psyg-13-880755 July 11, 2022 Time: 16:4 # 1
BRIEF RESEARCH REPORT
published: 29 June 2022
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.880755
Edi ed by:
Claudia Poch,
Complu ense Uni e si y o Mad id,
Spain
Re iewed by:
Isabel F aga,
Uni e si y o San iago
de Compos ela, Spain
E elina Lei ada,
Uni e si y o Ro i ai Vi gili, Spain
*Co espondence:
Anna Ha zidaki
[email p o ec ed]
Mikel San es eban
[email p o ec ed]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Language Sciences,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 21 Feb ua y 2022
Accep ed: 23 May 2022
Published: 29 June 2022
Ci a ion:
Ha zidaki A and San es eban M
(2022) Emo ional A ac o s
in Subjec -Ve b Numbe Ag eemen .
F on . Psychol. 13:880755.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.880755
Emo ional A ac o s in Subjec -Ve b
Numbe Ag eemen
Anna Ha zidaki1*and Mikel San es eban2*
1Depa men o English Language and Li e a u e, Na ional and Kapodis ian Uni e si y o A hens, A hens, G eece,
2Depa men o Linguis ics and Basque S udies, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain
Conside ing he c oss alk be ween b ain ne wo ks ha con ain linguis ic and emo ional
in o ma ion and ha no s udies ha e examined he impac o seman ic in o ma ion
o a ec i e na u e on subjec - e b numbe ag eemen , he p esen E en Rela ed
Po en ial (ERP) s udy in es iga ed he ex en o which emo ional local nouns whose
numbe misma ched ha o subjec head nouns migh be conside ed by he pa se
du ing comp ehension o g amma ically co ec sen ences. To his end, wen y-eigh
Spanish na i e speake s we e es ed on a sel -paced eading ask while hei b ain
ac i i y was eco ded. The expe imen al ma e ials consis ed o 120 sen ences whe e
he alence (nega i e s. neu al) and numbe (singula s. plu al) o he local noun o
he singula subjec noun-ph ase (NP) we e manipula ed; El go o de aquel/aquellos
cazado (es)/mecánico(s) e a. . . [The ha o ha / hose hun e (s)/mechanic(s) was. . .].
ERP esul s measu ed in he local noun posi ion showed ha alence and numbe
in e ac ed in he 300–500 ms (nega i e componen ) and 780–880 ms (la e posi i i y)
ime windows. In he ( a ge ) e b posi ion, he wo ac o s only in e ac ed in he la e
780–880 ms ime window, e ealing an “ung amma ical illusion” o plu al ma ked neu al
wo ds. Ou indings sugges ha numbe ag eemen is sensi i e o a ec i e meaning bu
ha he emo ional in o ma ion o an a ac o is conside ed in di e en ope a ions and
a di e en s ages du ing g amma ical sen ence p ocessing; i can a ec lexical and
syn ac ic ep esen a ion e ie al o a subjec -NP and impac ag eemen encoding only
a la e s ages o p ocessing, du ing e b ag eemen and ea u e in eg a ion.
Keywo ds: numbe ag eemen , comp ehension, a ac ion e ec , emo ional wo d p ocessing, ERPs
INTRODUCTION
Subjec - e b numbe ag eemen in Spanish, as in many o he languages, con o ms o he
ule o ha ing he numbe mo phological ea u es o he e b ag eeing wi h hose o he
subjec noun-ph ase (NP) (see Acuña-Fa iña, 2009 o a e iew). Howe e , indings om he
psycholinguis ic li e a u e ha e shown ha ag eemen is no suscep ible o in luences coming
nei he only om he head noun no only om syn ax. Fo example, numbe ag eemen
can be a ec ed by ac o s, such as he di e ence be ween he mo phological singula numbe
o he head nouns and he mo phological plu al numbe o he closes - o- he- e b (local)
noun (Bock and Mille , 1991;Haskell and MacDonald, 2003;Bock and Middle on, 2011) o
he dis ance be ween a misma ching ea u e embedded in a p eposi ional ph ase (PP) and
he subjec head noun (e.g., F anck e al., 2002). E idence showing ha ag eemen does no
come en i ely om a syn ac ic sou ce and ha i is sensi i e o he ole o seman ics comes
om s udies showing ha plu al local nouns elici mo e plu al ag eemen a ac ion e o s
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Ha zidaki and San es eban Emo ional A ac o s in Numbe Ag eemen
when he noun ph ases ha e a no ional dis ibu i e eading (e.g.,
The label on he bo les) han when hey do no (e.g., The house o
my cousins; Vigliocco e al., 1995, 1996). These indings sugges
ha g amma ical in o ma ion o a subjec can be o e idden
by he numbe speci ica ion o he concep ual ep esen a ion
o he subjec ph ase and ha concep ual ac o s may impac
g amma ical encoding. In all he abo e cases, he obse ed esul
is ha he e b seems o be “a ac ed” o he plu al numbe
o he p eceding noun when i misma ches he numbe o he
head noun. This may happen mainly o h ee easons: (i)
he plu al ea u e o he local noun may o e ide he de aul
assignmen by being mis akenly de ec ed by he e b-ag eemen
mechanism ( ea u e pe cola ion accoun ;Bock and Ebe ha d,
1993); (ii) singula numbe (being mo phologically unma ked)
is mo e ulne able o he in luence o plu al numbe (Ebe ha d,
1997); o (iii) due o unsuccess ul numbe econcilia ion o he
numbe ea u es o he subjec noun when ag eemen ea u es a e
ansmi ed o he a ge e b (ma king and mo phing accoun ;
Bock e al., 2001).
In comp ehension s udies, a ac ion e ec s ha e been
demons a ed mainly in he o m o “g amma ical illusions.”
Thus, sen ences, such as “The key o he cabine s ∗a e . . .,” seem o
be p ocessed as e , as shown in eac ion ime (e.g., Wage s e al.,
2009) and as i hey a e g amma ically co ec , as demons a ed
in he educed nega i e le an e io nega i i y (LAN/N400) o
posi i e (P600) componen s o ag eemen iola ion de ec ion
as compa ed o o he ung amma ical sen ences, such as “The
key o he cabine ∗a e. . .”(e.g., Tanne and Van Hell, 2014).
Such illusions ha e also been explained by a ea u e pe cola ion
accoun ha assumes e oneous pe cola ion in o a subjec noun
posi ion when syn ac ic cons i uen s a e hie a chically in eg a ed
in o a p ocessing s uc u e (e.g., Bock and Cu ing, 1992). In
addi ion, hey ha e been accoun ed o by a cue-based e ie al
ailu e du ing syn ac ic in eg a ion caused by ea u e slippage
o misiden i ica ion o he co ec con olle o ag eemen (e.g.,
Wage s e al., 2009).
Howe e , he e a e indings o sugges ha e en in
g amma ical sen ences, e ec s o a ac ion can be shown in he
o m o “ung amma ical illusions.” Nicol e al. (1997) ound
slowe eading imes and less accu a e esponses when a singula
head noun was ollowed by a plu al han a singula a ac o ,
as in “The au ho o he speeches is. . .” s. “The au ho o
he speech is. . .” in a Maze ask whe e pa icipan s had o
decide which o he wo wo ds was a be e con inua ion o a
sen ence. Lau ina ichyu e and on-de -Malsbu g (2019) ound
ha a plu al noun ha misma ched he numbe o a subjec
noun in g amma ical sen ences, such as “The admi e o he
singe s supposedly hinks ha . . .” slowed down p ocessing on he
e b. P ocessing di icul y in co ec sen ences o NP-misma ch
condi ions wi h a singula head (Expe imen 3: The key o he
cabine s was. . .), as displayed in slowe eading imes, was also
epo ed by Pea lmu e e al. (1999). Simila ly, F anck e al.
(2015) showed ha plu al objec in e ene s slowed down he
g amma icali y judgmen o subjec - e b dependencies. In an
E en Rela ed Po en ial (ERP) s udy, Kaan (2002) ound ha he
g amma ical condi ion o a singula subjec and a plu al objec
in Ge man yielded an enhanced ea ly posi i i y a he c i ical
e b. In ano he ERP s udy, Ma in e al. (2012) ound e idence
o p ocessing cos s du ing comp ehension o ellip ical sen ences,
such as “Ma a se comp ó la camise a que es aba al lado del es ido
y Mi en cogió o a. . .” (Ma a bough he -shi [FEM] ha was
nex o he d ess[MASC]and Mi en ook ano he [FEM]. . .): he
gende o a misma ching a ac o emi ed la ge nega i i y and
la ge la e posi i i y in he condi ion whe e he a ac o had a
di e en gende om he an eceden . In o he wo ds, when he
a ac o did no ma ch he e ie al cue, his had an impac on
he p ocessing o g amma ical sen ences as well. Finally, in a
sen ence comple ion s udy in Basque, he only s udy whe e he
numbe o a ac ion e ec s ha e been examined in g amma ical
sen ences a an elec ophysiological le el, San es eban e al.
(2020) ound slowe subjec - e b p oduc ion when he subjec
and objec misma ched in numbe han when hey ma ched.
Misma ching objec s elici ed an ea ly p oduc ion P2 ollowed
by a nega i e componen , showing he di icul y o numbe
ea u e e ie al and moni o ing du ing co ec subjec - e b
ag eemen p oduc ion.
Recen s udies ha ha e looked a he impac o seman ic
ac o s on ag eemen p ocessing ha e conside ed he case o
emo ional meaning. This is no su p ising as emo ional con en
due o i s salience, wi h a ec i e in o ma ion being p io i ized
o e non-a ec i e in o ma ion and cap u ing a en ion esou ces
(e.g., Zajonc, 1980, 2001;Delaney-Busch and Kupe be g, 2013),
has been ound o a ec lexical p ocessing and shows i s
signa u e in neu al implemen a ion as well. Mo e enhanced
e ec s a e epo ed o emo ional han non-emo ional wo ds
(e.g., kni e s. sink) whe he hey a e p ocessed in isola ion
o embedded in sen ences and in e ac wi h o he seman ic o
mo phosyn ac ic in o ma ion (see Kissle e al., 2006;Ci on,
2012 and Hinojosa e al., 2020 o e iews). The majo i y o
ERP s udies a he sen en ial le el ha ha e examined he
in luence o emo ional alence on he ag eemen ha e conside ed
he case o gende ag eemen in Spanish (e.g., Hinojosa e al.,
2014;Díaz-Lago e al., 2015;F aga e al., 2017;Jiménez-O ega
e al., 2017). Some ha e ound ha he de ec ion o gende
ag eemen iola ions be ween adjec i es and nouns can be
a ec ed a he ea ly s ages o mo phosyn ac ic p ocessing by
whe he he con en o he ag eeing elemen is emo ional, as
e lec ed by he in e ac ion be ween g amma icali y and alence
in he LAN/N400 ime window (Hinojosa e al., 2014;Jiménez-
O ega e al., 2017;F aga e al., 2021). Wi h ega d o numbe
ag eemen and sen ence comp ehension wi h ERPs, which is
he ocus o he p esen s udy, o ou knowledge, he e a e
only wo s udies ha ha e in es iga ed he ole o emo ional
wo ds (Ma ín-Loeches e al., 2012;Jiménez-O ega e al., 2017
whe e he manipula ion o emo ional in o ma ion in ol ed a
subliminal p esen a ion o adjec i es as he ques ion o in e es
was cen e ed on he au oma ici y o syn ac ic p ocessing). He e,
we ocus on he s udy by Ma ín-Loeches e al. (2012) because
in hei expe imen al p ocedu e he a iables o alence and
numbe we e manipula ed sup aliminally, as in ou s udy.
The esea che s used Spanish sen ences o de e mine -noun-
adjec i e- e b s uc u e o syn ac ic p ocessing (Expe imen
1) and manipula ed emo ional alence (posi i e, nega i e,
neu al adjec i es) and g amma icali y (syn ac ically co ec s.
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inco ec ). Thus, he adjec i e, which was he c i ical wo d, ei he
ma ched o misma ched he numbe o he noun i modi ied and
in he la e case esul ed in he c ea ion o syn ac ic iola ions:
e.g., La he mana que ida acude (The lo ed[SG]sis e a i es) s.
∗La he mana que idas acude (The lo ed[PL]sis e a i es); La
chica ea baila (The ugly[SG]gi l dances) s. ∗La chica eas baila
(The ugly[PL]gi l dances); and El espejo o alado e leja (The
o al[SG]mi o e lec s) s. ∗El espejo o alados[PL] e leja.
E en -Rela ed Po en ials elici ed du ing he pe o mance o
a g amma icali y judgmen ask e ealed a la ge LAN (350–
450 ms) componen o inco ec han co ec sen ences only
when he adjec i e was nega i e a he han neu al. Thus,
mo phosyn ac ic p ocesses we e ound o be sensi i e o he
emo ional in o ma ion ca ied by he syn ac ically anomalous
emo ional wo ds and a ec he de ec ion o numbe ag eemen
o iola ions be ween he adjec i e and i s noun. A la e posi i e
componen (P600; 600–700 ms) was elici ed by ung amma ical
sen ences and was no modula ed by alence, sugges ing ha
emo ional in o ma ion modula ed g amma ical p ocessing only
a he ea ly s ages o ag eemen compu a ion ( e lec ed in
he LAN componen ).
Despi e he me i s o he s udy o Ma ín-Loeches e al.
(2012), some aspec s o he ma e ials and he design may
no ha e o e ed he bes condi ion o clea e idence o
alence and mo phosyn ac ic e ec s on numbe ag eemen
( o a e iew o me hodological and p ocedu al issues ha
may ha e con ibu ed o disc epancies in s udies o emo ional
impac on gende and numbe ag eemen see F aga, 2020).
Apa om emo ionali y, animacy was di e en be ween
he condi ions o in e es , as he subjec noun in he
emo ional condi ions (posi i e/nega i e) was anima e, whe eas
in he neu al condi ion i was inanima e. Impo an ly, he
c i ical wo d ( he adjec i e) was he elemen ha bo e bo h
he alence and ag eemen manipula ions making a he
di icul he a ibu ion o e ec s. Finally, language use is
p edominan ly based on compu a ion and p ocessing o well-
o med u e ances bo h in comp ehension and in p oduc ion,
and gi en ha he exis ing ele an li e a u e has mainly
conside ed syn ac ic iola ions, mo e esea ch is needed
o add ess numbe ag eemen p ocessing in g amma ically
co ec con ex s.
Thus, in he p esen s udy, we sough o in es iga e he
in e play be ween mo phosyn ac ic and seman ic in o ma ion
in numbe ag eemen no examined so a . Speci ically, we
in es iga ed he ex en o which he emo ional con en o
a local noun, i.e., o an elemen no di ec ly ele an o
he compu a ion o subjec - e b numbe ag eemen bu o
epo ed salience, migh be conside ed by he pa se along
wi h i s mo phosyn ac ic ea u es and a ec he applica ion o
syn ac ic ules o he comp ehension o g amma ical sen ences.
Tha is, we es ed he e ec o emo ion unde he mos
s ingen ag eemen condi ions. Ou ocus was on wo ERP
componen s because hey a e he mos ele an ones o
cu en pu poses: a nega i e componen /N400 be ween 300 and
500 ms ha when yielded is associa ed wi h ini ial emo ional
analysis (e.g., Delaney-Busch and Kupe be g, 2013) and a la e
pos e io posi i e componen /la e pos e io posi i i y (LPP)/la e
posi i e componen (LPC)/P600 (a e 500 ms) ha is ypically
associa ed wi h sus ained a en ion o emo ional inpu and
elabo a e p ocessing (e.g., Baye e al., 2010; see Hinojosa e al.,
2020 o a e iew). Rega ding syn ac ic compu a ions o ERP
componen s in he same ime windows, a (le an e io ) nega i i y
has been sugges ed o index he p ocessing o dependency
ela ions and is emi ed when mo phosyn ac ic iola ions o
misma ches a e de ec ed. A la e (cen opa ie al) posi i i y is
associa ed wi h e ec s o eanalysis o syn ac ic iola ions o
o expec a ions (p esen s udy) o ag eemen ela ions, which
a e no consis en wi h he syn ac ic analysis aking place
(e.g., Os e hou and Mobley, 1995;Ku as and Fede meie ,
2011; see Kupe be g, 2007 and Molina o e al., 2011 o
e iews.) Impo an ly, o ob ain a clea pic u e o he e ec
o emo ional a ac o s as emo ionally loaded wo ds (on a
pu ely seman ic le el) and as syn ac ic in e e ing elemen s
(on a syn ac ic le el), we pe o med sepa a e analyses in
he posi ion o he a ac o (local noun) and o he a ge
( e b), espec i ely.
METHOD
Pa icipan s
In o al, 28 Spanish na i e speake s (5 men, age M= 20.6;
SD = 1.8), unde g adua e s uden s a he Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y (UPV/EHU) ecei ed mone a y compensa ion o hei
pa icipa ion. The expe imen was app o ed by he Uni e si y
e hics commi ee and all pa icipan s p o ided a signed consen
p io o he expe imen .
Ma e ials and P ocedu e
Expe imen al ma e ials consis ed o 120 g amma ical sen ences
in ol ing singula subjec s wi h a PP modi ie . Each sen ence
was p esen ed in ou expe imen al condi ions (30 sen ences
pe condi ion), as a esul o c ossing he manipula ion o
Valence (nega i e s. neu al) and Numbe (singula s. plu al)
o he a ac o nouns inside he PP modi ying he singula
subjec : El go o de aquel/aquellos cazado (es)/mecánico(s)
e a de g an colo ido po segu idad [The ha o ha / hose
hun e (s)/mechanic(s) was e y colo ul o sa e y]. Hal o
he sen ences had nega i e a ac o s and hal neu al ones
( aken om Da is and Pe ea, 2005;Redondo e al., 2007). All
sen ences we e 11 wo ds long and had an inanima e neu al
subjec noun and an anima e a ac o (in posi ion 5). The
e b (in posi ion 6) was singula , as was he subjec noun,
since all sen ences we e g amma ical. Nega i e and neu al
a ac o s we e con olled o equency (M= 9.3 s. M= 9.4
pe million); leng h (M= 7.3 s. M= 7.4); numbe o syllables
(M= 3.2 s. M= 3.2); and conc e eness (M= 6.8 s.
M= 7.1; 1–7 scale); [all s(118) <1.98]. They only di e ed
be ween hem wi h ega d o alence [M= 2.6 s. M= 5.3;
(118) = 23.05, p<0.001] and a ousal [M= 5.8 s. M= 4.5;
(118) = 8.34, p<0.001; 1–9 scale]. An addi ional se o
120 ille sen ences o subjec and ela i e clauses we e also
included in he s imuli.
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Ha zidaki and San es eban Emo ional A ac o s in Numbe Ag eemen
The expe imen was pe o med using P esen a ion so wa e
( e sion 16.01). P io o he expe imen , pa icipan s we e
ins uc ed abou he elec oencephalog am (EEG) p ocedu e and
we e sea ed com o ably in a quie oom in on o a 17-inch
moni o . Sen ences we e displayed in he middle o he sc een
wo d-by-wo d o 350 ms in e s imulus in e al (ISI = 250 ms)
in a se ial isual p esen a ion pa adigm. Pa icipan s we e asked
o ead he sen ences silen ly o comp ehension and answe
YES/NO ques ions in 33% o he ials by p essing one o wo
keys on a keyboa d placed on hei lap [e.g., sen ence: La ci a de la
cama e a e a a las ocho y media (The appoin men o he wai ess
was a hal pas 8). Ques ion: ¿La ci a e a a las doce y media?
(Was he appoin men a hal pas 12?)]. A ixa ion c oss (+) was
p esen ed o 1,000 ms p io o each ial. Ma e ials we e pseudo-
andomized so ha no wo sen ences o he same condi ion we e
displayed one a e he o he and each expe imen al sen ence was
ollowed by a ille sen ence. All 240 sen ences we e dis ibu ed
o e ou blocks, allowing b eaks in be ween. A sho p ac ice
session o six ials p eceded he expe imen . Each session ha
included he easy-cap applica ion and emo al las ed abou 1 h.
Elec oencephalog am Reco ding
The ERPs we e eco ded om 32 scalp elec odes moun ed in an
Ac iCAP In e na ional (Inc.; 10–20 sys em). The elec odes we e
placed as ollows: Fp1, Fp2, F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8, FC5, FC1, FC2,
FC6, T7, C3, Cz, C4, T8, CP5, CP1, CP2, CP6, P7, P3, Pz, P4,
P8, O1, Oz, and O2. All elec odes we e e e enced o he igh
mas oid and e- e e enced o line o he le mas oid elec ode.
The e ical and ho izon al elec o-oculog ams (VEOG and
HEOG) we e eco ded om elec odes loca ed below (VEOG)
and a he ou e can hus (HEOG) o he igh eye. Elec ode
impedance was kep below 10 ka all scalp and mas oid si es
and a he eye elec odes. G a on and Coles’ ocula co ec ion
was applied and he elec ical signals we e digi alized online a a
a e o 250 Hz and il e ed o line wi h a bandpass o 0.1–35 Hz
(hal -ampli ude cu o s). Head mo emen s and o he a i ac s
we e manually emo ed.
RESULTS
Sco ing and Da a Analysis
A e age ERPs we e compu ed o he emo ional a ac o (local
noun), he e b ( a ge ) posi ion, and each elec ode. Segmen s
we e cons uc ed om 200 ms be o e and 1,000 ms a e he
onse o he wo d ha was he ocus o analysis.2The ials
1www.neu obs.com
2As he pu pose o he comp ehension ask ha was used in ou s udy was
simply o ensu e ha pa icipan s we e ac ually p ocessing he displayed sen ences,
in he main ex we ocus on he analyses o he elec ophysiological da a.
The accu acy (in%) o he pa icipan s was o e all e y high in all condi ions:
Nega i e-singula = 92.5 (8.4); Nega i e-plu al = 93.2 (7.7); Neu al-singula = 91.4
(SD = 9.7); Neu al-plu al = 90.7 (10.1). Repea ed-measu es ANOVA analyses
did no show any signi ican e ec (all Fs <1). The esponse imes o co ec ly
answe ed ques ions we e he ollowing pe condi ion: Nega i e-singula = 2,472
(441); Nega i e-plu al = 2,575 (602); Neu al-singula = 2,477 (549); and Neu al-
plu al = 2,396 (452). The analyses only showed a ma ginally signi ican alence
e ec [F(1, 27) = 4.121, p= 0.052], η2p = 0.132, wi h a endency o slowe
associa ed wi h each sen ence we e a e aged o each pa icipan .
The 200 ms p io o he onse was also used as a baseline
o all sen ence- ype compa isons. A e he baseline co ec ion,
epochs wi h a i ac s we e ejec ed. Based on he li e a u e
and isual inspec ion o he da a, 300–500 and 780–880 ms
ime windows we e conside ed du ing he s a is ical analysis.
A e he s imuli we e eco ded and a e aged, epea ed-measu es
ANOVAs we e ca ied ou in h ee egions o in e es (ROI)
ha we e compu ed ou o he 28 elec odes: on ocen al
(Fp1, Fp2, F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8, FC5, FC1, FC2, and FC6),
cen opa ie al (T7, C3, Cz, C4, T8, CP5, CP1, CP2, and CP6),
and pa ie o-occipi al (P7, P3, Pz, P4, P8, O1, Oz, and O2).
Ini ial analyses ha also included hemisphe e (le s. igh )
did no yield signi ican in e ac ions wi h he manipula ed
a iables o alence and numbe ei he in he a ac o o
in he e b posi ion. Thus, epea ed-measu es ANOVAs we e
pe o med o e he expe imen al manipula ions, using h ee
wi hin-pa icipan ac o s: alence (nega i e s. neu al), numbe
(singula s. plu al), and egion ( on ocen al s. cen opa ie al
s. pa ie o-occipi al). E ec s o he Region ac o we e epo ed
only when hey in e ac wi h he expe imen al manipula ions.
A ac o (Local Noun) Posi ion
300–500 ms Time Window (Nega i i y/N400)
The analysis wi hin 300 and 500 ms a e pa icipan s had
ead he a ac o yielded a signi ican main e ec o alence,
F(1, 27) = 7.21, p= 0.012, η2p = 0.211, wi h an inc eased
ampli ude o nega i e han o neu al a ac o s (M=−0.49
s. M= 0.28); a signi ican main e ec o numbe F(1, 27) = 7.01,
p= 0.013, η2p = 0.206, wi h an inc eased ampli ude o singula
han o plu al a ac o s (M=−0.40 s. M= 0.19); and
a signi ican egion by alence in e ac ion F(2, 54) = 4.12,
p= 0.022, η2p = 0.132. Because he h ee-way in e ac ion
app oached signi icance, F(2, 54) = 2.96, p= 0.060, η2p = 0.099,
we ollowed up wi h analyses o he in e ac ion be ween alence
and numbe in each egion and ound ha i was signi ican in
he on ocen al egion, wi h an inc eased ampli ude o nega i e
han o neu al a ac o s when hey we e singula , (27) = 2.70,
p= 0.012 and o singula e sus plu al when hey we e nega i e,
(27) = 2.81, p= 0.009.
780–880 ms Time Window [La e Posi i i y/La e
Pos e io Posi i i y (La e Posi i e Componen )/P600]
Analyses o he la e posi i e componen nei he yielded a
signi ican main e ec o alence, F(1, 27) = 0.79, p= 0.380,
η2p = 0.029, no o numbe , F(1, 27) = 0.26, p= 0.613, η2p = 0.010.
The in e ac ion be ween egion and numbe was signi ican ,
F(2, 54) = 5.51, p= 0.007, η2p = 0.169, as was he h ee way
in e ac ion be ween egion, alence, and numbe , F(2, 54) = 3.56,
p= 0.035, η2p = 0.117. Followed up analyses showed ha he
in e ac ion be ween alence and numbe was signi ican in he
on al egion, whe e he e was a ma ginally signi ican a ac o
numbe e ec o neu al a ac o s, (27) = 1.84, p= 0.076, wi h
an inc eased ampli ude o singula han o plu al a ac o s
esponses o ques ions abou sen ences con aining nega i e (2,544 ms) han neu al
(2,437 ms) a ac o nouns.
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Ha zidaki and San es eban Emo ional A ac o s in Numbe Ag eemen
FIGURE 1 | E en -Rela ed Po en ials (ERPs) o alence and numbe manipula ions a he h ee midline elec odes (Fz, Cz, and Pz) and opog aphic maps in he
a ac o (local noun) posi ion in 300–500 and 780–880 ms windows.
and a ma ginally signi ican alence e ec in singula a ac o s,
(27) = 1.93, p= 0.064, wi h an inc eased ampli ude o neu al
han o nega i e a ac o s. [Figu e 1 shows e ec s o alence and
numbe o he a ac o in he a ac o (local noun) posi ion in
300–500 and 780–880 ms windows, espec i ely.]
Ve b (Ta ge ) Posi ion
300–500 ms Time Window (Nega i i y/N400)
The analysis in he ag eemen posi ion (o he e b) showed ha
he main e ec o alence was no signi ican , F(1, 27) = 2.10,
p= 0.159, η2p = 0.072, no was he e ec o numbe , F(1,
27) = 0.16, p= 0.691, η2p = 0.006. The in e ac ion be ween egion
and alence was signi ican , F(2, 54) = 6.26, p= 0.004, η2p = 0.188,
showing an inc eased ampli ude o neu al han o nega i e
a ac o s in he pa ie o-occipi al egion; (27) = 2.09, p= 0.047.
780–880 ms Time Window [La e Posi i i y/La e
Pos e io Posi i i y (La e Posi i e Componen )/P600]
In he la e ime window, he analysis in he e b posi ion did
no show a signi ican main e ec o alence, F(1, 27) = 0.72,
p= 0.403, η2p = 0.026, no o numbe , F(1, 27) = 2.49, p= 0.126,
η2p = 0.084. The in e ac ion be ween egion and numbe
app oached signi icance, F(1, 27) = 2.62, p= 0.082, η2p = 0.089
and u he analyses yielded a ma ginally signi ican di e ence
be ween plu al and singula a ac o s in he cen opa ie al
egion, (27) = 1.94, p= 0.063, and a signi ican di e ence
in he pa ie o-occipi al egion, (27) = 2.32, p= 0.028, wi h
plu al a ac o s showing an inc eased ampli ude when compa ed
o singula a ac o s. The in e ac ion be ween alence and
numbe was ma ginally signi ican , F(1, 27) = 3.77, p= 0.063,
η2p = 0.123, showing ha alence e ec s we e only p esen o
singula a ac o s, wi h la ge posi i i y o nega i e han o
neu al a ac o s, (27) = 2.08, p= 0.047. In addi ion, a ac o
numbe e ec s we e only signi ican o neu al a ac o s, wi h
la ge posi i i y o plu al han singula a ac o s, (27) = 2.94,
p= 0.007. (Figu e 2 shows e ec s o alence and numbe o
he a ac o in he e b posi ion in 300–500 and 780–880 ms
windows, espec i ely.)
DISCUSSION
Conside ing he c oss alk be ween b ain ne wo ks ha con ain
linguis ic and emo ional in o ma ion (Pul e mülle , 1999;
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Ha zidaki and San es eban Emo ional A ac o s in Numbe Ag eemen
FIGURE 2 | E en -Rela ed Po en ial (ERPs) o alence and numbe manipula ions a he h ee midline elec odes (Fz, Cz, and Pz) and opog aphic maps in he e b
( a ge ) posi ion in 300–500 and 780–880 ms windows.
Palazo a, 2014; see Hinojosa e al., 2020 o a ecen e iew) and
he a en ion-g abbing e ec s ha a ec i e meaning appea s o
ha e on lexical p ocessing (e.g., Delaney-Busch and Kupe be g,
2013), in he p esen ERP s udy, we explo ed he ex en o which
seman ic in o ma ion o a ec i e na u e may impac access o
syn ac ic ep esen a ions du ing subjec - e b numbe ag eemen .
Thus, we in es iga ed he a ac ion e ec o emo ional local
nouns, i.e., in e e ence o s uc u ally i ele an i ems, on
g amma ical sen ences du ing sen ence comp ehension.
Unlike p e ious s udies on ag eemen dependencies, whe e
he in luence o emo ional con en was conside ed in andem
wi h mo phosyn ac ic iola ions (Ma ín-Loeches e al., 2012;
Hinojosa e al., 2014;F aga e al., 2017), he design o he p esen
s udy allowed us o ease apa seman ic om syn ac ic e ec s
and p o ide a clea e pic u e o he impac alence ha may
ha e on numbe ag eemen p ocessing. The manipula ion o
alence (nega i e s. neu al) and numbe (singula s. plu al)
o he a ac o showed di e en e ec s on he p ocessing o
he a ac o as a lexical i em (local noun) and on he way, he
e ie al o he ea u es o he a ac o a ec ed subjec - e b
ag eemen compu a ion.
Wi h ega d o he o me , as e lec ed in he nega i e ERP
componen ha was yielded (300–500 ms), we ound a s ong
alence e ec only o singula a ac o s. The ac ha he
alence e ec was absen o plu al a ac o s may be due
o he cos lie p ocessing o mo phologically and seman ically
iche plu al nouns, which migh ha e canceled ou he la ge
saliency o nouns wi h nega i e s. neu al emo ional alence.
Thus, i plu ali y and alence e ec s we e o simila size, hey
migh ha e canceled each o he ou . Addi ionally, he ac ha
a ac o nouns ha ma ched in bo h numbe and alence
wi h he (singula and neu al) subjec noun ended o elici
a la ge la e posi i e ERP componen (780–880 ms) sugges s
ha he pa se had mo e di icul y iden i ying he subjec and
disca ding he a ac o noun as a possible candida e o be
assigned he subjec ole.
The e ec s shown on he ag eeing e b a e pa icula ly
in e es ing, as in e b posi ion, one would expec o ind he
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Ha zidaki and San es eban Emo ional A ac o s in Numbe Ag eemen
a ac ion e ec in he o m o an ung amma ical illusion and he
impac o alence (i he e was). The nega i e ERP componen
showed ha subjec hood ea u e checking was cos lie when he
a ac o had he same alence as he subjec noun ha was
neu al. This sugges s ha head and a ac o noun ea u es we e
e ie ed o ag eemen compu a ion. Impo an ly, he la e ERP
posi i e componen showed sensi i i y o he emo ional con en
o he local noun du ing ea u e in eg a ion and eanalysis.
The ac ha “ung amma ical illusions” caused by a ac ion on
g amma ical sen ences (e.g., F anck e al., 2015) only showed
wi h neu al a ac o s sugges s ha he saliency o emo ionally
nega i e a ac o s acili a ed disca ding he ea u es o he
a ac o as he ag eemen sou ce.
Despi e being an unde in es iga ed opic, s udying emo ional
e ec s in ag eemen , especially a ac ion e ec s in g amma ical
sen ences, can ha e impo an implica ions. I can p o ide
in o ma ion abou wha is conside ed by he pa se du ing online
he p ocessing o ag eemen ela ions and o e explana ions
abou whe he “ung amma ical illusions” can be a ibu ed o
he aul y men al encoding o linguis ic ep esen a ions o
di icul y in accessing he igh mo phosyn ac ic in o ma ion due
o ac o s, such as he emo ional alue o an a ac o . I can
also shed ligh on he deba e be ween s ongly modula models
ha assume dis inc sequen ial p ocesses be ween syn ac ic
and seman ic ep esen a ions (e.g., Fe ei a and Cli on, 1986;
F iede ici and Weissenbo n, 2007) and ully in e ac i e models
ha assume ha syn ac ic and seman ic cons ain s in e ac
simul aneously a he message-le el ep esen a ion (e.g., Hagoo ,
2003) o in e media e accoun s (e.g., Kim and Os e hou , 2005).
Ou indings sugges ha numbe ag eemen is no insensi i e o
a ec i e meaning bu ha emo ional in o ma ion o an a ac o
is conside ed in di e en ope a ions and a di e en s ages
du ing g amma ical sen ence p ocessing: o he e ie al o
lexical and syn ac ic ep esen a ions o he subjec -NP and du ing
subjec - e b numbe ag eemen . Rega ding numbe ag eemen
p ocessing, alence seems o be conside ed a an ea ly s age
o ea u e checking, whe e i ac s as a cue o he selec ion o
ag eeing elemen s (a local noun wi h he same alence as he
subjec noun igge ed simila i y-based in e e ence). A a la e
s age o eanalysis, bo h alence and numbe ea u es o he
a ac o a e checked o con i m g amma icali y.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be
made a ailable by he au ho s, wi hou undue ese a ion.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The s udy was e iewed and app o ed by he E hics Commi ee
o he UPV/EHU (Comi é de É ica pa a las In es igaciones
elacionadas con Se es Humanos, CEISH; P ojec code:
M10_2019_167). Pa icipan s p o ided hei w i en in o med
consen o pa icipa e in his s udy.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
AH and MS concei ed and designed he s udy, collec ed he da a,
pe o med he s a is ical analyses, and d a ed he manusc ip .
Bo h au ho s ag eed on he inal con en p io o submission.
FUNDING
This wo k was suppo ed by he Special Accoun o Resea ch
G an s (Na ional and Kapodis ian Uni e si y o A hens), he
Spanish Minis e io de Ciencia, Inno ación y Uni e sidades
(g an numbe s PGC2018-097970-B-I00 and RED2018- 102615-
T), and he Basque Go e nmen (g an numbe IT1169-19).
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
The Supplemen a y Ma e ial o his a icle can be ound
online a : h ps://www. on ie sin.o g/a icles/10.3389/ psyg.
2022.880755/ ull#supplemen a y-ma e ial
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F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 8June 2022 | Volume 13 | A icle 880755
