-based compu a ional hinking (Ladzowska & Pa e son,
2013; Hal e son & She idan, 2014); (4) i o e s a new way o exp ess ideas (Aus in
e al., 2020; Be s & Sulli an, 2019; Pape , 1980).
On coding and i s inco po a ion in o educa ion, Resnick e al. (2009) s a e ha i
p o ides meaning ul and mo i a ing lea ning oppo uni ies. Fo Be s (2019) coding
is a new language ha child en can lea n h ough play and c ea i i y om a e y
ea ly age. Di e en au ho s sugges wo king on coding by s a ing wi h simple and
un asks un il achie ing mo e complex ones, ocusing he child’s p og ess on he
di icul y o he asks and hei mo i a ing cha ac e is ics (Delac uz, 2020; DiSessa,
2001; Duin & Tham, 2019). Resnick and Rusk (2020) s a e ha wi h his eaching-
lea ning p ocess o he li e acy o compu e p og amming languages “s uden s a e
no jus lea ning o code, hey a e coding o lea n” (p.121) and “As s uden s c ea e
hei own s o ies, games, and anima ions wi h code, hey s a o see hemsel es as
c ea o s, de eloping con idence and p ide in hei abili y o c ea e hings and exp ess
hemsel es […]” (p.123).
Thus, he inclusion o coding in educa ion has d i en: (1) he de elopmen o di -
e en ypes o p og amming in e aces (Bau e al., 2017), (2) he ise o global ou -
each ini ia i es suppo ing educa ion science educa ion such as Code.o g, CS o All,
Code Dojo and Code Club, (3) he p oli e a ion o a wide a ie y o p og ammable
de ices ha b ing lexibili y o he spec um o ways o coding ha s uden s can use
such as mic o: bi (Aus in e al., 2020), obo ics ki s (Khine, 2017) and p og am-
mable oys (Yu & Roque, 2019; Cla ke-Midu a e al., 2019), (4) he inc ease in he
numbe o eache s who manage o in eg a e c ea i e and exp essi e app oaches o
coding in he class oom (Resnick & Rusk, 2020) and (5) he p omo ion, globally, o
he de elopmen o compu a ional hinking skills and he in oduc ion o p og am-
ming concep s and languages om ea ly childhood educa ion (Mac ides e al., 2022).
2.2 Compu a ional hinking, p og amming and coding in ea ly childhood
educa ion
Gi en he po en ial o compu a ional hinking, p og amming, and coding and, con-
side ing ha quali y lea ning oppo uni ies om ea ly childhood no only impac
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he achie emen o social, emo ional, and cogni i e miles ones bu also posi i ely
a ec la e lea ning s ages (Be s, 2017; Yu & Roque, 2019), go e nmen s ha e been
inc easingly conce ned wi h encou aging he in oduc ion o compu e p og amming
concep s and languages om ea ly ages (Be s e al., 2022; S awhacke e al., 2018;
Sulli an e al., 2017). These lea ning oppo uni ies can be p o ided h ough employ-
ing he se en key p og amming ideas ou lined in he in oduc ion: algo i hms, mod-
ula i y, con ol s uc u es, ep esen a ion, ha dwa e/so wa e, design p ocess, and
debugging (Be s, 2017).
Rega ding ha dwa e/so wa e, Ga cía-Peñal o and Mendes (2018) highligh he
impo ance o i s selec ion in class oom con ex s. Thus, hei selec ion depends on
he educa ional s age and on he p og amming associa ed wi h he ha dwa e/so wa e
( angible o non- angible). Gi en he abo e, i is ecommended o s a wi h an-
gible and hen mo e on o non- angible, because angible p og amming and coding
en i onmen s can be mo e e ec i e o in oducing p og amming a he ea ly ages,
as can block-based p og amming, as “i is a p ac ical way o encou age he child o
explo e coding, as well as o use languages wi h simple mo emen commands such
as o wa d, sideways, o backwa d, o suppo spa ial, isual, and cogni i e skills”
(Be s e al., 2022: p.26).
As examples o angible p og amming i appea s ha o ea ly ages educa ional
compu a ional ki s (educa ional obo s) a e he a o i es, because, among o he
aspec s, i has been seen ha educa ional obo ics con ibu es o he cons uc ion o
knowledge due o i s e sa ili y, p o iding in e disciplina i y and ge ing s uden s o
be ac i e agen s o hei own lea ning (Sega o & Teixei a, 2021) and consequen ly
educa ional obo ics o p og amming a e cu en ly being included in cu icula
h oughou he wo ld (Be s e al., 2022; Yu & Roque, 2019). Among he many exam-
ples o educa ional obo s, we highligh Cube o ( om P imo Toys). The Cube o
ki includes a obo named Cube o, wi h a angible in e ace, a se o ex e nal an-
gible manipula i e coding blocks and pa s ha con ol he obo , a con ol boa d on
which o place he coding blocks, and maps and s o ybooks. As child en p og am he
obo o mo e om place o place, hey a e b eaking down he p oblem/complex in o
smalle /elemen a y pa s (P idmo e e al., 2010; Angeli e al., 2016) in which child en
can co ec e o s wi hin hei p og ams by wo king debugging (Selby, 2014; Angeli
e al., 2016). In addi ion, he e a e ools o measu e coding abili y o child en aged
h ee o six yea s old in asks ca ied ou wi h Cube o (e.g., Ma inus e al., 2018).
Among he examples o non- angible p og amming, one such educa ional ool
is Sc a ch (Resnick e al., 2009), a p og amming language ha is pa o an online
communi y and au ho ing en i onmen in which compu a ional hinking is de ined
a ound h ee key dimensions including (1) compu a ional concep s (2) compu a ional
p ac ices and (3) compu a ional pe spec i es (B ennan & Resnick, 2012); i also has
an ea ly childhood e sion, Sc a ch J . (Flanne y e al., 2013) and has been concei ed
as a language ha enables knowledge no only ele an o Compu a ional Thinking o
ma hema ics o be buil bu also p o ides oppo uni ies o lea ning ideas om o he
disciplines and o he de elopmen o p oblem-sol ing, design, collabo a ion and
communica ion skills (Resnick & Rusk, 2020; Roque & Rusk, 2019).
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2.3 Ini ial eache aining o he de elopmen o compu a ional hinking
In line wi h in e na ional app oaches o inco po a e compu a ional hinking in o edu-
ca ion om an ea ly age, eache s should know how o use hem in school. In his
sense, i is necessa y ha ainee eache s ha e he necessa y knowledge and condi-
ions o success ully inco po a e compu a ional hinking in o class oom p ac ices in
a meaning ul way; whe e, ini ial eache aining should allow hem o know he
a ie y o compu ing de ices and p og amming ools (Yada e al., 2017).
Along hese lines, Es ebanell e al. (2018) pu o wa d a p oposal o eache ain-
ing ha hey desc ibe in ou le els o compu a ional hinking de elopmen : (1) use
le el ( aining ocused on lea ning compu a ional languages and inc easingly com-
plex compu a ional p oblem sol ing s a egies); (2) e lec i e use le el ( aining
ocused on os e ing e lec ion on sol ing a compu a ional challenge); (3) eache
le el ( aining ocused on knowing how o decide wha hey wan o each, wha hey
expec hei s uden s o lea n abou Compu a ional Thinking); (4) e lec i e eache
le el ( aining ha os e s e lec ion on he eaching and lea ning p ocesses ela ed o
Compu a ional Thinking).
Conside ing hese le els, we ind ha mos o he s udies conduc ed wi h eache s
in ini ial aining ocus on le els 1 and 3, ha is, use le el and eache le el, o be -
e unde s and he knowledge ha his g oup has abou compu a ional hinking and
p og amming.
Rega ding le el 1, use le el, we ind se e al s udies on he p og amming skills o
eache s in ini ial aining. Angeli (2022), in a s udy ocused on algo i hmic hinking
and obo ics, claims o e idence signi ican imp o emen s in algo i hmic hinking
and debugging skills. This is he eason which is why he au ho highligh s he impo -
ance o p epa ing eache s in ini ial aining o in eg a e he eaching o Compu a-
ional Thinking in he class oom om an ea ly age. Likewise, Hamil on e al. (2020)
show how compe encies inhe en o p og amming (sequence, ac ion-ins uc ion, and
debugging dimensions) become measu able skills ha can be aken as a e e ence o
eache s o use in he class oom. So, he li e a u e e iew e eals ce ain o ien a ions
on essen ial aspec s o ini ial eache aining in he ield o Compu a ional Thinking
and p og amming, bu no on coding.
Conside ing ha ou esea ch ocuses on he impo ance o coding, empi ical
esea ch on ini ial eache de elopmen in his a ea is limi ed. Resea ch ela ed o he
analysis o he impac o coding on ini ial eache educa ion is sca ce. Among hem,
we ind hose ha s a e ha : (1) in he coding p ocess wi h Bee-Bo , he mos e-
quen e o made by ainee eache s in ea ly childhood educa ion occu s in Euclid-
ean space p og amming con ex s, when ins uc ions ela ed o spa ial o ien a ion
a e highligh ed (Seckel e al., 2021); (2) in he esolu ion o p og amming language
ansla ion asks, based on he use o he Cube o obo , o e bal language, i u ns
ou ha “a no able pe cen age o eache s in ini ial aining in ea ly childhood and
p ima y educa ion ha e di icul ies associa ed wi h unde s anding he p og amming
language o he Cube o obo , despi e no being awa e o such di icul ies” (Be ciano
e al., 2023, p.1).
Thus, gi en he ele ance o coding, i s e ision (Zelle , ci ed by Fe nández-
Medina e al., 2011) and he need o analyze he e o s ha s uden s do in p og am-
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ming asks (Fe nández- Medina e al., 2014), ou esea ch ocuses on how ainee
eache s do code (a use le el). This would help o s ablish possible links o hei
p o essional wo k in he u u e, as heads o ea ly childhood educa ion and p ima y
educa ion class ooms (le els 3 and 4 (Es ebanell e al., 2018). In his wo k we aim
o unde s and he di icul ies ha his g oup has in unde s anding he p og amming
languages associa ed wi h bo h educa ional obo s ( angible p og amming: Cube o,
Bee-Bo ) and non- angible p og amming languages (Sc a ch); ha is, o analyze he
cha ac e is ics ha de e mine he di icul ies in he coding p ocess. To his end, he
objec i e is o analyze he e o s made by eache s in ini ial aining in he ansla-
ion p ocesses be ween he h ee p og amming languages desc ibed and he na u e o
hese e o s. This will allow us o gain a be e unde s anding o he idiosync asies o
he p ocess o p og amming lea ning in ol ed in eache ini ial aining o go u he
in hei compu a ional hinking skill de elopmen , designing be e asks ha help
hem o be able o use educa ional obo s in hei p ospec i e schools.
3 Me hodology
This esea ch is amed wi hin an in e p e a i e pa adigm. F om his pe spec i e,
o be able o espond o ou esea ch objec i e, we ha e ca ied ou a mixed ype o
esea ch, wi h a quali a i e componen ha is pe cen agewise mo e ele an han he
quan i a i e one. This me hod has been chosen, sha ing he ideas o Came on (2010)
who s a es ha esea ch wi h his ype o design in ol es an excellen usion be ween
quan i a i e and quali a i e o ien a ions. The esponses ob ained om he p e-se ice
eache s when indi idually sol ing ou asks ypical o he i s le el o p og ession
in he lea ning o Compu a ional Thinking p oposed by Es ebanell e al. (2018) a e
analyzed. The asks a e ocused on lea ning compu a ional languages using easily
p og ammable objec s (Bee-Bo , Cube o, Sc a ch), as sugges ed by he au ho s in
hei aining module (p.29).
Acco dingly, he esea ch objec i es a e:
1. To iden i y he ypes o e o s in Cube o-> Bee-Bo and Cube o-> Sc a ch cod-
ing, o s udy he speci ic cases and hei pe cen ages ( ela ed o RQ1, desc ibed
in he in oduc ion).
2. To de e mine he e olu ion o he ainee eache s’ abili y o sol e a Cube o->
na u al language ansla ion ask de eloped h oughou he didac ic sequence in
h ee momen s, ini ial, in e media e and inal ( ela ed o RQ2 and RQ3, desc ibed
in he in oduc ion).
3. To iden i y he ypes o e o s in na u al language-> Cube o coding, o s udy
he speci ic cases and hei pe cen ages ( ela ed o RQ4, desc ibed in he
in oduc ion).
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3.1 Con ex and pa icipan s
This esea ch ea u ing in his a icle akes place a a Spanish uni e si y whe e ea ly
childhood and p ima y eache s a end hei induc ion aining. Thi y- wo ainees
(87.5% women, 12.5% men) pa icipa ed, all o whom we e a ending he cou se
o School-based p o essional ac i i ies o ea ly childhood ma hema ics educa ion
du ing hei ou h yea o hei unde g adua e deg ee cou se ( ou yea s in o hei
aining).
3.2 Da a collec ion
The da a p esen ed in his a icle we e collec ed du ing ou wo king sessions wi h
he pa icipan s a e hey had signed an in o med consen o m.
The lea ning sequence was de eloped in ou wo king sessions wi h Cube o, each
las ing 90 min. Bee-Bo was also used in he second session and Sc a ch in he hi d.
The ac i i ies de eloped in he di e en sessions a e de ailed below. In all o hem,
he ainees ca ied ou he asks indi idually.
3.2.1 Sessions 1, 2 and 3
1. Explana ion o he ope a ing cha ac e is ics o he Cube o o Bee-Bo obo wi h
all i s elemen s.
2. To explain he cha ac e is ics o he ope a ion o he p og amming language wi h
all i s elemen s.
3. Se e al examples o pa hs a e p ac iced using di e en commands.
4. The ask shee is p o ided wi h he ask di ided in o h ee pa s:
(a) The image o he sequence c ea ed on he Cube o boa d is gi en (Fig. 1b). The
ainee had o w i e he same sequence in na u al language, Bee-Bo language
(Fig. 2), o Sc a ch language, depending on whe he i was he i s , second o
hi d session, espec i ely.
(b) The di icul ies encoun e ed when ansc ibing should be explained.
(c) Wi h he Cube o map in iew (Fig. 1d) and he image o he c ea ed sequence,
o he espec i e session, he ainee eache has o deduce o which squa e he
obo a i es and in which di ec ion i is acing. (Fig. 1c).
In e ms o eaching objec i es, he h ee sessions aim o:
(a) T ansc ibe he Cube o language in o he o he languages, na u al, Bee-bo , o
Sc a ch, acco ding o he co esponding session.
(b) No e down he di icul ies encoun e ed in he ansc ip ion.
(c) Wo k on o ien a ion and loca ion based on a ou e on he boa d s a ing om
speci ic coo dina es.
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
3.2.2 Session 4
In he las session, he ou h one, a ask was ca ied ou ha was he in e se o
hose pe o med in he p e ious sessions. Wi h he Cube o boa d wi hou coun e s,
ainees we e asked o c ea e a sequence s a ing om he squa e (5, B) acing he
building (6, B) and aiming o each he ship (3, F) wi hou passing h ough squa es
wi h le e s o objec s wi h a plain backg ound. The eaching aim o his session is o
check he ainee eache s’ unde s anding o how Cube o wo ks, and do ansla ions
o m na u al language o Cube o language. I should be no ed ha , due o he lack
o boa ds, each ainee was p o ided wi h one boa d and 16 p in ed coding blocks o
wo k wi h (Fig. 1a).
The eaching objec i es o his session a e:
a) T ansc ibe in o Cube o language a esolu ion done in na u al language o a gi en
p oblem.
b) Wo k on o ien a ion and loca ion based on a ou e on he boa d wi h ini ial and
inal coo dina es gi en.
Fig. 2 Bee-Bo ’s di ec ional
language
Fig. 1 Cube o Playse
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
lu ion, exp essed as success a es in he esolu ion, gi es us a clea e iew o wha
happened: in Exe cise 1, 70% sol ed i co ec ly, in Exe cise 2, his pe cen age d ops
o 56.7% and in Exe cise 3, he success a e is 83.3%, he e o e, we see ha be ween
Exe cise 1 and Exe cise 3 we ob ain an imp o emen o 13.3% in he success a e.
An in e en ial analysis allows us o conclude ha he e a e s a is ically signi ican
di e ences o e ime (F iedman es : Chi-squa e = 7.385, p- alue = 0.025 < 0.05). Fu -
he mo e, he Wilcoxon es allows us o a i m ha he esul s ob ained in Exe cise 3
a e be e han hose ob ained in Exe cise 1 and Exe cise 2, and ha his imp o emen
es ic ed o he compa ison o Exe cise 2 and Exe cise 3 is s a is ically signi ican
(see Table 4):
Fig. 10 E olu ion o he deg ee
o co ec ness o he loca ion in
he plan
Fig. 9 T ansc ip o Pa icipan E (o iginal and i s English ansla ion, le and igh espec i ely)
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
4.3 Deg ee o co ec ness and e iciency in a ask ansla ing na u al language o
Cube o
Finally, we analyze he deg ee o co ec ness in a e e se coding ask, i.e., he ini ial
posi ion o he Cube o (loca ion and o ien a ion), he inal poin o a i al (loca ion
and o ien a ion) and s ep es ic ions a e gi en, and he pa icipan s mus w i e he
ins uc ions on a Cube o boa d, wi hou being able o es whe he hei ins uc ions
a e co ec o no . In his case, he sample consis ed o 26 pa icipan s. I is s iking
ha only 57.60% (15 pa icipan s) sol ed he ask co ec ly, while 42.30% (11 pa -
icipan s) made some e o in i s esolu ion.
Rega ding he deg ee o e iciency in sol ing he ask, unde s ood as he abili y o
use he minimum numbe o commands, inco po a ing as a as possible he use o
he unc ion ca d, we ind ha only 20% o he pa icipan s who pe o med he ask
co ec ly do so in an op imal way (see Fig. 11), while he es use a highe numbe o
commands han necessa y:
4.3.1 Example o op imal asks collec ed om session 4
Among he op imal (and co ec ) examples, we show wo di e en esolu ion pa hs,
one om Pa icipan F (Fig. 12) who places 9 okens wi h wo loops and ano he om
Pa icipan G (Fig. 13) who uses 9 okens wi h h ee loops.
Fig. 11 E iciency in esolu ion
Exe cise (i) Exe cise (j) Di e ence i-j p- alue
2 1 -0.133 0.157
3 1 0.133 0.206
3 2 0.267 0.005
Table 4 Di e ences in success
a es and Wilcoxon es p- alue
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4.3.2 Analysis o he mos common ypes o e o s
A de ailed analysis o he ypes o e o s commi ed e eals ha in 81.81% o he
e oneous cases, he e o s a e due o inco ec o ien a ion o he Cube o; ha is, he
Cube o does no ace he di ec ion speci ied, al hough i does a i e a he co ec
Fig. 13 T ansc ip o Pa ici-
pan F
Fig. 12 T ansc ip o Pa ici-
pan F
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
des ina ion. Meanwhile, he o he 18.18% o e o s a e ela ed o bo h inco ec loca-
ion and o ien a ion. Below, wo examples o hese e o s a e p esen ed:
1. Inco ec o ien a ion and co ec loca ion
The Pa icipan H, on his occasion, ollows all he guidelines o he ask, a oid-
ing passing h ough boxes wi h le e s o boxes wi h objec s wi h a plain back-
g ound, bu he Cube o ends up acing eas and no no h (Fig. 14).
2. Inco ec loca ion and o ien a ion
We highligh he exe cise pe o med by Pa icipan I (Fig. 15). Only 16 iles can
be placed on he panel. She places a loop on one cu e o he empla e (blue ile)
and a le u n (yellow ile) on he o he cu e.
5 Discussion and conclusions
Th oughou his wo k, we ha e seen he impo ance o pe o ming ansla ion asks
be ween p og amming languages. The indings highligh he signi icance o co -
ec ly linking di e en coding sys ems h ough hese asks. And he esul s allow us
o clea ly answe o he esea ch ques ions, desc ibed in he in oduc ion: RQ1) Wha
a e he e o s made by eache s in ini ial aining in he ansla ion om Cube o
language o Bee-Bo and Sc a ch languages, hei na u e, and he ex en o casu-
is y in ol ed?; RQ2) How does he ainee eache s’ abili y o sol e a ansla ion
ask om he Cube o language o na u al language e ol e h oughou he lea ning
Fig. 14 T ansc ip o Pa ici-
pan H
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
sequence?; RQ3) To wha ex en does his lea n-sequence help ainee eache s in
he ansla ion skills o in e -impe a i e languages? and RQ4) Wha a e he e o s by
ainee eache s in he ansla ion om na u al language o Cube o?
Wi h espec o RQ1, a ious di icul ies ha e been obse ed in he way he ainee
eache s ca y ou he asks. Some e o s ha occu ed in he ask esolu ion a e
ela ed o common e o s in p og aming (25% o o al exe cises in Cube o-Bee-bo
ansla ion and 12% in Cube o-Sc a ch ansla ion), as desc ibed in Be ciano e al.
(2023), o example a loop inco ec ly w i en (13%, 3%, espec i ely), one o de
missing, one command inco ec ly w i en. This eali y show how coding is one o
he mos di icul aspec s in p og aming lea ning, and he na u e o he e o s should
be analyzed (Fe nández-Medina e al., 2014).
Bu ano he special e o appea s in he ansla ion asks (Cube o-Bee-bo ,
Cube o-Sc a ch), who is ela ed o he cha ac e is ics o he Cube o educa ional
obo , comple ely de ined by i s ha dwa e (I does no in e p e he na u al o de o
he Cube o ins uc ion) and eme ges in ansla ion o Bee-bo and o Sc a ch. This
esul was unexpec ed since he asks, conside ed easy o adul s, and he educa-
ional obo , designed o ea ly childhood use, we e supposed o be simple. Mo e-
o e , despi e he small sample size, i is s iking how Cube o was ound o be mo e
complex han expec ed; i s ha dwa e is designed wi h a simple coding sys em o
use wi h young child en, so i was no hypo hesized ha ainee eache s migh ha e
di icul ies o use i . The di icul ies o he educa ional obo , linked o he peculia i-
ies o i s coding language, ha e become e iden h oughou he lea ning sequence,
ega dless o he a ge p og amming language. These di icul ies complemen hose
e idenced by Angeli (2022) in he s udy wi h ano he ype o p og ammable obo
(Lego Wedo); in which she concluded ha eache s lacked p epa a ion in hei ini ial
aining o ace he didac ic challenges in ol ed in eaching compu a ional hink-
ing o he e y young lea ne s. We suppo he need o ainee eache s o ecei e
Fig. 15 T ansc ip o Pa ici-
pan I
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
adequa e aining o be able o de elop compu a ional hinking a he use le el; o
la e , be able o assume asks a he le els o eache and e lec i e eache (acco ding
o Es ebanell e al., 2018).
As an added alue in his wo k, we emphasize ha he de ec ion o di icul ies
wi h his educa ional obo has allowed us o es ablish a ca ego ical sys em consis -
ing o ele en di e en ypes o e o s. This ca ego ial sys em p o ides a solid basis
o analyzing he di icul ies o any s uden using his ha dwa e. Fu he mo e, i can
be used o p opose complemen a y ac i i ies ha help o o e come hese di icul ies
success ully, measu ing hei e iciency by he numbe and ype o e o s done. In his
sense, he de ec ion o e o s can be used o design a sca olding sys em o asks ha
will help ainee eache s o iden i y hei e o s and o e come hem, imp o ing hei
compu a ional hinking. Indeed, his ca ego ical sys em complemen s and ex ends
he one de eloped by Be ciano e al. (2023) and can be used as a ool o measu e
coding abili y o e e yone, no only o child en aged h ee o six yea s old in asks
ca ied ou wi h Cube o (e.g., Ma inus e al., 2018).
Wi h espec o RQ2, he pe o mance o he in e se ansla ion ask (Cube o o
na u al language), he esul s show ha mos o he ainee eache s pe o med his
ask wi h a huge numbe o commands, highligh ing ce ain di icul ies in coding
op imiza ion in a con ex o basic complexi y. This esul complemen s he esul s
ob ained by Be ciano e al. (2023), which de ailed he di icul ies encoun e ed by he
ainee eache s in he in e se coding p ocess (Cube o-na u al language). So, his
wo k opens new lines o esea ch associa ed wi h (1) in es iga ing whe he he lack
o code op imiza ion occu s in mo e sophis ica ed coding con ex s, and (2) ca ego iz-
ing he easons ha lead some ainee eache s o pe o m simple ansla ion asks
wi h a huge numbe o commands.
Wi h espec o RQ3, conside ing he a o able esul s o his esea ch, we should
highligh ha he lea ning sequence has se ed o signi ican ly imp o e he ainee each-
e s’ abili y o ansla e be ween p og amming languages. These esul s a e in line wi h
esea ch e idence showing he posi i e e ec s o lea ning compu e p og amming on he
de elopmen o s uden s’ algo i hmic hinking and debugging skills (Be s e al., 2014;
Resnick e al., 2009; Resnick & Rusk, 2020; Roque & Rusk, 2019), and a e comple ely
new o he case o coding. In ou case, we add he idiosync asy o wo king wi h coding
as one o he dimensions o he lea ning o compu e p og aming, because o his dimen-
sion had so a no been alued un il now, e en hough i is conside ed as a new skill o
unde s and he languages associa ed o compu a ional hinking and i s de elopmen (Be s,
2018; Delac uz, 2020; DiSessa, 2001; Duin & Tham, 2019; Resnick & Rusk, (2020).
Wi h espec o RQ4, only he 57.60% o pa icipan s do co ec ly he exe cise.
Wi h espec o he e o s de ec ed, he main ype is ela ed o inco ec o ien a ion
o he Cube o (81.81% o he e oneous cases). This esul is aligned wi h he main
e o de ec ed by Seckel e al. (2021) o he analogous case wi h he Bee-Bo . In he
same lane, i is no ably ha we ind ha only 20% o he pa icipan s who pe o med
he ask co ec ly do so in an op imal way; so, hese esul s open new esea ch lines
o analyze which a e he easons in ol ed.
Finally, like p e ious esea ch ha has highligh ed he need o mo e in-dep h
s udies ega ding he abili y o ainee eache s, o co ec ly pe o m algo i hms and
debugging and he di icul ies encoun e ed in hese asks (Angeli e al., 2016; Be s
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Educa ion and In o ma ion Technologies
e al., 2022; Yada e al., 2017). I is necessa y ha esea ch goes deepe and ana-
lyzes he ypes o e o s ha s uden s do in p og amming asks o be e unde s and
his p ocess (Fe nández- Medina e al., 2014). So, he aim o his wo k has been o
espond o he need men ioned, p esen ing as a no el y o esea ch he in e es in
be e unde s anding he eaching-lea ning p ocesses o p og amming h ough he
de ec ion o e o s made by s uden s. In his sense, we ha e seen how he lea ning
sequence speci ically designed o wo k on he ansla ion be ween he p og amming
languages o Cube o, Bee-Bo , Sc a ch and na u al language has helped eache s in
ini ial aining o imp o e hei p oblem sol ing skills in he Cube o-na u al lan-
guage case, whe e he imp o emen is ema kable and coincides wi h eme ging skills
in o he s udies (Be s e al., 2014; Khine, 2017; Yu & Roque, 2019; Cla ke-Midu a e
al., 2019), al hough he e is s ill a long way o go, as poin ed ou by Be s e al. (2023).
We would like o emphasize he impo ance o pu suing his ype o esea ch in
he eaching and lea ning o compu a ional hinking h ough p og amming. Mo e
speci ically, esea ch should ocus on ansla ion asks be ween p og amming lan-
guages whe e coding is c ucial and he es ablishmen o links be ween equi alen
ep esen a ion sys ems is alued.
5.1 Limi a ions and u u e esea ch lines
As limi a ions o he s udy, we mus poin ou ha he sample was small and ha ,
he e o e, as a u u e imp o emen and line o esea ch, we would like o ex end his
s udy o a la ge sample. Likewise, he aim is o in es iga e whe he he lack o code
op imiza ion occu s in mo e sophis ica ed coding con ex s, as well as o ca ego ize
he easons ha lead some s uden s o ca y ou simple ansla ion asks wi h a e y
high numbe o commands.
Funding Open Access unding p o ided hanks o he CRUE-CSIC ag eemen wi h Sp inge Na u e.
Da a a ailabili y The da ase s gene a ed du ing and/o analyzed du ing he cu en s udy a e a ailable
on eques om he co esponding au ho A. B. The da a a e no publicly a ailable because hey con ain
in o ma ion ha could comp omise esea ch pa icipan p i acy.
Decla a ions
E hical app o al This pape has no been published be o e; i is no unde conside a ion o publica ion
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Publishe ’s no e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps
and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Au ho s and A ilia ions
AinhoaBe ciano1· As idCuida2· Ma ía-LuisaNo o2
Ainhoa Be ciano
[email p o ec ed]
As id Cuida
[email p o ec ed]
Ma ía-Luisa No o
[email p o ec ed]
1 Depa men o Didac ics o Ma hema ics, Expe imen al and Social Sciences, Uni e si y o
he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
2 Depa men o Didac ics o Expe imen al, Social Sciences and Ma hema ics, Uni e si y o
Valladolid (UVa), Valladolid, Spain
1 3
