Balancing the scales: gendered impacts and policy responses to oil price shocks in Spain

Economic Sys ems Resea ch
ISSN: 0953-5314 (P in ) 1469-5758 (Online) Jou nal homepage: www. and online.com/jou nals/ces 20
Balancing he scales: gende ed impac s and policy
esponses o oil p ice shocks in Spain
E a Alonso-Epelde, Ma ía Vic o ía Román de La a, Ma ía Moyano-Reina,
Xaquín Ga cía-Mu os, Manuel Tomás, Mikel González-Eguino & Iñaki A o
To ci e his a icle: E a Alonso-Epelde, Ma ía Vic o ía Román de La a, Ma ía Moyano-Reina,
Xaquín Ga cía-Mu os, Manuel Tomás, Mikel González-Eguino & Iñaki A o (20 Feb 2025):
Balancing he scales: gende ed impac s and policy esponses o oil p ice shocks in Spain,
Economic Sys ems Resea ch, DOI: 10.1080/09535314.2024.2445718
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09535314.2024.2445718
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup.
View supplemen a y ma e ial
Published online: 20 Feb 2025. Submi you a icle o his jou nal
A icle iews: 938 View ela ed a icles
View C ossma k da a Ci ing a icles: 1 View ci ing a icles
Full Te ms & Condi ions o access and use can be ound a
h ps://www. and online.com/ac ion/jou nalIn o ma ion?jou nalCode=ces 20
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09535314.2024.2445718
Balancing he scales: gende ed impac s and policy esponses
o oil p ice shocks in Spain
E a Alonso-Epelde a,b, Ma ía Vic o ía Román de La a a, Ma ía Moyano-Reina a,
Xaquín Ga cía-Mu os a,c,d, Manuel Tomás a,b, Mikel González-Eguino a,b,dand
Iñaki A o a
aBasque Cen e o Clima e Change (BC3), Scien ific Campus o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, Leioa,
Spain; bDepa men o Economic Analysis, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain;
cMassachuse s Ins i u e o Technology (MIT), MIT Join P og am on he Science and Policy o Global Change,
Camb idge, MA, USA; dIke basque, Basque Founda ion o Science, Bilbao, Spain
ABSTRACT
This pape analyses Spanish households’ ulne abili y o oil p ice
shocks om a gende pe spec i e and explo es di e en compen-
sa o y policies o educe i . The me hodological app oach combines
an inpu –ou pu p ice model and a mic osimula ion model based
on he Household Budge Su ey. The pape s udies he impac s
o he ecen su ge in oil p ices using ou scena ios based on di -
e en alle ia ion measu es (discoun s on uels, subsidies o public
anspo , and a combina ion o he wo). Gende implica ions a e
analyzed conside ing he gende o he household e e ence pe -
son and he household eminiza ion deg ee. The esul s show ha
oil p ice shocks ha e a mo e signi ican impac on hose households
wi h g ea e mobili y needs, dependence on p i a e anspo , and
less accessibili y o public anspo . Among he policy esponses,
subsidizing public anspo would be he mos e ec i e policy om
an economic poin o iew and he ai es om a gende and social
jus ice pe spec i e.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 30 Sep embe 2023
In final o m 17 Decembe
2024
KEYWORDS
Oil p ice shock; ulne abili y;
gende ; dis ibu ional
impac s
1. In oduc ion
T anspo a ionisac i ical aspec o dailyli e,andaccess o anspo a ionse icesisessen-
ial o indi iduals o pa icipa e ully in social and economic ac i i ies (Cass e al., 2005;
Coo e & Pe cy, 2020;Kenyone al.,2003;Lucas,2019). In he las decades, anspo a ion
sys ems ha e expe ienced a ele an ans o ma ion hanks o he a ailabili y o cheap ( os-
sil) uels and mo o ized ehicles. Mo o iza ion o anspo has played an impo an ole
in con igu ing he cu en complex supply chains and he spa ial design o human se le-
men s, wi h he p oli e a ion o spa se ci ies and in es men s in in as uc u e o connec
hem.
CONTACT E a Alonso-Epelde e a.alonso@bc3 esea ch.o g Basque Cen e o Clima e Change (BC3), Scien ific
Campus o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, Building 1, 1s floo , Sa iena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain; Depa men o
Economic Analysis, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), A enida Lehendaka i Agui e 83, 48015 Bilbao, Spain
Supplemen al da a o his a icle can be accessed online a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09535314.2024.2445718.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way. The e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
2E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
Resea ch has ound ha mode n anspo a ion sys ems ha e di e en implica ions o
women and men as hey a e also in luenced by gende oles (G ieco, 1995;Jonese al.,
1983; Loukai ou-Side is, 2020;Rosenbloom&Bu ns,1994; Sánchez de Mada iaga, 2013;
Tu ne & Fou ac e, 1995; Tu ne & G ieco, 2000). T adi ional wo k/ amily- ela ed gende
oles ha e con ibu ed o shaping he di e ences be ween women’s and men’s anspo a-
ion needs and p e e ences. Fo example, women a e mo e likely o make mul iple s ops
on sho ips o bo h wo k and amily ca e asks (Go don e al., 1989;Guiliano,1979;
Hanson & Johns on, 1985;Ng&Acke ,2018;Pickup,1985;Rosenbloom&Bu ns,1994;
Ru he o d & Weke le, 1989;Sil ei aNe oe al.,2015).Womenalso end o elymo eon
non-mo o ized anspo andpublic anspo a ion since hey a e mo e a o dable (Adeel
e al., 2017;Ho elanoe al.,2021; T an & Schly e , 2010). Howe e , despi e hese di e -
ences in anspo a ion habi s and needs be ween men and women, he gende dimension
hasbeenigno edin hedesigno anspo policieso e hepas decades
1(Le y, 2015;
McDowell, 1983).
Women ha e o in es mo e money, ime, and e o in mee ing hei mobili y needs,
which means ha many a e in a si ua ion o mul iple ulne abili ies, due o ei he a lack o
accessibili y o he a o dabili y o anspo goods and se ices. Access o se ices, such as
heal hca e o educa ion, and oppo uni ies, o ins ance, employmen o cul u al e en s,
migh belimi edwhen hecos o anspo a ionaccoun s o ahighp opo iono peo-
ple’sdisposableincome(Ku le &Mo aglio,2021). The e o e, high anspo a ion p ices
can ein o ce anspo /ene gy po e y, s uc u al po e y, and social exclusion (Lucas,
2012). This is especially acu e o women since hey end o ha e lowe incomes and
inc eases in anspo a ion cos s ha e a g ea e impac on hei abili y o a o d o mee
some basic needs. Howe e , s udies ha e ound ha se e al s a egies can be implemen ed
o educe gende inequali y in anspo , such as in es ing in public anspo a ion and
a o ing anspo policies ha conside women’s speci ic needs and p e e ences (Le y,
2015; Loukai ou-Side is, 2020).
One key cha ac e is ic o he cu en anspo sys em is i s hea y eliance on oil.
Acco ding o he In e na ional Ene gy Agency (B and e al., 2025; Kanaboshi e al., 2021;
Yu e al., 2022), mo e han 90% o he wo ld’s anspo a ion is ueled by oil.2Recen
e en s, such as he Russia–Uk aine wa and he pos -pandemic economic eco e y, ha e
igh ened he oil ma ke , leading o a su ge in ene gy p ices. This has b ough abou asym-
me ic impac s on households bo h be ween and wi hin coun ies (Guan e al., 2023). In
he sho e m, he ene gy c isis has hi households mainly h ough wo channels. On he
one hand, amilies ha e aced highe ene gy bills (di ec impac ). On he o he hand, he
p ices o non-ene gy goods ha e isen due o he inc eased cos o in e media e inpu s ha
ely on ossil uels (indi ec impac ). Thus, i cos s a e passed on in inal p ices, he le el
and s uc u e o households’ consump ion expendi u e shape he dis ibu ional e ec s on
socie y.
Se e al s udies ha e in es iga ed he unequal impac o oil p ice shocks on households’
wel a e. Kpoda and Liu (2022) analyzed a ich da abase o e ail uel p ices o obse e he
1In ecen yea s, he gende – anspo link has begun o be s udied in g ea e dep h (Casado-Díaz e al., 2023; Fa é e al.,
2023; Le Ba banchon e al., 2021), bu he gende app oach has no ye been ully in eg a ed in a ans e sal way in o his
esea ch a ea.
2h ps://www.iea.o g/da a-and-s a is ics/da a-p oduc /wo ld-ene gy-balances
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 3
changesinconsume p icein la ion.They ound ha ,as uelp icesinc ease, amiliesexpe-
ience a decline in pu chasing powe , bu he esul ing dis ibu ional impac on socie y is
p og essi e. Guan e al. (2023) combined a mul i- egional inpu –ou pu model and house-
hold consump ion su eys o assess he di ec and indi ec impac s o he ene gy c isis on
households in 116 coun ies. Using a se o ene gy p ice scena ios, hey con i med ha he
cos o li ing has isen sha ply o households wo ldwide. They obse ed ha he p es-
su e o inc eased p ices is une enly dis ibu ed in socie y, wi h many households a isk o
beingpushedin opo e y.Tiane al.(2024), using simila echniques and da a, assessed
he suscep ibili y o olde people o ene gy p ice hikes in de eloped coun ies compa ed
wi h younge g oups. They concluded ha olde people ha e la ge pe capi a di ec and
indi ec ene gy oo p in s, making hem mo e ulne able han younge g oups in imes o
ene gy c isis.
In his con ex , howe e , li le a en ion has been paid o how oil p ice shocks a ec men
and women. P e ious esea ch has poin ed ou ha he consump ion habi s o men and
women di e conside ably, in luencing hei ene gy dependency and en i onmen al oo -
p in (Ca lssonKanyamae al.,2021;Oso ioe al.,2024). Indeed, women end o ely mo e
on domes ic ene gy because hey a e o en esponsible o ca e asks wi hin hei homes
(Eu os a , 2024;Finch&G o es,2022). They also ypically ha e less access o p i a e ehi-
cles, so hey ely on public anspo a ion mo e o en (Casado-Díaz e al., 2023; Næss,
2008). Addi ionally, due o hei lowe incomes, women a e mo e likely o ace ene gy
po e y and encoun e inancial ba ie s o he adop ion o mo e sus ainable echnologies
(Bo za, 2012). The e o e, i is necessa y o conduc gende -based analyses o dis ibu ional
impac s o implemen inclusi e public policies ha help o close he gende gap in imes
o ene gy c isis and du ing he ansi ion o a sus ainable economy (Alonso-Epelde e al.,
2024).
To ill his gap, we analyzed he ex en o which ene gy p ice spikes and measu es o
bu e hem a ec men and women di e en ly. The case s udy is based on he ecen global
su ge in oil p ices expe ienced in 2022. In pa icula , we s udied he impac o inc eased
p ices on Spanish households and he e ec o a ious policy packages implemen ed by
he Spanish Go e nmen o mi iga e i . A e he p ice o gasoline and diesel su passed
he ba ie o e2/li e in 2022 (Pé ez, 2022), he Spanish Go e nmen applied a ansi o y
uni e sal discoun o 20 eu o cen s pe li e o anspo uels a he pump (Je a u a de
Es ado del Gobie no de España, 2022). In pa allel, he cen al go e nmen , in collabo a ion
wi h o he egional and local adminis a ions, subsidized public anspo . Fou scena ios
we e he e o e conside ed o assess he di ec and indi ec impac s o he oil p ice shock
and compensa ion schemes such as subsidies o oil consump ion, public anspo , and a
combina ion o he wo.
Since gende unde ep esen a ion in esea ch is pa icula ly p onounced in modeling
s udies ( an Soes e al., 2019), especially in mul isec o al-mul i egional amewo ks, his
pape con ibu es o closing his gap by in eg a ing gende as bo h a dimension o anal-
ysis and an ou come o an inpu –ou pu (I–O) model. In ac , ou me ological app oach
combines an I–O p ice model and a mic osimula ion model based on Spain’s Household
Budge Su ey (HBS). This allowed us o accoun o he sho - e m e ec s o an oil p ice
shock and he policy measu es ha aim o compensa e a ec ed indus ies’ inal consume s
be o e hey adjus hei beha io (Guan e al., 2023).
4E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
Fu he mo e, simila o Oso io e al. (2024), in s udying ca bon oo p in inequali ies,
gende -based dis ibu ional impac s we e analyzed by classi ying households acco ding o
hei eminiza ion deg ee, ha is, hei sha e o emale membe s. These esul s we e com-
pa ed wi h hose ound by applying he s anda d me hod used in he p e ious li e a u e,
which classi ies households in o wo g oups acco ding o he gende o he pe son o e -
e ence ( he pe son who makes he la ges con ibu ion o he household budge ). We used
bo h c i e ia and compa ed he esul s o check whe he he classi ica ion me hod condi-
ioned ou indings. To he bes o ou knowledge, his has no been conside ed p e iously
in s udying he dis ibu ional impac s o p ice shocks.
The es o hepape iss uc u edas ollows:Sec ion2desc ibes heme hodologyand
he scena ios designed o he case s udy, Sec ion 3 analyzes and discusses he esul s, and
Sec ion4summa izes hes udy’smainconclusionsandmakes ecommenda ions o u u e
esea ch.
2. Me hodology and da a
In his esea ch, we linked an I–O p ice model wi h a mic osimula ion model based on he
HBS o calcula e he di ec and indi ec impac s o he inc ease in oil p ices on Spanish
households. The p ice model calcula es how changes in he cos s o speci ic indus ies in
he economy a ec he p ices o inal goods and se ices, assuming ha sec o s ansla e all
hei addi ional cos s in o p ices (pass- h ough o 100%). In his case, he change in cos is
a shock o he p ice o c ude oil, which is impo ed and a ec s all he sec o s o he Spanish
economy ha use his p oduc as inpu in hei p oduc ion p ocesses. This shock p oduces
a cascading e ec o ising cos s ac oss he Spanish economy ha is inally e lec ed in he
p ices o di e en goods and se ices.
The e ec o he new (highe ) p ices was la e in oduced in o he mic osimula ion
model o de e mine how much ha change a ec s he expendi u es o di e en house-
holds. The esul s we e agg ega ed depending on he gende o he e e ence pe son o he
households and he deg ee o eminiza ion o he households o disce n whe he he gende
o i s membe s signi ican ly changes he impac o highe p ices.
2.1. The p ice model
The s a ing poin o he model was he p oduc -by-p oduc I–O able published by he
Spanish Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e o he las yea a ailable, ha is, 2015 (INE, 2015b),
including he undisclosed CPA-COICOP and alua ion ma ices ( ade and anspo ma -
gins and ne axes on p oduc s) elabo a ed by he Spanish Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e.
Acco ding o he da a in he I–O able, he ou pu o each indus y is equal o he sum
o i s consump ion o goods and se ices om o he indus ies (domes ic and impo ed)
and i s p ima y inpu s (ne axes on p oduc s, compensa ion o employees, o he ne axes
on p oduc ion, and g oss ope a ing su plus)3:
x=iZ+iM+ (1)
3Bold- aced lowe -case le e s a e used o indica e ec o s, bold- aced capi al le e s indica e ma ices, and i alic lowe -
case le e s indica e scala s (including elemen s o a ec o o ma ix). Subsc ip s indica e indus ies. Vec o s a e columns
by defini ion, and ow ec o s a e ob ained by ansposi ion, deno ed by a p ime (e.g.x). Diagonal ma ices a e deno ed
as(e.g., ˆ
x).

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 5
whe e xis a column ec o con aining he ou pu a basic p ices o each o he p oduc s
(64 in he Spanish Na ional Accoun s); is he column ec o o p ima y inpu s’ by-p oduc
(64 ows ×1column);Zis he domes ic in e media e consump ion ma ix (64 ows ×64
columns); Mis he impo ed in e media e consump ion ma ix (64 ows ×64 columns);
and iis a summa ion ec o o ones (64 ows ×1column).
The ma ix o echnical coe icien s Acan be de i ed om ma ix Zand ec o x,di id-
ingeachelemen zij by heou pu o p oduc j, ha is,xj,and,gi en ha Z=Aˆx,exp ession
(1) can be w i en as ollows:
x=iAˆx+iM+ (2)
Mul iplying bo h sides o Equa ion 2 by ˆx−1p oduces
i=iA+c(3)
whe e c=[iM+ ]ˆx−1is he ec o o he coe icien s o p ima y inpu s and in e me-
dia eimpo spe uni o ou pu .Equa ion3 ep esen s hecos s uc u eo eacho he
indus ies (i.e. he uni cos o p oduc ion, including he cos o domes ic in e media e
inpu s pe uni o ou pu and he cos o p ima y inpu s and in e media e impo s pe uni
o ou pu ). In he I–O model, p ices equal he cos o p oduc ion, meaning ha hey a e
also equal o one. This is because one o he cha ac e is ics o his model is ha he uni s o
measu emen o ou pu a e de ined as he quan i y o each p oduc ha can be bough o
one mone a y uni . This implies ha all p ices a e equal o one a he ini ial poin in ime
so ha hey can be in e p e ed as p ice indices. The e o e, he ollowing exp ession can be
de ined:
p=pA+c(4)
whe e pis he ec o o p icesin hebaseyea .F om hisexp ession,weob ained
he exp ession o he p ice model, which allowed us o de e mine he new p ices om
exogenous alues o he p ima y inpu s:
p=c(I−A)−1=cL(5)
whe e (I−A)−1o Lis heou pu mul iplie ma ixo Leon ie in e sema ix.Eachele-
men lij deno es he inc ease in ou pu o p oduc idue o he uni inc ease in he demand
o p oduc j. O en, and in his exe cise, he ansposed model is used, exp essing p ices
as column ec o s, as ollows:
p=Lc(6)
Gi en ce ain exogenous alues o he p ima y inpu s ¯
c,newp icescanbecalcula ed
simply as
¯
p=L¯
c(7)
In his case, he ec o ¯
cis he p ima y inpu a e he p ice shock. The calcula ion
isexplainedinde ailinsec ionScena ios. The change in p ices was calcula ed as he
di e ence be ween he new and he o iginal p ice, p.
A his poin , we had he changes in p ices a basic p ices and a he p oduc le el (clas-
si ica ion o p oduc s by ac i i y (CPA)), which a e in he o iginal I–O able. Howe e ,
6E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
o in oduce hese p ices in o he mic osimula ion model, hey needed o be con e ed
in o he pu chase s’ p ices and COICOP consump ion ca ego y (classi ica ion o indi id-
ual consump ion by pu pose), as explained by Cazca o e al. (2022). We depa ed om
he expendi u e in he inal consump ion o households in he domes ic I–O able, eD
i,and
in he impo able, eM
i,byp oduc ,i, and he p ice inc ease o each p oduc and scena io,
s.Elemen io he ec o o expendi u e es
iis:
es
i=eD
ips
i+eM
i(8)
Then, we calcula ed he ma gins paid mps
ias
mps
i=es
i mpi(9)
whe e mpiis he a io o ma gins paid. This a io was ob ained om he ma gins and
axes able o he Spanish Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e4as he ma gins paid among he
o al (domes ic and impo ed) expendi u e in he inal consump ion o households, ei,by
p oduc . The ecei ed ma gins, m s
i,we ecalcula edas
m s
i= m i
i
mps
i(10)
whe e m iis he a io o ma gins ecei ed. This a io was also ob ained om he ma gins
and axes ableas hema gins ecei edbyp oduc we ebe ween he o alma gins ecei ed,
agg ega ing all p oduc s.
Then, we calcula ed he ne axes on p oduc s as.
s
i=(es
i+mps
i−m s
i) i(11)
whe e iis he ax a e, also ob ained om he ma gins and axes able as he a io be ween
he ne axes and he sum o expendi u e and ma gins, by p oduc . The new expendi u e
a pu chase s’ p ices is:
es
i=es
i+mps
i−m s
i+ s
i(12)
This ec o o expendi u e by p oduc a pu chase s’ p ices was hen mul iplied by
a co espondence ma ix con aining 64 ows (p oduc s) and 54 columns (consump-
ion ca ego ies) o dis ibu e he expendi u e by p oduc iin o he COICOP consump-
ion ca ego ies, c. The change in p ices o each scena io sby COICOP ca ego y cwas
ob ained as.
ps
c=(es
c/e0
c)−1 (13)
whe e e0
cis he expendi u e in consump ion ca ego y cin he baseline scena io, ha is, he
o iginal expendi u e be o e p ice shocks a e in oduced.
4This able is confiden ial. We used he able o 2017 and adjus ed he ma gins and ne ax a ios o make hem consis en
wi h he 2015 able by using ele a ion ac o s. The p opo ions o expendi u es a he p oduc le el in bo h yea s we e
used o adjus he ma gins ecei ed. Then, he a io be ween he agg ega e ma gins ecei ed in he wo yea s was used o
adjus he ma gins paid. The a io be ween he o al axes be o e adjus men and he o al axes om he I–O able was
used o adjus axes on p oduc s by p oduc s. Wi h adjus ed ma gins and ax ma gins, he ax a ios adjus ed o he yea
2015 we e calcula ed.
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 7
2.2. The household mic osimula ion model
The mic osimula ion model was cons uc ed wi h he mic oda a om he Spanish HBS
o 2015 p o ided by he INE (2015a). The HBS p o ides in o ma ion abou households’
expendi u e on goods and se ices and socio-economic and demog aphic cha ac e is ics.
I con ains in o ma ion a wo le els: one o households and hei expendi u es and he
o he o households’membe s.TableA1o e sano e iewo hedi e en consump ion
ca ego ies conside ed in ou mic o model and p o ides he COICOP ca ego ies o each o
hem. In addi ion, o he in o ma ion on he HBS was ha monized and adjus ed o p o ide
an adequa e da abase o he simula ion.
As men ioned ea lie , o cap u e he gende implica ions, we used wo di e en
app oaches: he gende o he household’s e e ence pe son and he deg ee o eminiza ion
o he household. Al hough he HBS al eady includes he gende o he e e ence pe son
among i s a iables, he second indica o was calcula ed using he in o ma ion on he gen-
de o household membe s. Thus, we calcula ed he pe cen age o household membe s who
a e women o e 14 yea s old ( his age was used because i is conside ed he age a which
indi iduals begin o ha e decision-making capaci y). Then, we di ided he households in o
i e g oups based on he sha e o women: 0–20%, 20% – 40%, 40% – 60%, 60% – 80%, and
80% – 100%. We adop ed his app oach, p oposed byOso io e al. (2024), wi hin he ame-
wo k o households’ ca bon oo p in s o cap u e all he dimensions o he in a-household
consump ion beha io .
Al hough he HBS co e s a ep esen a i e sample o he popula ion and p o ides a e y
de ailedimageo households’annualconsump ion, heagg ega ecos so hesu ey a eno
aligned wi h he p inciples and da a o he Na ional Accoun ing, which builds i s mac oe-
conomic agg ega es based on mo e comple e sou ces o in o ma ion. The e o e, be o e
simula ing hescena ios, heHBSda awe eadjus ed omake hemconsis en wi h he
mac oeconomic dimension. Two adjus men s we e ca ied ou : (i) he HBS popula ion
was scaled o be consis en wi h he e e ence popula ion o he Na ional Accoun s; and
(ii) he HBS consump ion da a we e scaled acco ding o he inal consump ion pe ene gy
good o he Na ional Accoun s.
Themodelsimula es hechangesinspendingin heCOICOPca ego ies,mul iply-
ing he changes in p ices om he p ice model desc ibed abo e by he cu en le els o
spending on he di e en p oduc s consumed by he households ha a e pa o he HBS
da ase . Thus, he model e lec s he di ec impac s o he scena ios desc ibed in sec ion
2.3be o e assuming any changes in beha io ela ed o he new p ices. In o he wo ds,
he mic osimula ion model does no e lec he di e en ypes o households’ eac ions
o p ice changes. To ca y ou a ‘beha io al’ impac s udy, i would be necessa y o col-
lec he di ec esponses o consume s ( h ough he p ice elas ici ies o he demand o
goods) and he induced eac ions ( h ough c oss-elas ici ies and income elas ici ies). How-
e e , in he case o ene gy goods and anspo a ion se ices, he p ices o which a y
mo e widely han hose o o he consump ion ca ego ies in he p oposed scena ios, hese
e ec s a e known o be small in he sho e m since households do no easily change hei
beha io as a as ene gy consump ion is conce ned (Guan e al., 2023; Labandei a e al.,
2017).
8E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
The esul s de i ed om he mic osimula ion model a e p esen ed as he ela i e impac
(%)on he o alequi alen consump ionexpendi u e.
5The ela i e impac , es
h,shows he
addi ional cos ha household hwould assume in p oposed scena io sin ela i e e ms (in
pe cen age) compa ed wi h he ini ial household expendi u e, and i is calcula ed as:
es
h=cec,h(1+ps
c)−cec,h
cec,h
×100 (14)
He e, ec,h e e s o he o al spending on each consump ion ca ego y, c,consumedbyeach
o he households, in he baseline scena io and ps
cis he p ice inc ease by consump ion
ca ego y and scena io ob ained wi h he p ice model.
Addi ionally, a Laspey es- ype Consume P ice Index (CPI) by household ype was cal-
cula ed o each scena io o analyze he asymme ic impac o he di e en p ice shocks
by households’ ype. We calcula ed i s he Laspey es- ype p ice index o each household
and hen he a e age o he households in each ca ego y o analysis.
CPIs
h=cps
c,h×q0
c,h
cp0
c,h×q0
c,h
×100 (15)
whe e ps
cis he p ice o consump ion ca ego y cin scena io s o household h,p0
c e e s o
he p ice o he same ca ego y bu be o e any p ice shock, and q0
cs ands o he weigh o
each consump ion ca ego y cin he baske o goods and se ices o household hin he base
yea .
2.3. Scena ios
2.3.1. Re e ence scena io: oil p ice shock wi h no mi iga ion measu es
Fo he Re Scen_P ice Shock scena io, we depa ed om he Spanish I–O able o in e me-
dia e impo s o 2015. We compu ed he new ec o o p ima y inpu s a e in oducing a
shock in heoilp iceo 100%.Tha is, we assumed ha hec udeoilp iceduplica ed, which
is in line wi h he inc ease o he Eu opean B en c ude oil p ices (EIA, 2023)6be ween
Janua y 2021 (US$54.7) and he peak p ice in 2022 du ing he summe (measu ed as he
mon hly a e age om Ap il o Augus , US$110.6).
To e lec his, we duplica ed he alue o impo s o ‘coke and e ined pe oleum p od-
uc s’ in all sec o s o he economy and he alue o impo s o ‘ex ac i e indus ies’ in
he sec o ‘coke and e ined pe oleum p oduc s.’ The la e low is o med by impo s o
c ude oil. Then, we compu ed he new p ima y inpu s accoun ing o he inc eased alue
o impo s. This new ec o o p ima y inpu s was in oduced in o he I–O p ice model o
ob ain he inc ease in p ices o all goods and se ices: by CPA p oduc a basic p ices and
by COICOP ca ego ies a pu chase s’ p ices.
The inc ease in p ices was hen in oduced in o he mic osimula ion model in wo s eps
o dis inguish be ween (i) he e ec due o he inc ease in he p ice o anspo uel bough
5Equi alen consump ion expendi u e was used ins ead o income as i is conside ed a be e p oxy o pe manen house-
hold income since i fluc ua es less in he long un (Goodman & Oldfield, 2004). The equi alen spending was calcula ed
based on household spending ela i ized by he modified OECD equi alence scale, hus conside ing he economies o
scale gene a ed in households acco ding o hei size. The modified OECD scale alues 1 o he e e ence pe son in he
household, 0.5 o o he people aged 14 o o e , and 0.3 o o he people unde 14 yea s o age.
6h ps://www.eia.go /dna /pe /his /Lea Handle .ashx?n=PET&s=RBRTE& =M
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 15
Figu e 2. Wel a e impac by gende and quin ile.
households a e he ones ha dedica e a g ea e sha e o hei expendi u e o oad anspo
goodsandse ices,and,second, heya ealso hemainconsume so ai andma i ime
anspo se ices ( he p ice o which is also inc eased by 11.6% and 6.2%, espec i ely, in
he e e ence scena io).
Rega ding he mi iga ion policies, in man-headed households, he middle classes s ill
su e he g ea es dec ease in hei income, ega dless o he compensa ion policy ha
is implemen ed. Howe e , in woman-headed households, he impac s become p og es-
si e in he Policy_Public T anspo and Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo scena ios, wi h he

16 E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
highes -income households being he mos a ec ed. High-income woman-headed house-
holdsdono bene i om hep ice educ iono public anspo since hey end ouse
p i a e anspo inala ge p opo ionanda ea ec ed oag ea e ex en by heinc easein
he p ice o ai and ma i ime anspo se ices. Likewise, i is wo h no ing he signi ican
imp o emen o Q1 woman-headed households, especially in he Policy_Public T anspo
scena io (which ises om – 2.9% wi hou measu es o – 1.4% wi h he public anspo
subsidy). This is because woman-headed households end o be concen a ed in he lowe
pa o he income dis ibu ion and, in addi ion o spending a e y small p opo ion o
hei income on uel, hey a e he main use s o public anspo , so hey will bene i o a
g ea e ex en om he dec ease in he p ice o oad anspo se ices. Mo eo e , he Pol-
icy_Public T anspo and Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo scena ios dis ibu e mi iga ion
impac s simila ly, bu de o ing he en i e cos o he compensa ion policy o subsidizing
public anspo (Policy_Public T anspo ) is mo e bene icial in all cases, ega dless o he
quin ile and he gende o he e e ence pe son in he household, han di iding he sub-
sidy be ween public anspo and uels o sec o s (Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo ). The
Policy_Fuels scena io, in addi ion o being he leas bene icial o almos all households, is
he one ha mos mi iga es he impac on uppe -class households.
Rega ding he analysis o compensa ion policies by eminiza ion deg ee, in mixed
households, he lowe –middle classes would con inue o su e a g ea e dec ease in hei
wel a e, while, in he mos and leas eminized households, compensa ion policies would
become p og essi e, wi h high-income households being he mos a ec ed. E en hough,
in he Policy_Public T anspo and Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo scena ios, he mi -
iga ion o he p ice shock would be dis ibu ed simila ly ac oss he quin iles in each
eminiza ion deg ee, de o ing he ull cos o he policy o subsidizing public anspo
(Policy_Public T anspo ) emains he mos bene icial op ion o all households. In ac , he
public anspo subsidy is especially p og essi e o he mos and leas eminized house-
holds (since highe -income households a e he ones ha dedica e a g ea e p opo ion o
hei income o he consump ion o uel o p i a e anspo ) and pa icula ly bene i-
cial o low-income households in FD4. This is because low-income households in FD4
spend signi ican ly less on elec ici y (so hey a e no as a ec ed by he inc ease in elec-
ici y p ices) and because hey dedica e a la ge sha e o hei income o he consump ion
o oad anspo se ices. Con e sely, he Policy_Fuels scena io is he leas bene icial o
he poo es households ega dless o he eminiza ion deg ee. Likewise, he Policy_Fuels
scena io mi iga es he impac on high-income households o a g ea e ex en in he mos
and leas eminized households, while, in mixed households, i bene i s he middle classes
p opo ionally mo e.
3.2.3. In e sec ional analysis o he dis ibu ional impac s
Beyond income, o he sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics, such as he loca ion o he house-
hold, he ype o amily, o he cha ac e is ics o he e e ence pe son (age, gende ,
mig a ion backg ound, s udies, e c.) a e highly ele an when analyzing he dis ibu ional
incidence o oil p ice shocks (Flues & Thomas, 2015). Figu e A2 shows he a e age impac
o he p ice shock on wel a e acco ding o mul iple household cha ac e is ics.
The esul s show he ele ance o mobili y pa e ns in explaining he impac o he di -
e en scena ios. The less a ec ed households would be hose ha ha e lowe mobili y
needs o use public anspo mo e, such as he elde ly o adul s li ing alone, households
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 17
wi h a e e ence pe son who is no s udying o is wo king wi hou a con ac , and house-
holdsloca edinu bana eas.Con e sely, hemos a ec edhouseholdswouldbe hosewi h
mo e complex mobili y pa e ns due o mul iple ac o s: (i) he loca ion, whichexplains he
g ea e eliance on p i a e ca s and less accessibili y o public anspo , such as u al o
semi-u ban a eas; (ii) he composi ion, wi h la ge amilies wi h child en ha ing g ea e
mobili y needs; (iii) he wo king condi ions, such as households headed by indi iduals
wi h empo a y o pa - ime con ac s wi h g ea e commu ing needs; o (i ) he mig a ion
backg ound, such as households wi h a e e ence pe son who was bo n in a non-Eu opean
coun y.
As men ioned ea lie , dis ibu ional analysis ha ollows an in e sec ional app oach is
essen ial o looking a he complexi y o he wo ld and o analyzing and unde s and-
ing how gende in e sec s wi h o he socio-economic ca ego ies. Thus, in he ollowing
sec ions,wewillexplo e he oleo somekeysocio-economiccha ac e is ics omagen-
de pe spec i e, aiming o highligh he ele ance o he in e sec ionali y o di e en
socio-economic cha ac e is ics.
3.2.3.1. Household u ali y le el. Gi en ha u al households a e he mos a ec ed by a
p ice shock, and in line wi h he deba e on he impac o he ene gy ansi ion on u al
households, i is impo an o analyze he dis ibu ional impac o p ice shocks and mi -
iga ion policies by loca ion and gende (Figu e 3). Ru al households ha e g ea e ene gy
needs and depend mo e on uel o p i a e anspo (C eu zig e al., 2020;Robinson&
Ma ioli, 2020; Shammin e al., 2010;Tomáse al.,2020,2023; Wiedenho e e al., 2013),
whichexplainswhy, ega dlesso gende , u alhouseholds a emo e a ec edby heinc ease
in uel p ices (Re Scen_P ice Shock). The g ea e e ec on u al households can lead o
si ua ions o anspo po e y ha can limi bo h hei access o key ac i i ies, such as
educa ion, wo k, o heal hca e, and hei igh o pa icipa e ully in socie y (Alonso-
Epelde e al., 2023;Kenyone al.,2003). A he same ime, man-headed households a e
mo e a ec ed by an oil shock han woman-headed households in all loca ions, p o iding
u he e idence o he impo ance o he ole o gende in explaining p i a e anspo
consump ion o e o he socio-economic cha ac e is ics. In u ban and u al a eas, he mos
a ec ed households a e mixed amilies (FD2–FD4), especially mo e masculinized ones
(FD2), and he leas a ec ed a e he ones wi h he highes eminiza ion deg ee (FD5). In
semi-u ban a eas, he deg ee o eminiza ion o he household signi ican ly in luences he
wel a e impac s o he oil p ice shock: he mo e eminized he household, he lowe he
impac .
The g ea e dependence o u al and semi-u ban households on p i a e anspo also
implies ha heybene i mo ewhen uelsubsidiesa ein oduced(Policy_Fuels). This
scena io would also mi iga e he e ec on man-headed households o a g ea e ex en , i e-
spec i eo hea eainwhich hey eside.In hecaseo u alhouseholds, uelsubsidies
(Policy_Fuels) would mi iga e he nega i e impac on he leas eminized mixed amilies
(FD2) o a g ea e ex en . Howe e , eminized households would bene i mo e om public
anspo subsidies ega dless o hei le el o u ali y (Policy_Public T anspo and Pol-
icy_Fuels & Public T anspo ), showing once again ha , e en in u al a eas, gende plays
a ele an ole in mobili y beha io . This esul highligh s he inc eased ulne abili y o
women li ing in u al se ings as he lack o accessible public anspo ha adap s o hei
18 E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
Figu e 3. Wel a e impac by gende and u ali y.
No e. The labels on he le ep esen he le el o u ali y o he household’s a ea o esidence. Fo mo e
de ails, see he a iable ZONE in Table A5 in Annex A.
needs and he incapaci y o a o d he cos o p i a e anspo o en limi hei access o
key ac i i ies, such as some jobs ha could imp o e hei economic si ua ion.
In semi-u ban a eas, he mo e masculinized he household, he g ea e he capaci y o
he uelsubsidy omi iga e henega i eimpac o anoilp iceshock.Howe e ,when he
le el o eminiza ion is highe in semi-u ban a eas, he bene i o uel subsidies is lowe and
hepublic anspo subsidy(Policy_Public T anspo and Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo )
bes compensa es eminized households. Access o public anspo is g ea e in semi-
u ban a eas han in u al a eas, and he e o e he use s o hese se ices (mos ly women)
would bene i mo e om public anspo subsidies.
3.2.3.2. Age o household e e ence pe son. The age o he e e ence pe son also plays a
undamen al ole in he wel a e o households. In gene al, households wi h younge e -
e ence pe sons a e mo e a ec ed by he oil p ice shock (Figu e A2). Figu e 4shows he
wel a e impac s acco ding o he gende and age o he e e ence pe son. No ing he di e -
ence be ween woman-headed and man-headed households by age, i is appa en ha an oil
p iceshockhasasimila impac onyoungpeople,while,inadul andelde lyhouseholds,
he di e ence be ween he wo gende s inc eases (being highe in households wi h an olde
e e ence pe son). This is because he consump ion pa e ns o men and women a e e y
simila among young people. A he same ime, he consump ion di e ences inc ease wi h
age and a e especially accen ua ed among he elde ly. In ac , elde ly people li ing alone
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 19
Figu e 4. Wel a e impac by gende and age o he household e e ence pe son.
(p ima ily women) a e he leas a ec ed by he oil p ice shock (Re Scen_P ice Shock) since
hei mobili y needs a e low and mos o hem use public anspo (many migh no ha e
a d i e ’s license).
Rega ding he household eminiza ion deg ee, as p e iously men ioned, he wel a e loss
is g ea e o middle-aged mixed households (wi h g ea e mobili y needs due o wo k and
ca e loads). Howe e , in households wi h a younge e e ence pe son, he mo e masculin-
ized households (FD1–FD3) a e he mos a ec ed, showing once again ha , e en hough
consump ion pa e ns among young people a e mo e simila be ween men and women,
gende and home con igu a ion play a ele an ole in mobili y.
Rega ding compensa ion measu es, subsidizing public anspo con inues o be he
measu e wi h he g ea es po en ial o mi iga e he loss o wel a e in all households (Pol-
icy_Public T anspo and Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo scena ios), excep o he mos
masculinized middle-aged households (FD1 and FD2), o which he uel subsidy (Pol-
icy_Fuels)wouldbemo ebene icial.Thesehouseholdsno onlyusep i a e anspo
egula ly bu also dedica e a high p opo ion o hei income o ai anspo se ices.
3.2.3.3. Mig a ion backg ound o he household e e ence pe son. Finally, he analysis o
he in e sec ion be ween gende and mig a ion backg ound is o pa icula in e es . Fi s ly,
ace, gende , and social class play an impo an ole in main aining powe ela ions in
socie y and in inc easing he isk o ulne abili y (Ba ne , 2003;Da is,1983)bu also
because households wi h a e e ence pe son who was bo n in a non-Eu opean coun y a e
among hose mos a ec ed by he ini ial p ice shock (Figu e 4)andbecomeamong he
20 E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
Figu e 5. Wel a e impac by gende and coun y o bi h o he household’s e e ence pe son.
leas a ec ed a e he in oduc ion o anspo subsidies (see Figu e A1 Policy_Public
T anspo Scena io). Figu e 5 epo s he wel a e impac s o he scena ios by na ionali y
and gende .
As Figu e 5shows, he shock a ec s households wi h a mig a ion backg ound (no
na ional) mo e. This is because hei spending on anspo goods and se ices is signi i-
can ly highe (be ween 9.4% and 12.4% o hei income) han hose bo n in Spain (8.9%).
These di e ences a e mainly because hese households dedica e a high p opo ion o hei
income o ai anspo se ices (be ween 1.6% and 2% o hei income compa ed wi h
0.4% o na ional households) o isi amily and iends in hei coun ies o o igin, and
he p ice has inc eased conside ably (+11.6%). Mo eo e , hey end o be concen a ed
in he lowes pa o he income dis ibu ion, especially households om non-Eu opean
coun ies (48% o which a e concen a ed in quin ile 1).
F om a gende pe spec i e, he households mos a ec ed by he p ice shock (Re S-
cen_P ice Shock) a e he mos masculinized households (FD1 and FD2) in which he
e e encepe soncomes omaEu opeancoun y ha doesno belong o heEUandmixed
amilies (FD2 and FD3) wi h a mig a ion backg ound ou side Eu ope. Likewise, he mos
a ec ed households headed by men a e hose wi h a e e ence pe son who comes om a
non-Eu opean coun y, while, in he case o hose headed by women, i is hose wi h a e -
e ence pe son who comes om an EU coun y. Al hough, in bo h cases, households wi h a
e e ence pe son who was bo n in a non-EU coun y dedica e a highe p opo ion o hei
income o anspo goods and se ices, woman-headed households a e p opo ionally
less a ec ed due o hei high use o public anspo (non-EU woman-headed households

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 21
spend 4% o hei income on public anspo , while non-EU man-headed households
spend only 2.5%). This also explains why woman-headed households om non-Eu opean
coun ies bene i pa icula ly om public anspo subsidies (Policy_Public T anspo and
Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo ).
The Policy_Public T anspo and Policy_Fuels & Public T anspo scena ios demons a e
ha well-designed clima e o ene gy policies would no only no exace ba e he exis ing
inequali ies bu also ha e he po en ial o edis ibu e he e ec s so ha he mos ulne -
able g oups su e less. De o ing he en i e cos o he compensa ion policy o subsidizing
public anspo (Policy_Public T anspo ) would mi iga e he ad e se e ec s o he p ice
shock no only on one o he mos ulne able g oups (households headed by people bo n
in non-Eu opean coun ies) bu also on he poo es households (Q1) led by immig an
women omnon-Eu opeancoun ies,whichwouldsligh lyimp o e hei wel a e (+0.7%)
by educing hei expendi u e on anspo goods and se ices. This is mainly due o wo
poin s: (i) hey a e ba ely a ec ed by he inc ease in uel p ices o p i a e anspo since
many households wi h hese cha ac e is ics do no ha e equen access o hei own ehi-
cles and he e o e spend a e y low pe cen age o hei income on uels (3.3% while he
a e age o households amoun s o 7.2%); and (ii) hey a e he main bene icia ies o aid o
public anspo because hey dedica e 4.7% o hei income o he consump ion o oad
anspo se ices (while he household a e age is 1.4%).
3.3. Limi a ions
The esul s o his s udy a e limi ed by he assump ions o he s anda d I–O model and
i s linkage wi h mic oda a om su eys o households. In his ega d, he limi a ions o
his exe cise a e simila o p e ious s udies, like ha by Guan e al. (2023). The model
assumes ixed echnologies; he e o e, he e is no eac ion o he p ice inc ease in e ms o
ene gy e iciency o subs i u ion. The model also assumes ha households do no eac o
he changes in p ices (i.e. i cap u es he ‘o e nigh ’ e ec ). Howe e , hese limi a ions can
be conside ed mino gi en ha he aim is o analyze sho - e m scena ios and, especially
in he case o anspo uel, subs i u ion is limi ed (sho - e m elas ici ies o anspo
uels a e ypically a ound -0.20).
The second limi a ion o he I–O model a ises om he assump ion o indus y and
p oduc homogenei y. As also explained by Guan e al. (2023), he alloca ion o all p oduc s
andse ices oalimi ednumbe o p oduc ypesin hep icemodelin oducesunce ain y
in o he es ima ion o he indi ec p ice e ec . This means, o ins ance, ha , i he c ude
oil p ice shock s udied in his exe cise was ansla ed di e en ly in o he a ious de i ed oil
p oduc s, and, hence, o he di e en sec o s using hem, ha e ec would no be cap u ed
by he model. Homogenei y also applies o p oduc s consumed by di e en households,
his p e iously being ecognized as a limi a ion (like he quali y e ec epo ed by Po ie
(2022), o ins ance), gi en ha he income le el o households in luences he ype o goods
consumed, some hing ha migh igge non-homogeneous indi ec p ice shock e ec s.
The model also assumes a comple e ull pass- h ough o he (ne ) inc ease in cos s o
inal consume s. In hecaseanalyzedhe e, while he inc ease in c udeoilp icesispassedon
o consume s, uel s a ions ha e been a gued o ha e cap u ed ha pa o he uel subsidies
(Hidalgo e al., 2022;Mo al,2023). In his ega d, ou s udy migh ha e o e es ima ed he
e ec o uel subsidies.
22 E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
The e a e se e al limi a ions ela ed o he link be ween he I–O p ice model and he
mic oda a om he HBS. Fi s , he e is an agg ega ion bias de i ed om he limi ed
numbe o p oduc s co e ed by he I–O able (64 p oduc s). Second, he HBS does no
di e en ia e be ween domes ic and impo ed goods. Thus, we assumed ha all households
consume he same sha e o domes ic and impo ed goods.
4. Conclusions
This pape analyzed he ulne abili y o Spanish households o oil p ice shocks om
agende pe spec i e.The esul sshow ha oilp icesu gesha eag ea e impac on
hose households wi h g ea e mobili y needs, g ea e dependence on p i a e anspo ,
less accessibili y o public anspo , o less sus ainable consump ion pa e ns. Among
hem, households headed by men, mixed households (especially hose made up o cou-
ples wi h child en) ha a e mo e masculinized, middle-income households, households
esiding in u al a eas, and households wi h a young e e ence pe son a e p ominen . How-
e e , esea ch has shown ha he lack o a o dabili y o p i a e anspo makes women
(whose incomes a e gene ally lowe han hose o men) choose o use public anspo
o ca y ou hei daily ac i i ies. This is wo ying when he lack o access o a o dable
and accessible anspo ansla es in o limi ed access o key ac i i ies ha allow women o
de elop eelyinsocie y.Al houghi seems ha anoilp iceshockmaya ec menmo e
because hey a e he main consume s o anspo goods and se ices (especially uel o
p i a e anspo ), women end o be exposed o si ua ions o hidden po e y in which
many, e en wi h he p ices be o e he p ice shock, canno a o d o consume his ype o
goods.
Among he policies p oposed o educe he impac o oil p ice shocks, we ind ha
subsidizing public anspo would be no only he mos bene icial measu e o he en i-
onmen and hemos economicallye ec i ebu also he ai es omagende and
social jus ice pe spec i e. Besides, he ac ha hese subsidies a e implemen ed h ough
di ec aid o households is especially bene icial since only 33% o he policy cos eaches
inal consume s when he subsidies a e also dis ibu ed o sec o s. Fuel subsidies a e he
ins umen ha leas mi iga es he e ec s o oil p ices and ha e been widely c i icized
o discou aging he deca boniza ion o he anspo sec o and a o ing high-income
o e low-income households (Van Dende e al., 2022). Howe e , uel subsidies a e he
mos e ec i e in educing he impac on u al households. Conside ing ha u al house-
holds a e he mos a ec ed no only by oil p ices bu also by deca boniza ion policies (e.g.
uel and CO2 axes), in he sho e m, i is necessa y o deploy compensa o y measu es
while seeking al e na i es o educe hei dependence on oil, such as p omo ing elec ic
ehicles and public anspo a ion o imp o ing hei accessibili y o essen ial se ices.
In ac , in his pape , we only explo ed sho - e m in e en ions, like subsidizing public
anspo . Mo e s uc u al in e en ions, which a e beyond he scope o his pape , like
educing mobili y needs, as p oposed by he idea o he 15 minu e ci y, a e mo ing in his
di ec ion.
Rega ding he me hods explo ed o ca y ou he analysis om a gende pe spec i e,
we iewed he deg ee o eminiza ion o he household and he e e ence pe son in he
household as wo complemen a y me hods. Conside ing he di e ences based on he e -
e ence pe son in he household wi hin households wi h he same deg ee o eminiza ion
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS RESEARCH 23
allowed us o iden i y, albei in a limi ed way, he exis ence o powe ela ions wi hin ami-
lies. Howe e , mo e esea ch is needed in his a ea o iden i y and quan i y inequali y and
powe ela ions wi hin households.
The cu en oil- ueled anspo sys em poses challenges in e ms o ene gy dependence
and en i onmen al sus ainabili y. Fo example, anspo emissions ep esen a ound 25%
o he Eu opean Union’s o al g eenhouse gas emissions and a e one o he main sou ces
o ai pollu an s (Eu opean En i onmen Agency, 2022). Thus, he las In e go e nmen-
al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC) assessmen epo once again highligh ed he need
o a p o ound ene gy sys em ans o ma ion a he speed and scale needed o achie e he
Pa is Ag eemen goals (Rama e al., 2022). In his con ex , he Eu opean Union is cu en ly
wo king on he ‘Fi o 55’ package, which includes new ene gy axa ion ules o anspo
uel and an emission ading sys em o buildings and oad anspo (ETS2) (Eu opean
Commission, 2021a,2021b). These policies will con ibu e o educing he emissions bu
a he same ime inc ease he p ice o ossil- ueled anspo modes (as in he case o oil
p ice shocks), hi ing some speci ic popula ion g oups ha d (e.g. ulne able and low- and
middle-income households) and agg a a ing exis ing inequali ies (Böh inge e al., 2022;
Feind e al., 2021;OECD,2011;Pike y&Saez,2014). As we showed, implemen ing mi -
iga ion o compensa o y measu es is essen ial o educe he ulne abili y o anspo o
he mos ulne able g oups (including women) and o gua an ee a ai ene gy ansi ion,
p e en ing o mi iga ing he social ejec ion o clima e and ene gy policies. In his ega d,
he me hod and esul s can help o add ess he gende and dis ibu ional dimension o he
‘Fi o 55’ package, which is a key conce n o he Eu opean Union (Clancy e al., 2022;
Eu opean Commission, 2022).
Finally, he s udy showed how well-designed clima e o ene gy policies no only may no
exace ba e exis ing inequali ies bu also may ha e he po en ial o edis ibu e he posi i e
impac s o jus ansi ion policies o bene i he mos ulne able g oups o a g ea e ex en .
Howe e , his will equi e an ex-an e impac analysis o clima e and ene gy policies om a
gende and social jus ice pe spec i e and a p ecise diagnosis o he needs and possibili ies
o he mos ulne able g oups. Ha ing pa icipa o y p ocesses and co-c ea ing measu es
can be e y bene icial in implemen ing ai e policies and ensu ing hei poli ical and social
iabili y.
No es
1. In ecen yea s, he gende – anspo link has begun o be s udied in g ea e dep h (Casado-
Díaz e al., 2023; Fa é e al., 2023;LeBa banchone al.,2021), bu he gende app oach has no
ye been ullyin eg a edina ans e salwayin o his esea cha ea.
2. h ps://www.iea.o g/da a-and-s a is ics/da a-p oduc /wo ld-ene gy-balances
3. Bold- aced lowe -case le e s a e used o indica e ec o s, bold- aced capi al le e s indica e
ma ices, and i alic lowe -case le e s indica e scala s (including elemen s o a ec o o ma ix).
Subsc ip s indica e indus ies. Vec o s a e columns by de ini ion, and ow ec o s a e ob ained
by ansposi ion, deno ed by a p ime (e.g.x). Diagonal ma ices a e deno ed as(e.g., ˆx).
4. This able iscon iden ial. Weused he ableo 2017 and adjus ed hema ginsandne ax a ios o
make hem consis en wi h he 2015 able by using ele a ion ac o s. The p opo ions o expen-
di u esa hep oduc le elinbo hyea swe eused oadjus hema gins ecei ed.Then, he
a io be ween he agg ega e ma gins ecei ed in he wo yea s was used o adjus he ma gins
paid. The a io be ween he o al axes be o e adjus men and he o al axes om he I–O able
24 E. ALONSO-EPELDE ET AL.
was used o adjus axes on p oduc s by p oduc s. Wi h adjus ed ma gins and ax ma gins, he
ax a ios adjus ed o he yea 2015 we e calcula ed.
5. Equi alen consump ion expendi u e was used ins ead o income as i is conside ed a be e
p oxy o pe manen household income since i luc ua es less in he long un (Goodman & Old-
ield, 2004).Theequi alen spendingwascalcula edbasedonhouseholdspending ela i ized
by he modi ied OECD equi alence scale, hus conside ing he economies o scale gene a ed in
households acco ding o hei size. The modi ied OECD scale alues 1 o he e e ence pe son
in he household, 0.5 o o he people aged 14 o o e , and 0.3 o o he people unde 14 yea s
o age.
6. h ps://www.eia.go /dna /pe /his /Lea Handle .ashx?n=PET&s=RBRTE& =M
7. We used he ollowing con e sion ac o s: 3.27∗10−5TJ/li e o gasoline and 3.63∗10−5TJ/li e
o diesel (PGRWEB).
8. The p ice shocks o he comple e lis o p oduc s a e a ailable in Annex A. On he one hand,
Table A2 shows he esul s o he p ice model, ha is, he change in p ices a e he applica ion o
he inpu –ou pu p ice model o each p oduc a he CPA (classi ica ion o p oduc s by ac i i y)
le el. On he o he hand, Table A3 shows he change in p ices a he COICOP consump ion
ca ego y le el a e applying he mic osimula ion model o he esul s ob ained by he p ice
model.
9. No e ha , compa ing he sha es o consump ion o each sec o o coke and e ined pe oleum
p oduc s be ween he inpu –ou pu ables (INE, 2015b) and hose e lec ed in he PEFA (Eu o-
s a , 2022), he ea esigni ican di e encesbe ween he wosec o s( ocalcula e hesesha es,
we agg ega ed he ollowing p oduc s in he PEFA use ables: P10, P11, P14, P15, P16, P17, P18,
P19, P20, and P21). The sha e o he coke and pe oleum e ine y sec o accoun s o 54% o
he in e media y consump ion in he PEFA and only 22% in he IO ables, while he elec ici y
sec o accoun s o 6% o he consump ion in he PEFA and 31% in he IO ables. The e o e,
despi e he exis ence o elec ic he mal cen als in Spain, especially in he Cana y Islands, we
belie e ha he IO ables migh , o a ce ain ex en , o e es ima e he amoun o consump ion o
e ined pe oleum p oduc s in he elec ici y sec o .
10. The igu es showing he CPIs o each scena io can be ound in Annex A (Figu e A1). In
addi ion, Table A4 lis s he CPI o each household ype and each scena io.
11. Wel a e impac s we e measu ed h ough he expendi u e change o he households. Expendi-
u e was used because i is conside ed o be a good p oxy o pe manen household income
(Goodman & Old ield, 2004).
12. The a e age numbe o membe s pe household in FD1 and FD5 is 1.2 and 1.4, espec i ely.
13. The discoun o he sec o s (e2,149 M) is dis ibu ed as ollows wi hin he p ice model: (a)
households e708 M, (b) p i a e non-p o i ins i u ions e21 M, (c) gene al go e nmen e209
M, (d) g oss capi al o ma ion e217 M, (e) g oss ixed capi al o ma ion e212 M, ( ) changes
in in en o ies and acquisi ions less disposals o aluables e5M,and(g)expo se994 M.
14. The equi alen spending quin iles we e calcula ed based on household spending ela i ized by
he modi ied OECD equi alence scale, hus conside ing he economies o scale gene a ed in
households based on hei size. The modi ied OECD scale assigns alues o 1 o he e e ence
pe son in he household, 0.5 o o he people aged 14 o o e , and 0.3 o o he people unde 14
yea s o age.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Funding
This esea ch has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope Resea ch and Inno-
a ion P og amme unde g an ag eemen No 101069880 – AdJUST, Ad ancing he unde s anding
o challenges, policy op ions and measu es o achie e a JUST EU ene gy ansi ion.