Full Resea ch Repo
Jou nal o Social and
Pe sonal Rela ionships
2025, Vol. 42(10) 2929–2952
© The Au ho (s) 2025
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DOI: 10.1177/02654075251352599
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Unde s anding pa en s’
mo i a ions o gi ing hei
child en sma phones: A
quali a i e s udy
Idoia Lego bu u Fe nandez
Nahia Idoiaga-Mond agon
Mi a i Gaz añaga
Ma ia Dosil-San ama ia
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y EHU, Spain
Abs ac
In esponse o g owing conce ns abou he ea ly age a which child en ecei e
sma phones, his s udy examines he ac o s influencing pa en s’decisions on when and
why o allow hei child en access o hese de ices. A o al o 642 pa en s om a egion in
he Basque Coun y (no he n Spain) pa icipa ed in an open-ended su ey. The sample
was di e se in e ms o gende , child age (2–16 yea s, M = 9.26), and place o esidence.
While 26.9% had pu chased a sma phone o hei child, mos ei he allowed sha ed use
(65.3%) o es ic ed access en i ely (7.7%). The da a we e analyzed using he Reine
me hod ia I amu eq so wa e. Fi e key hema ic ca ego ies eme ged: he desi e o
child en o be pa o pee g oups, social p essu e pe cei ed by pa en s, enabling
child en’s au onomy in public spaces, acili a ing local communica ion p ac ices, and
exe cising pa en al con ol. These findings e eal how sma phone- ela ed decisions a e
shaped by communi y no ms, sa e y conce ns, and e ol ing defini ions o childhood
independence. The s udy highligh s he impo ance o cul u ally esponsi e esou ces
ha suppo di e se pa en ing app oaches wi hou p esc ibing uni e sal ules abou he
“ igh ”age o sma phone owne ship.
Keywo ds
Sma phones, child en, mobile phones
Co esponding au ho :
Nahia Idoiaga Mond agon, Depa men o E olu iona y and Educa ional Psychology, The Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y EHU, Sa iena auzoa z/g, Leioa 48940, Spain.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
In oduc ion
The inc easing p e alence o sma phones in child en’s li es has spa ked ongoing deba es
ega ding he app op ia e age o hei fi s owne ship (Haid , 2025). While some pa en s
iew mobile phones as essen ial ools o sa e y, communica ion, and digi al li e acy,
o he s exp ess conce ns abou hei po en ial impac on child en’s well-being, social
de elopmen , and academic pe o mance (Be ge & Lange, 2021). Despi e hese dis-
cussions, he e is a lack o ecen , con ex -specific esea ch examining he mo i a ions
behind pa en s’decisions o p o ide hei child en wi h sma phones, pa icula ly in non-
Anglo-Saxon con ex s. This s udy add esses his gap by explo ing how sociocul u al and
con ex ual ac o s influence pa en s’decisions ega ding sma phone owne ship among
child en in he Basque Coun y, Spain. To ame his analysis, he ollowing li e a u e
e iew examines he cu en ends in mobile phone owne ship among child en, he
impac o sma phone use on hei well-being and de elopmen , and he ole o social,
economic, and geog aphical ac o s in shaping pa en al decisions. This e iew p o ides
he necessa y con ex o unde s and he mo i a ions ha guide pa en s when pu chasing
sma phones o hei child en
The use o mobile phones by child en
The apid ad ancemen o echnology has made mobile phones essen ial ools o
communica ion, lea ning, and en e ainmen . As a esul , child en a e inc easingly be-
coming mobile phone use s a younge ages (Mod ego e al., 2021). Duek e al. (2012)
highligh how mobile phones ha e become indispensable in mode n socie y, ein o cing
hei ole in main aining connec i i y o bo h child en and adul s.
T ends in mobile phone owne ship among child en show a s eady decline in he age o
fi s acquisi ion. In 2004, 35% o child en aged 8 o 10 in Ge many al eady owned a
mobile phone (B¨
ohle & Schüz, 2004), and by 2005, 76% o child en aged 9 o 12 in
Hunga y had hei own de ices (Mezei e al., 2007). Mo e ecen ly, in Spain, 69.5% o
child en aged 10 o 15 owned a mobile phone in 2020 (INE, 2020). This widesp ead
owne ship is u he egula ed by na ional policies on digi al access, such as Spain’s
cu en legisla ion, which se s he minimum age o opening a social media accoun a
14 yea s. In June 2024, he Spanish go e nmen app o ed a d a law o aise his
minimum o 16 yea s (To es & Vald´
es, 2024).
This pa e n ex ends beyond Eu ope. In he Uni ed S a es, 35% o child en aged 3 o
5 own hei own mobile de ices, using hem o an a e age o 115.3 minu es daily,
p ima ily on applica ions like YouTube (Radesky e al., 2020). Simila ly, in Tu key,
Kucuk e al. (2020) ound ha while he a e age age o fi s mobile phone owne ship is
12.1 yea s (±2.5), some child en ecei e hei fi s phone as ea ly as age 3. These findings
indica e a global end owa d younge sma phone owne ship, d i en by inc eased
accessibili y, changing pa en al a i udes, and e ol ing digi al en i onmen s. Howe e ,
access o mobile echnology is no uni o m ac oss all child en, as socioeconomic ac o s
play a c ucial ole. Resea ch sugges s ha highe -income amilies a e mo e likely o
p o ide hei child en wi h sma phones a an ea lie age and o use digi al moni o ing
2930 Jou nal o Social and Pe sonal Rela ionships 42(10)
ools, whe eas lowe -income amilies may s uggle wi h access and o e sigh , leading o
di e en usage pa e ns (Reddick e al., 2020). U ban amilies, wi h easie access o
echnology and he In e ne , a e mo e likely o in eg a e digi al ools in o daily ou ines,
emphasizing digi al li e acy and academic en ichmen . In u al a eas, limi ed access o
eliable digi al in as uc u e may esul in a mo e selec i e o u ili a ian app oach o
mobile phone use, o en ocusing on p ac ical benefi s like schoolwo k o amily
communica ion (Yan & Sch oede , 2020).
Mo eo e , sma phone use among young people has isen sha ply o e he pas decade.
In Eu ope, only 5% o child en aged 9 o 16 accessed he In e ne daily ia a sma phone
in 2010, whe eas by 2020, his figu e had isen o o e 80% (Cou eux e al., 2023).
Beyond hei ole in en e ainmen and communica ion, mobile phones ha e also become
in eg al o amily o ganiza ion, helping pa en s coo dina e schedules, school ac i i ies,
and household asks mo e e ficien ly (Wilska, 2003). While many pa en s p o ide mobile
phones o hei child en o sa e y and communica ion pu poses (Kucuk e al., 2020), his
end also aises conce ns ega ding exposu e o inapp op ia e con en , p oblema ic
sma phone use, and digi al dependence. Ma hes e al. (2021) sugges ha pa en s’own
excessi e sma phone use can unde mine hei abili y o egula e hei child en’s digi al
habi s.
The e ec s o ea ly mobile phone owne ship on child en’s social de elopmen and
well-being ha e been widely s udied. P oblema ic mobile phone use is pa icula ly
p e alen among seconda y school s uden s, wi h 15% o adolescen s a isk (Besol´
ıe al.,
2018). A 2018 Pew Resea ch s udy in he Uni ed S a es e ealed ha 95% o eenage s
ha e access o a sma phone, and 45% epo being online “almos cons an ly”(Jenco,
2018;Madigan e al., 2018).
Pa en s o en s uggle o egula e hei child en’s sma phone habi s e ec i ely,
pa icula ly as digi al en i onmen s e ol e apidly and p esen new challenges
(B¨
acks ¨
om e al., 2022). Many pa en s eel unp epa ed o se clea bounda ies, which can
con ibu e o di ficul ies in limi ing sc een ime o ensu ing balanced echnology use.
While ex ensi e esea ch has explo ed he implica ions o child en’s sma phone use, less
is known abou he mo i a ions behind pa en s’decisions—no jus o allow sma phone
use, bu o ac i ely pu chase hese de ices o hei child en. Unde s anding hese
mo i a ions is key o assessing whe he ea ly sma phone owne ship aligns wi h chil-
d en’s de elopmen al needs o is p ima ily d i en by social and con ex ual ac o s.
The de elopmen al and social implica ions o sma phone use in childhood
The widesp ead p esence o sma phones in child en’s li es has aised significan
conce ns among heal h p o essionals, educa o s, and amilies. Nume ous s udies sugges
ha ea ly and in ensi e exposu e o sma phones may nega i ely a ec child en’s aca-
demic pe o mance, mo i a ion, and a en ion. Dempsey e al. (2019) and Ha a i e al.
(2023) ound ha he use o digi al de ices in lea ning con ex s, when no p ope ly
egula ed, may educe a en ion span and mo i a ion, po en ially leading o poo e ac-
ademic achie emen . Sigman (2017) highligh s how mul i asking and con inuous sc een
swi ching can dis up concen a ion and unde mine cogni i e pe o mance.
Lego bu u Fe nandez e al. 2931
Beyond academic aspec s, excessi e o un egula ed sma phone use has been linked o
psychosocial and emo ional di ficul ies. Sahu e al. (2019) associa e p oblema ic use wi h
anxie y and dep essi e symp oms, while Wacks and Weins ein (2021) no e links wi h
s ess, social wi hd awal, and sel -es eem issues. Twenge and Campbell (2018) also
emphasize inc eased ulne abili y o sleep p oblems and emo ional dys egula ion, pa -
icula ly in p eadolescen s and adolescen s.
F om a physical heal h pe spec i e, he Child en’s Hospi al o Philadelphia (2018)
wa ns abou isks such as eye s ain, a igue, and myopia due o p olonged sc een ex-
posu e. These issues, while no uni e sally expe ienced, con ibu e o a sense o pa en al
cau ion ega ding ea ly sma phone owne ship.
Finally, C escenzi-Lanna (2022), in a longi udinal s udy in I eland, show how ea ly
pa e ns o digi al engagemen can shape la e academic and pe sonal ajec o ies. Taken
oge he , hese s udies p o ide con ex o unde s anding pa en s’hesi a ions and de-
cisions. Al hough ou s udy does no di ec ly assess hese consequences, he conce ns
eflec ed in he li e a u e help explain why many pa en s conside age, eadiness, and
con ex be o e g an ing sma phone access.
Sma phones also play a c ucial ole in shaping he p ocesses o socializa ion and
iden i y o ma ion in child en and adolescen s. While hey o e oppo uni ies o
communica ion and connec edness, hei excessi e o uns uc u ed use has been asso-
cia ed wi h social, emo ional, and beha io al di ficul ies (Lee e al., 2023). The ansi ion
om ace- o- ace o digi al in e ac ion is inc easingly e iden , wi h o e 80% o ado-
lescen s epo ing ha hey eel deeply connec ed o iends h ough social media
(Ande son & Jiang, 2018). This shi eflec s he b oade ans o ma ion o social dy-
namics in digi al en i onmen s (Kopomaa, 2002), whe e pee in e ac ion is media ed by
sc eens a he han physical p esence.
Fo many adolescen s, he sma phone becomes a space o iden i y explo a ion and
sel - alida ion. Digi al belonging is o en media ed h ough social ne wo ks, whe e sel -
image is cons uc ed in ela ion o online eedback and isibili y (Zizek, 2017). Howe e ,
ea ly and excessi e sc een ime du ing c i ical de elopmen al s ages can hinde socio-
emo ional g ow h (Nayeem, 2024), displacing oppo uni ies o physical and social
engagemen (Alo aibi e al., 2022). Pa e ns o sma phone use a y by age: younge
child en o en use de ices passi ely o o communica ion wi h amily, whe eas ado-
lescen s ely on hem o mo e complex social in e ac ion, pee bonding, and sel -
exp ession (Tang, 2015).
Gende di e ences also eme ge in how echnology is in oduced and used. Pa en s
may s ee boys owa d gaming o p oblem-sol ing apps, while gi ls a e o en encou aged
o use c ea i e o educa ional ools, eflec ing adi ional gende oles (Coope &
Hea e lo, 2013). As dependency inc eases, child en end o p e e soli a y digi al play
o e collec i e social ac i i ies, which may con ibu e o wi hd awn beha io s and hinde
sel -confidence (Hye Pa k, 2020; Zheng, 2022). These shi s in socializa ion a e u he
associa ed wi h seden a y habi s, a ac o linked o he ising p e alence o childhood
obesi y (Figue oa-Dua e & Campbell-A aujo, 2022).
Finally, na iga ing digi al en i onmen s also equi es di e en in e pe sonal skills
om hose de eloped in ace- o- ace in e ac ion. Many child en s uggle wi h hese new
2932 Jou nal o Social and Pe sonal Rela ionships 42(10)
social demands, which can lead o miscommunica ion, us a ion, o exclusion (Zizek,
2017). These de elopmen al and social dynamics help explain why many pa en s exp ess
conce n o e he app op ia e iming and condi ions unde which sma phones should be
in oduced o child en. While ou s udy does no di ec ly assess hese consequences, his
body o esea ch o e s impo an con ex o unde s anding he mo i a ions behind
pa en al decision-making.
Pa en s’pe cep ions o sma phone use among child en and amilies’ easons
o buying mobile phones
Pa en s’pe cep ions o sma phone use among child en eflec a balance be ween conce n
o e po en ial isks and ecogni ion o angible benefi s (B¨
acks ¨
om e al., 2022). Many
exp ess anxie y abou excessi e sc een ime, which has been linked o sleep dis up ion,
a en ion defici s, and beha io al issues (Ei ich e al., 2022;Lissak, 2018;Sad i, 2018).
They also ci e wo ies abou exposu e o inapp op ia e con en , online isks, and
sma phone addic ion (Dane , 2020;Ma sh e al., 2024), o en eeling unp epa ed o guide
hei child en’s digi al habi s (B¨
acks ¨
om e al., 2022).
None heless, sa e y and cons an communica ion a e leading mo i a ions o allowing
sma phone use. Pa en s wan o s ay connec ed, moni o whe eabou s, and ensu e
child en’s secu i y. In he U.S., child en ecei e hei fi s sma phone a an a e age age o
12.2 yea s, mos ly o unc ional easons (Rich e e al., 2022). In Spain, while cu en
egula ions se 14 as he legal age o social media access, a 2024 d a law p oposes
aising i o 16 (To es & Vald´
es, 2024).
Mobile phones also help pa en s manage amily logis ics and main ain emo ional
closeness in con ex s such as di o ce, single-pa en households, o econs i u ed amilies
(Oksman & Rau iainen, 2002;Wilska, 2003). Some pa en s iew sma phones as ed-
uca ional ools ha suppo digi al li e acy and access o in o ma ion (Soyoo e al., 2024).
Howe e , many a e mind ul o se ing bounda ies, implemen ing sc een ime ules,
modeling esponsible use, and main aining open communica ion (Sandua, 2023).
Socioeconomic s a us and geog aphic loca ion significan ly shape how amilies ap-
p oach sma phone use (Konca, 2022;Tang, 2015). U ban amilies o en p io i ize digi al
li e acy and en ichmen (Yan & Sch oede , 2020), while u al amilies— acing limi ed
in as uc u e—may ake a mo e u ili a ian iew, using sma phones p ima ily o aca-
demic o p ac ical pu poses. Financial capaci y also a ec s moni o ing: highe -income
households can a o d supe ision ools and educa ional p og ams, while lowe -income
amilies may ace ba ie s o access o digi al o e sigh (Reddick e al., 2020).
While exis ing s udies ou line b oad pa e ns in sma phone adop ion, he e is a need
o upda ed esea ch in o pa en s’cu en mo i a ions and he implica ions o ea ly
sma phone owne ship in apidly e ol ing social con ex s. Fac o s such as age, gende ,
SES, and geog aphic se ing a e known o influence sma phone adop ion, bu hei
in e ac ion in specific cul u al en i onmen s emains unde explo ed. This s udy add esses
ha gap by analyzing pa en al mo i a ions in a egion o he Basque Coun y, Spain,
ocusing on he in e play be ween sociocul u al ac o s and amily dynamics. I aims o
Lego bu u Fe nandez e al. 2933
unde s and how decisions a ound sma phone owne ship eflec pa en s’desi e o os e
us , communica ion, and au onomy as pa o con empo a y ca egi ing.
In ligh o he conce ns and con ex ual ac o s e iewed, his s udy explo es he
p ima y mo i a ions guiding pa en s in a egion o he Basque Coun y, Spain, when
deciding whe he o p o ide hei child en wi h sma phones. I also examines how hese
decisions a y acco ding o key ac o s such as pa en s’and child en’s gende , school
yea , own o esidence, and ype o sma phone use (owne ship, sha ed use, o non-use).
The li e a u e p esen ed o e s a ounda ion o his inqui y, which is guided by he
ollowing ques ions: (1) Wha a e he p ima y mo i a ions o pa en s when deciding o
p o ide hei child en wi h a sma phone? (2) How do con ex ual and demog aphic
a iables influence hese mo i a ions? (3) Wha a e he pe cei ed implica ions o child en
owning sma phones, as exp essed by pa en s?
Me hodology
To achie e he objec i es se o his p ojec , bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e da a we e
sys ema ically collec ed h ough me iculously designed online ques ionnai es ailo ed o
his pu pose. These su eys inco po a ed a blend o open-ended and closed-ended
ques ions o ensu e comp ehensi e and de ailed esponses om pa en s.
Sample
The sample comp ised 642 pa en s om a egion wi hin he au onomous communi y o
he Basque Coun y in no he n Spain. The a e age age o he pa en s was 43.85 yea s
(sd = 5.13). Rega ding gende , 53.11% (n= 341) o pa en s iden ified as emale/mo he s,
46.57% (n= 299) as male/ a he s, and 0.003 (n= 2) as non-bina y. The a e age age o
hei child en was 9.26 yea s (sd = 2.06), wi h an age ange o 2–16 yea s. In e ms o
gende dis ibu ion, 53.1% iden ified as gi ls, 46.6% as boys, and 0.3% as non-bina y.
Mos pa icipan s, 62.6% (n= 402), esided in a own o a ound 16,000 inhabi an s.
Ano he 14.5% (n= 93) li ed in illages wi h be ween 1,000 and 2,000 inhabi an s, and
he emaining 22.9% (n= 147) li ed in illages wi h ewe han 1,000 inhabi an s.
O he 642 pa en s who pa icipa ed in he s udy, 26.9% (n= 173) had al eady
pu chased a sma phone o hei child en, while 65.3% (n= 419) had no bough a
sma phone bu allowed hei child en o use hei s. The emaining 7.7% (n= 50) had
nei he bough a sma phone o hei child en no allowed hem o use hei s. Including
pa en s who ha e no ye pu chased a sma phone o hei child en is pa icula ly el-
e an , as i allows us o explo e he ac o s ha influence hei decision-making p ocess,
hei conce ns, and he condi ions unde which hey migh conside allowing sma phone
owne ship. This g oup ep esen s a key a ge o p e en ion s a egies aimed a delaying
sma phone acquisi ion o guiding pa en s owa d esponsible echnology use. Unde -
s anding hei hesi a ions p o ides aluable insigh s in o po en ial in e en ion poin s ha
could influence pa en al decision-making.
2934 Jou nal o Social and Pe sonal Rela ionships 42(10)
P ocedu e
Be o e da a collec ion, app o al was ob ained om he e hics commi ee o he Uni e si y
o he Basque Coun y [M10_2024_073]. All pa icipan s olun a ily ag eed o pa ic-
ipa e in he s udy a e ecei ing de ailed in o ma ion abou he esea ch p ocedu es.
Rec ui men was conduc ed using a non-p obabilis ic snowball sampling me hod in he
9 exis ing schools in he a ea. An online ques ionnai e was c ea ed by he esea che s and
dissemina ed h ough schools o all he pa en s. No incen i e was o e ed o comple ing
he ques ionnai e.
Ins umen
The ques ionnai es we e o ganized in o wo dis inc sec ions. The fi s sec ion asked
pa icipan s o p o ide specific socio-demog aphic in o ma ion ele an o he s udy,
including hei own and hei child en’s age, gende (wi h op ions o Women, Men, o
Non-bina y), age, school yea o he child en, own o esidence, and he ype o
sma phone use by he child en (own sma phone, use an adul ’s sma phone, do no use a
sma phone). They we e also asked a wha age hey hough a sma phone should be
pu chased o gi en o hei child en and we e ins uc ed o ask hei child en he same
ques ion.
In he second sec ion, pa en s we e asked o w i e down o s a e ou easons hey
would buy hei child en a sma phone. These esponses o med he basis o subsequen
analysis. Da a collec ion and analysis we e conduc ed in Spanish. Once all he analyses
had been ca ied ou , he esul s we e ansla ed in o English. This ansla ion was ca ied
ou by a p o essional ansla o so ha he e was as li le bias as possible as explained in
he ex .
Analysis
To analyze he open-ended esponses, we employed he Reine me hod (Reine , 1983)
using he I amu eq so wa e. This me hod is widely ega ded as a obus ool o analyzing
open-ended ex ual da a and has been ex ensi ely applied in esea ch in ol ing child en
ac oss a ious disciplines (Idoiaga Mond agon e al., 2021;Lego bu u e al., 2022). I s
p o en abili y o add ess issues o eliabili y and alidi y in ex analysis has been
highligh ed in p io s udies (Klein & Lica a, 2003), making i pa icula ly sui able o his
s udy. Unlike con en ional quali a i e me hods ha ely hea ily on manual coding, he
Reine me hod p o ides a compu a ionally d i en, s a is ically alida ed classifica ion o
ex ual con en , o e ing an objec i e lens h ough which hemes and s uc u es can be
iden ified wi h high ep oducibili y (Reine , 1990).
The Reine me hod is based on a op-down hie a chical clus e ing app oach, which
segmen s ex in o lexical classes cha ac e ized by co-occu ing wo ds and ex agmen s.
I uses s a is ical indica o s, such as chi-squa e alues (χ
2
), o de e mine he mos ep-
esen a i e wo ds and ex segmen s o each class (Idoiaga, N., & Belasko, 2019). These
alues highligh he wo ds ha a e s a is ically o e ep esen ed in a gi en class, indica ing
Lego bu u Fe nandez e al. 2935
hei ele ance and associa ion wi h he class hemes. Fo ins ance, wo ds wi h high chi-
squa e alues a e hose ha appea mo e equen ly wi hin a specific class han would be
expec ed by chance.
This app oach p oduces wha a e e e ed o as “lexical wo lds,”which consis o
clus e s o seman ically ela ed wo ds and ex segmen s ha collec i ely ep esen
dis inc pa e ns in he da a. In line wi h p e ious applica ions o his me hod (Cama go &
Bousfield, 2009), he aw ex ual da a we e p ocessed in I amu eq, which sys ema ically
assigned wo ds and segmen s o classes based on hei s a is ical associa ions. The
classifica ion p ocess ollows a igo ous sequence: fi s , he ex co pus is segmen ed in o
uni s, ensu ing ha each segmen con ains a meaning ul po ion o discou se. These uni s
a e hen analyzed using a descending hie a chical classifica ion algo i hm, which e-
cu si ely pa i ions he ex in o clus e s based on wo d co-occu ence pa e ns. The
me hod iden ifies key lexical i ems ha se e as hema ic ma ke s, allowing o an in-
duc i e classifica ion o he da ase (Mennani & A ak, 2024).
Following p e ious applica ions o he Reine me hod (Cama go & Bousfield, 2009),
he aw da a we e en e ed in o I amu eq. Significan ocabula y i ems in each class we e
selec ed based on h ee c i e ia: (1) an expec ed wo d alue exceeding 3; (2) chi-squa e
s a is ical e idence o associa ion wi h he class (χ
2
≥3.89, p= .05, d = 1); and (3) he
wo d p edominan ly appea ing in ha class wi h a equency o 50% o mo e. I amu eq
also iden ified ep esen a i e ex segmen s o each class, anking hem by hei chi-
squa e alues. These segmen s p o ided quali a i e con ex o he lexical wo lds, u he
en iching he in e p e a i e p ocess. This hyb id app oach s eng hens he analy ical
p ocess, ensu ing ha lexical pa e ns a e no only s a is ically de i ed bu also con-
ex ualized h ough pa icipan s’discou se.
The iden ified classes we e hen linked o passi e o independen a iables o explo e
ela ionships wi hin he da a. The passi e a iables in his s udy included: gende (pa en s
and child en), school yea , own o esidence (16.000 inhabi an s, be ween 1.000–
2000 inhabi an s, and ewe han 1.000 inhabi an s) and ype o sma phone use (own
sma phone, use pa en s sma phone o do no use a sma phone). The analys hen
de i ed a se ies o classes comp ising ypical wo ds and ex segmen s (quo es) wi h he
highes chi-squa e alues, o ming he basis o in e p e ing he classes as lexical wo lds.
By sys ema ically connec ing lexical wo lds wi h hese a iables, he me hod acili a ed a
nuanced explo a ion o he ela ionships be ween ex ual hemes and demog aphic o
con ex ual ac o s, o e ing a mo e in-dep h unde s anding o he unde lying pa e ns in
pa en al decision-making ega ding sma phone use.
The classifica ion p ocess in I amu eq, based on he Reine me hod, is ully au oma ed
and guided by hie a chical descending clus e ing algo i hms, which segmen he ex in o
lexical classes acco ding o wo d co-occu ence pa e ns. The eme gence o sub- ac o s
wi hin ce ain p ima y ac o s is a di ec esul o his s a is ical analysis, whe e he
so wa e iden ifies sub-classes only when i de ec s s a is ically significan in e nal di -
e en ia ion, de e mined h ough chi-squa e es s. The e o e, he esul ing s uc u e o
ac o s and sub- ac o s eflec s he lexical and s a is ical p ope ies inhe en in he da ase ,
elimina ing esea che subjec i i y in ca ego iza ion (Reine , 1990).
2936 Jou nal o Social and Pe sonal Rela ionships 42(10)
The Reine me hod s ands ou in compa ison o adi ional quali a i e me hodologies.
Unlike hema ic analysis (B aun & Cla ke, 2006), which elies on manual coding and
esea che in e p e a ion, he Reine me hod applies a compu a ionally d i en, da a-based
app oach ha significan ly educes subjec i i y and enhances eplicabili y. By employing
s a is ical es s o alida e lexical clus e s, i o e s a deg ee o objec i i y ha manual
coding app oaches canno easily achie e. Addi ionally, he me hod’s abili y o sys-
ema ically de ec ecu ing hemes ac oss a la ge co pus makes i pa icula ly e ec i e o
analyzing ex ensi e quali a i e da ase s. Howe e , one limi a ion o he Reine me hod is
ha i ocuses on wo d co-occu ences and s a is ical ela ionships a he han seman ic
nuances.
The final phase o he analysis in ol ed he in e p e a ion and labeling o he lexical
classes, which was conduc ed h ough a igo ous alida ion p ocess. Two esea che s
independen ly assigned p elimina y labels o each class based on he mos s a is ically
significan wo ds and ep esen a i e quo es. A hi d esea che e iewed and finalized he
class labels, ensu ing consensus and consis ency ac oss classifica ions. This collabo a i e
app oach educed indi idual bias and ensu ed a mo e eliable in e p e a ion o he lexical
wo lds, u he enhancing he me hodological igo o he s udy.
The Reine me hod p oduces s a is ical, anspa en , and ep oducible da a up o he
poin o in e p e a ion, whe e he analys assigns labels (Schonha d -Bailey e al., 2012).
The in eg a ion o bo h quan i a i e classifica ion and quali a i e in e p e a ion p o ided a
mo e comp ehensi e analysis o pa en s’mo i a ions o sma phone use in child en. This
me hodological app oach enabled us o balance compu a ional p ecision wi h he ichness
o pa icipan na a i es, allowing o a mo e nuanced and con ex ually ele an un-
de s anding o he da a (Mon alesco e al., 2024).
In o de o analyse he quan i a i e da a, he a iables unde s udy we e ini ially
ecoded, subsequen ly g ouping hem in o new a iables (age anges and own anges
acco ding o hei numbe o inhabi an s). The ea e , he ele an desc ip i e and e-
quency analyses we e conduc ed, in addi ion o he chi-squa e s a is ical es . This was
pe o med using IBM SPSS s a is ical so wa e e sion 28 (A monk, NY, USA).
Resul s
P ima y easons why pa en s would gi e hei child en a sma phone o
hei own
Using a descending hie a chical analysis, he Reine me hod was employed o iden i y
he op eason why pa en s would gi e hei child en a sma phone. Each eason o
concep is ep esen ed by a collec ion o cha ac e is ic wo ds and ex segmen s, e e ed
o as a “class.”The analysis segmen ed he co pus in o a ea 590 sec ions, yielding fi e
dis inc classes, as illus a ed in Figu e 1. These classes will be examined indi idually in
he subsequen sec ions o his a icle.
As shown in Figu e 1, he analysis gene a ed fi e dis inc classes. Two classes we e
ela ed o pee g oups and socializa ion: “To be pa o a g oup o iends”and “Social
p essu e.”Ano he wo classes we e connec ed o he specific con ex o own whe e he
Lego bu u Fe nandez e al. 2937
u u e esea ch should explo e whe he his social p essu e is mo e p onounced o gi ls
and, i so, de elop specific ools and aining o add ess hei needs.
The second main eason pa en s ci ed o gi ing hei child en a sma phone was he
illage o con ex in which hey li e. Pa en s belie e a sma phone becomes necessa y
when child en, especially gi ls, s a going ou alone. They exp essed pa icula conce n
abou ce ain si ua ions, such as being a he beach o ou a nigh , and emphasized he
need o main ain con ac wi h hei child en a all imes. Pa en s in smalle owns also
highligh ed he need o moni o hei child en when socializing ou side hei
immedia e a ea.
The con ex o smalle illages o emo e neighbo hoods wa an s u he analysis.
P e ious esea ch has shown ha al hough s ee iolence a es ha e dec eased in ecen
yea s, pa en s’pe cep ions o isk when hei child en a e alone ha e inc eased sig-
nifican ly (Lego bu u e al., 2022), influencing he decision o pu chase a mobile de ice
(Oksman & Rau iainen, 2002). Addi ionally, i is common o pa en s o pe cei e hei
daugh e s as being a g ea e isk han hei sons, leading o mo e es ic i e measu es o
gi ls (Mo awska, 2020).
In he illages s udied, child en ypically s a walking alone a ound he age o 9–
10 yea s, making i unde s andable ha pa en s o child en his age a e pa icula ly
conce ned. Towns and ci ies mus c ea e sa e spaces whe e child en can socialize unde
communi y p o ec ion, as has been accomplished in o he con ex s, such as au onomous
commu ing o school (Idoiaga e al., 2024). Communi ies can suppo pa en s by sha ing
knowledge abou he di e en ypes o digi al de ices and hei po en ial uses depending
on child en’s needs and de elopmen al s ages.
The hi d main eason o gi ing child en a sma phone was pa en al con ol, pa -
icula ly he abili y o ack hei child en’s exac loca ion ia GPS. The need o pa en al
con ol has inc eased in ecen yea s, and a ious applica ions ha e been de eloped o
mee his demand (S ewa e al., 2022). F om he pe spec i e o educa ional psychology,
which emphasizes concep s such as sca olding, i is impo an o pa en s o g adually
g an hei child en mo e au onomy (McCu dy e al., 2020). Howe e , beyond being a ool
o supe ision, sma phones also play a undamen al ole in shaping pa en -child e-
la ionships. Fo some pa en s, p o iding a sma phone signifies an e o o balance
g an ing au onomy wi h ensu ing secu i y, ein o cing us be ween hem and hei
child en (Ak e e al., 2022). In his sense, digi al de ices a e no me ely ools o con ol
bu also mediums ha acili a e open communica ion, allowing child en o eel suppo ed
while p og essi ely gaining independence and pa en al con ol ools can suppo his
p ocess when combined wi h p ope aining on sma phone use (S ewa e al., 2022).
The e o e, i is essen ial o equip pa en s wi h he knowledge and ools o guide hei
child en owa d digi al au onomy (Badillo-U quiola e al., 2020).
Beyond hese easons, his s udy also examined he age a which pa en s and child en
belie e i would be app op ia e o gi e a child a sma phone. The findings e ealed a
nea ly wo-yea gap be ween he a e age age p oposed by child en (M = 12.73) and ha
p oposed by pa en s (M = 14.42). While hese ages a e ela i ely close, hey a e c ucial in
a child’s de elopmen , pa icula ly du ing ea ly adolescence when pe sonal iden i y and
socializa ion a e key (Van Dijk e al., 2020). The scien ific communi y should ocus on
2944 Jou nal o Social and Pe sonal Rela ionships 42(10)
de eloping guidance and educa ional esou ces a he han p esc ibing a single ec-
ommended age o sma phone owne ship. Gi en he significan a iabili y in influencing
ac o s—including u ban e sus u al en i onmen s, gende no ms, pee g oup dynamics,
and b oade sociocul u al con ex s—a igid, uni e sal ecommenda ion may no be
easible o app op ia e. Ins ead, con ex -sensi i e guidelines could help pa en s and
educa o s make mo e in o med decisions based on hei specific ci cums ances. These
guidelines could be complemen ed by aining p og ams o educa o s and pa en s,
equipping hem wi h he necessa y knowledge o assess he eadiness o child en o
sma phone use and o implemen s a egies ha balance oppo uni ies and isks. No ably,
no significan di e ences we e ound in he dependen a iables, excep o school yea in
he case o child en, whe e olde child en ended o belie e ha sma phones should be
gi en a a younge age.
The findings o his s udy highligh he p o ound impac o amilial ela ionships on
pa en al decisions o p o ide sma phones o hei child en, emphasizing ha hese
choices a e inhe en ly ela ional a he han pu ely unc ional. By aming mo i a ions
such as ensu ing sa e y, main aining communica ion, and os e ing inclusion wi hin pee
g oups as exp essions o ca e and connec ion, he s udy demons a es ha echnology ac s
as a medium o ein o ce pa en -child bonds. Fo ins ance, p o iding a sma phone o en
signifies a pa en ’s e o o balance g an ing au onomy wi h ensu ing secu i y, os e ing
us , and enabling open communica ion (Ak e e al., 2022). These decisions eflec no
only pa en s’p ac ical conce ns bu also hei ela ional p io i ies, unde sco ing he ole o
digi al ools in na iga ing mode n amilial dynamics. By inco po a ing his ela ional
pe spec i e, he s udy con ibu es o unde s anding how echnology use eshapes a-
di ional pa en ing oles and s eng hens he ela ional ab ic o amilies in an inc easingly
connec ed wo ld.
In conclusion, his esea ch o e s aluable insigh s in o he ongoing deba e abou
when child en should be gi en a sma phone o hei own (Ri che e al., 2022). These
findings highligh he ela ional na u e o pa en s’decisions a ound sma phone own-
e ship, influenced by sa e y conce ns, pee dynamics, and local con ex s. Ra he han
p omo ing igid age-based guidelines, i is essen ial o suppo amilies wi h cul u ally
esponsi e esou ces and open dialogues ha help hem eflec on hei child en’s needs,
amily alues, and local eali ies. Ini ia i es ha acili a e collabo a i e discussions
among pa en s, educa o s, and communi ies can empowe amilies o make in o med
decisions while espec ing di e se pa en ing app oaches. Child en’s access o sma -
phones has significan implica ions o hei well-being (Dy ek e al., 2024;Sun e al.,
2023;Va e laus e al., 2021), and his decision mus be seen no jus as an indi idual one
bu as a collec i e esponsibili y, wi h communi ies playing a key ole in sa egua ding
child en’s wellbeing.
Limi a ions
This s udy was conduc ed in a specific geog aphic a ea, p o iding a localized snapsho o
he phenomenon unde in es iga ion. As a quali a i e s udy, he findings a e no in ended
o be gene alized bu a he o p o ide deep insigh s in o pa en ing expe iences wi hin a
Lego bu u Fe nandez e al. 2945
defined cul u al and social con ex . Consequen ly, he findings a e influenced by he
pa icula cha ac e is ics o his cul u al and social con ex . To enhance he gene aliz-
abili y o he esul s, i would be necessa y o eplica e he s udy in o he egions. Fo
ins ance, i would be aluable o examine whe he simila ou comes a e obse ed in la ge
u ban se ings.
Fu he mo e, while his esea ch ga he ed da a om mul iple pe spec i es, u u e
s udies could benefi om expanding he ange o iewpoin s included. Fo example,
inco po a ing inpu om eache s could p o ide addi ional aluable insigh s and u he
en ich he analysis.
Las ly, employing al e na i e me hodological app oaches in u u e in es iga ions
could enhance he dep h and b ead h o he findings. Techniques ha yield ei he mo e
de ailed da a o di e en ypes o in o ma ion would con ibu e o he o e all quali y and
obus ness o subsequen esea ch e o s.
Decla a ion o conflic ing in e es s
The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial conflic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/
o publica ion o his a icle.
Funding
The au ho (s) disclosed eceip o he ollowing financial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o
publica ion o his a icle: This was suppo ed by KideOn esea ch g oup.
Open science s a emen
As pa o IARR’s encou agemen o open esea ch p ac ices, he au ho s ha e p o ided he
ollowing in o ma ion: This esea ch was no p e- egis e ed. The da a used in he esea ch a e
a ailable. The da a can be ob ained by emailing: [email p o ec ed]. The ma e ials used in he
esea ch a e a ailable. The ma e ials can be ob ained by emailing: [email p o ec ed].
ORCID iD
Nahia Idoiaga-Mond agon h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-0345-8570
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