Recei ed: 9 June 2021
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Re ised: 25 Janua y 2023
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Accep ed: 12 Feb ua y 2023
DOI: 10.1002/ab.22078
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Fa he ing and child en's ela ional agg ession: Mode a ing
e ec s o child en's empe amen and gende
Rosa io Ca e as
1
|Alba Ma ín
1
|Rosa Ruiz‐O iz
1
|
Eide Pascual‐Sagas izábal
2
|No a del Pue o‐Golza i
2
|Ai zibe Azu mendi
2
|
Paloma B aza
1
|José M. Muñoz
1
1
Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o
Cadiz, Pue o Real, Cadiz, Spain
2
Depa men o Basic Psychological P ocesses
and Thei De elopmen , Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y, San Sebas ian, Spain
Co espondence
José M. Muñoz, Depa men o Psychology,
Uni e si y o Cadiz. A da. República Saha aui
s/n, 11519 Pue o Real, Cadiz, Spain.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Funding in o ma ion
Sec e a ía de Es ado de In es igación,
Desa ollo e Inno ación,
G an /Awa d Numbe : PSI2016‐75462‐P
Abs ac
In his explo a o y s udy, we analyzed he con ibu ion o a he ing o ela ional
agg ession (RA) in middle childhood and he mode a ing ole o child en's
empe amen and gende . Pa icipan s (N= 234; 46% gi ls) we e a ending public
elemen a y school (mean age = 8.15; SD = 1.23) in middle‐class neighbo hoods in
wo Spanish ci ies. Fa he s p o ided in o ma ion abou hei pa en ing p ac ices
using he Pa en ing S yles and Dimensions Ques ionnai e, pa en s ga e da a on
hei child's empe amen using he Tempe amen in Middle Childhood Ques ion-
nai e and child en p o ided in o ma ion abou hei pee s’agg essi e beha io
using he Mini Di ec Indi ec Agg ession In en o y. Fa he ing dimensions
conside ed we e Au ho i a i e Cold, Au ho i a i e Wa m, Physical Punishmen ,
and Insecu i y; empe amen dimensions conside ed we e nega i e a ec (NA),
e o ul con ol (EC), ac i i y (AC), and shyness (SH). Gende , a he ing, and
empe amen dimensions addi i ely accoun ed o a signi ican p opo ion o he
a iance obse ed in RA. Se e al signi ican in e ac ions sugges ed ha he e ec
o a he ing on RA was mode a ed by empe amen and, in some cases, by
child en's gende . NA inc eased he po en ial isk o Au ho i a i e Cold a he ing
(CF) and, in boys only, o Insecu e a he ing, while EC po en ia ed he p o ec i e
e ec o Au ho i a i e‐Wa m a he ing and, in boys only, bu e ed he isk e ec
o CF. SH bu e ed he isk e ec o CF and dec eased he p o ec i e e ec o
Au ho i a i e Wa m a he ing on RA. Las ly, AC also bu e ed he isk e ec o CF
on RA. Resul s a e discussed in ligh o he p o ec i e o he ulne abili y ole o
empe amen and in ela ion o models ha explain sensi i i y di e ences o
en i onmen al con ex s.
KEYWORDS
a he ing, gende di e ences, middle childhood, ela ional agg ession, empe amen
Agg essi e Beha io . 2023;49:359–370. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/ab
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1|INTRODUCTION
Du ing he las decades esea che s ha e inc easingly suppo ed he
alidi y o ela ional agg ession (RA) as a sub ype o agg ession wi h
consis en and nega i e ou comes including ex e nalizing and
in e nalizing adjus men p oblems (Tacke e al., 2014). RA is
cha ac e ized by beha io ha damage social ela ionships; i is used
o manipula e o he s wi hin a social con ex , such as sp eading
malicious umo s, pee exclusion, and h ea ening o end a social
ela ionship (C ick & G o pe e , 1995). RA de elops om o e and
di ec o ms in ea ly childhood, o mo e indi ec ways in middle
childhood due o he inc eases in cogni i e abili ies ela ed o his
ype o agg ession and he complexi y o he de eloping social
con ex a his s age (Casas & Bowe , 2018). Thus, middle childhood
ep esen s a c i ical pe iod o examining he mani es a ion o RA.
Rega ding gende di e ences in RA du ing middle childhood, indings
a e mixed and ambiguous. So, when examining he p opo ion o RA,
esea ch shows ha gi ls use his o m o agg ession mo e han boys
(e.g., Cô é, 2007; Vaillancou , 2013). Howe e , when compa ing
mean le els o RA, some s udies ha e ound ha boys exceed gi ls in
RA (e.g., Hening on e al., 1998) bu some me a‐analysis (Ca d
e al., 2008; Schei haue e al., 2008) consis en ly show ha gi ls use
his o m o agg ession mo e han boys, al hough hese di e ences
a e signi ican bu i ial and spa se. We sugges ha u he analyses
a e necessa y o de e mine whe he said di e ences, when ound,
depend on an unde laying mode a o e ec . To gain a comp ehensi e
unde s anding o he de elopmen o RA, some au ho s ha e
unde sco ed he need o s udy con ex ual and indi idual an eceden s
(Aimé e al., 2018).
F om a de elopmen al‐ecological amewo k, in e ac ions
be ween con ex ual ac o s and indi idual cha ac e is ics ha e been
implica ed in he de elopmen and main enance o childhood
agg ession (Be g‐Nielsen e al., 2002). The idea ha pa en s play a
ole in de e mining hei child en's beha io is no new ( o a e iew
see Maccoby & Ma in, 1983). Since Baum ind (1966,1971) no ed
ha pa en ing s yles we e di e en ially associa ed wi h a ious child
beha io , he e has been conside able empi ical e idence demon-
s a ing ha pa en ing is an impo an p edic o o he occu ence
and main enance o child agg ession. Fo example, ha sh pa en ing is
concu en ly associa ed wi h highe le els o agg ession in child en,
and pa en ing which includes emo ional wa m h and esponsi eness
is linked o low le els o agg ession (see me a‐analyses by
Pinqua , 2017,2021). Howe e , child en may be di e en ly a ec ed
due o indi idual cha ac e is ics such as empe amen o gende . In
he esea ch li e a u e on indi idual ac o s ha mode a e he impac
o pa en ing on child de elopmen , he e a e wo dominan models
explaining di e ences o en i onmen al in luences. The adi ional
dia hesis‐s ess amewo k (Mon oe & Simons, 1991; Zucke man,
1999), sugges s ha some indi iduals possess cha ac e is ics ha
make hem mo e ulne able o en i onmen al s esso s. The
di e en ial suscep ibili y model, g ounded in e olu iona y heo ies,
sugges s ha indi iduals who a e mos ulne able o en i onmen al
s esso s may also be he ones who bene i mos om en i onmen al
suppo (Belsky & Pluess, 2009). A ecen me a‐analysis (Slag , Dubas,
e al., 2016), showed ha many s udies ha had ound e idence o
he di e en ial suscep ibili y model, poin ed ou o child empe a-
men as a po en ial suscep ibili y ma ke . F om his heo e ical
pe spec i e, we aimed o explo e he mode a ing ole o child's
empe amen and gende on he e ec s o a he 's pa en ing on
childhood RA.
Mos s udies on he ole o pa en ing beha io in he de elop-
men o agg ession a e based on he supposi ion o he social lea ning
heo y (Bandu a, 1973) whe eby pa en ing s yles and p ac ices
in luence child en's social beha io ia modeling. Bo h, he pa en ing
dimensional app oach, ocusing on indi idual dimensions o pa en al
beha io , such as esponsi eness (wa m h) and demandingness
(con ol), and he pa en ing ca ego ical app oach, ha ca ego izes
pa en s, acco ding o a combina ion o pa en ing dimensions, in o
pa en ing s yles (Baum ind, 1966; Maccoby & Ma in, 1983) can be
conside ed complemen a y and ha e gi en ise o s udies ha
s ongly suppo he ela ion be ween pa en ing and childhood
agg ession. Se e al longi udinal s udies ha e obse ed ha ad e se
o nega i e pa en ing, cha ac e ized by hos ili y, coe cion, and
co po al punishmen (CP) is posi i ely associa ed wi h child en's
agg ession. Con e sely, posi i e pa en ing, cha ac e ized by sensi i -
i y and esponsi i y, ends o educe his ype o beha io
(Pinqua , 2017). Recen me a‐analy ic e iews show ha pa en ing
is consis en ly, ye modes ly, associa ed wi h child en's RA (Nelson &
Ha d, 2018). Kawaba a e al. (2011) ound small associa ions
be ween ha sh con ol and psychological con ol wi h RA. Somewha
la ge associa ions o psychological con ol wi h RA we e iden i ied in
he me a‐analysis by Kuppens e al. (2013).
Al hough mos pa en ing esea ch has ocused on mo he s, he
a ailable e idence con i ms he impo ance o a he s in child en's
de elopmen (Volling e al., 2019) and he e is no dispu e ha he
s udy o a he ing is essen ial o ou unde s anding o pa en ing
in luences. Al hough he e a e mo e simila i ies han di e ences
be ween mo he s and a he s, and posi i e pa en ing cha ac e is ics
a e simila o bo h, mo he s and a he s do end o ha e di e en
in e ac ional s yles, wi h a he s being mo e play ul and mo he s mo e
nu u ing (Wilson & P io , 2011). Mo eo e , e idence sugges ha
mo he s and a he s espond di e en ly o hei sons and daugh e s
(Chaplin e al., 2005). Al hough hey a e no e y nume ous, some
esea che s ha e ound ha bo h posi i e and nega i e pa en ing we e
associa ed wi h child en's RA. Ma e nal a ec and pa en al espon-
si eness we e associa ed wi h less RA in p eschoole s (B own
e al., 2007;Ha e al.,1998). Also, among p eschoole s, a e si e
pa en ing has been ound o be posi i ely co ela ed wi h RA (Ha
e al., 1998; Nelson e al., 2006) and wi h an inc easing ajec o y o
RA om ages 2–10 (Vaillancou e al., 2007). This associa ion
be ween pa en ing and RA may a y by he sex o he pa en (Nelson
& C ick, 2002; Unde wood e al., 2008); howe e , in a me a‐analysis,
Kawaba a e al. (2011) poin ed ou ha mos s udies ha e examined
his associa ion only among mo he s. In his me a‐analysis, mo e
posi i e a he ing was associa ed wi h less RA, and psychologically
con olling a he ing was associa ed wi h inc eased RA.
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CARRERAS ET AL.
10982337, 2023, 4, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ab.22078 by Uni e sidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Lib a y on [28/06/2023]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
In con empo a y concep ualiza ions, s uc u e o empe amen
has been cons ued as comp ising h ee domains: e o ul con ol
(EC), NA, and su gency (Shine e al., 2012). EC e e s o he child's
abili y o o ganize a en ion and egula e emo ions and beha io in
acco dance wi h immedia e and long‐ e m goals. NA is cha ac e ized
by emo ions such as ea , ange , sadness, and shame. Su gency
e lec s child en's desi e o engage wi h o he s, hei sociabili y,
ac i i y (AC) le el, and he pleasu e hey de i e om high‐in ensi y
ac i i ies. Al hough negligible gende di e ences ha e been ound in
ela ion o NA, EC is posi i ely associa ed wi h being emale and boys
end o be mo e su gen han gi ls (Else‐Ques e al., 2012). These
empe amen al ai s, ha may p edispose a child o beha io al
p oblems by i sel (Wi ing & Rod iguez, 2019), may also play a
mode a ing ole in he ela ion be ween pa en ing and he child's
de elopmen al ou comes (see Slag , Dubas, e al., 2016 o a e iew).
Se e al s udies ha e showed mode a ing e ec s o empe amen in
he ela ion o pa en ing and childhood RA. Blossom e al. (2016)
ound ha au ho i a ian pa en s con ibu e o inc eased ela ional
and dec eased physical agg ession among emo ionally well‐ egula ed
(high EC) child en, wi h he opposi e pa e n being obse ed among
emo ionally dys egula ed child en (low EC). Smack e al. (2015) also
ound ha inconsis en discipline was mode a ed in i s associa ion
wi h RA when bo h adolescen ex a e sion and openness (poo sel ‐
egula o y con ol) we e low. Because a he ing may ha e di e en
e ec s on RA han mo he ing (see Nelson & C ick, 2002; Yang
e al., 2004), he cu en s udy adds o he li e a u e by examining he
in luence o a he s. Al hough we ha e no ound any s udies ha
ha e speci ically explo ed he in e ac ion be ween a he ing and
child en's empe amen on RA, some esea che s ha e s udied hese
e ec s in ela ion o beha io al p oblems. Fo example, Rabinowi z
e al. (2016) ound ha a he 's posi i e pa en ing in e ac ed wi h
child lexibili y (EC) o p edic a he ‐ epo ed in e nalizing and
ex e nalizing p oblems. Child en wi h lowe le els o lexibili y
expe ienced g ea e in e nalizing and ex e nalizing p oblems han
hei mo e lexible coun e pa s in con ex s wi h less posi i e
pa en ing. Howe e , among hose wi h highe lexibili y, symp om
le els we e simila ega dless o he deg ee o posi i e pa e nal
pa en ing. Ramchandani e al. (2010) ound ha gi ls wi h eac i e
empe amen s, compa ed o less eac i e gi ls, we e mo e suscep ible
o a he 's in ol emen , engaging in signi ican ly ewe ype o
p oblem beha io and mo e p osocial beha io when a he s we e
mo e in ol ed, and mo e p oblem beha io and less p osocial
beha io when a he s we e colde (less wa m h); howe e , boys
showed no e idence o di e en ial suscep ibili y by eac i e
empe amen .
1.1 |The p esen s udy
In his explo a o y s udy, we examined he con ibu ion o a he ing
o RA and he mode a ing ole o empe amen and gende . We
adminis e ed bo h a pa en ing p ac ice and a childhood empe amen
ques ionnai e and applied a p incipal componen analysis ob aining
ou dimensions o a he ing (Au ho i a i e Cold, Au ho i a i e
Wa m, Physical Punishmen , and Insecu i y [IN]) and ou dimensions
o empe amen (NA, EC, AC, and Shyness [SH]). Based on p e ious
li e a u e, we examined i he well‐known e ec s o nega i e and
posi i e pa en ing on agg ession, we e also ound wi h espec o he
e ec o a he ing on RA. Rega ding empe amen , we expec ed o
ind empe amen al ai s ha exace ba ed o bu e ed he e ec o
a he ing s a egies on child en's RA. We p oposed wo hypo heses:
(1) Physical punishmen and IN would be isk ac o s and au ho i a-
i e wa m a he ing would be a p o ec i e ac o o child en's RA
and (2) NA would exace ba e he isk e ec o nega i e a he ing on
child en's RA, while EC would bu e his isk. No hypo hesis was
made abou he e ec s o au ho i a i e cold a he ing (CF) on RA no
he mode a ing ole o su gency in his ela ion. We also expec ed o
ind gende di e ences in he e ec o a he ing dimensions on RA
and on he mode a ion ole o he empe amen dimensions, due o
di e ences in baseline empe amen and agg ession le els among
boys and gi ls, as well as he use o di e en a he ing p ac ices in
acco dance wi h child en's gende .
2|METHOD
2.1 |Pa icipan s
Pa icipan s we e 279 child en ec ui ed om 12 hi d‐g ade
class ooms in eigh elemen a y schools in wo Spanish ci ies.
Comple e da a we e a ailable o 234 child en (46% gi ls) wi h a
mean age o 8.15 yea s (SD = 1.23). O he inal sample, 18% we e
only child en and 12% had mo e han wo siblings. Finally, pa en s
had medium income le els and mos o hem (66%) had pos ‐school
quali ica ions.
2.2 |P ocedu e
Pa icipan s we e a ending public elemen a y school in middle‐class
neighbo hoods (we excluded p i a e schools) in wo Spanish ci ies.
The 12 schools in hese ci ies we e asked o pa icipa e and eigh
inally accep ed. Pa en s and eache s om hi d‐g ade cou ses o
hese schools we e in o med o he esea ch aims in a mee ing.
Anonymi y and con iden iali y p ocedu es we e explained in he
w i en consen o m app o ed by Commission on E hics in Resea ch
and Teaching a he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y. A he
beginning o he academic yea , a he s p o ided in o ma ion abou
hei pa en ing p ac ices using he Pa en ing S yles and Dimensions
Ques ionnai e (Robinson e al., 2001) and pa en s ga e da a on hei
child's empe amen using he Tempe amen in Middle Childhood
Ques ionnai e (Simonds & Ro hba , 2004). Child en p o ided
in o ma ion abou hei pee s' agg essi e beha io using a
pee es ima ion e sion o he Mini Di ec Indi ec Agg ession
In en o y (Mini‐DIA; Ös e man, 2010), du ing he las mon h o he
academic yea .
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10982337, 2023, 4, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ab.22078 by Uni e sidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Lib a y on [28/06/2023]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
2.3 |Measu es
2.3.1 |Family demog aphic su ey
Pa en s comple ed a sho sociodemog aphic su ey designed o
ga he in o ma ion abou he age o he child, numbe o siblings, and
pa en s' educa ion le el.
2.3.2 |Fa he ing
Fa he s' pa en ing p ac ices we e assessed using he Pa en ing S yles and
Dimensions Ques ionnai e (PSDQ; Robinson e al., 2001). This measu e
yields a sepa a e and con inuous sco e o se e al dimensions o
pa en ing, wi h 62 i ems a ed on a Like ‐ ype scale anging om 1
“ne e ” o 4 “always.”Reliabili y analysis o he o iginal subscales was low
anging om 0.2 o 0.8 wi h mos o hem (8 ou o 11) below 0.6 and so,
a P incipal Componen Analysis (PCA) using a a imax (o hogonal)
o a ion was pe o med on he i ems wi h loadings ≥0.50 o p oduce he
mos eliable ac o s uc u e. A ou ‐ ac o solu ion o he PSDQ
eme ged wi h a good ma ices indica o (K‐M‐O = 0.86; Ba le 's
sphe ici y x
2
[d = 190] = 1259.25, p< .001), accoun ing o 50.64% o
he o al a iance. Fac o 1 was de ined as CF and included explana o y,
pa icipa o y, and su e a he s, bu did no imply a ec ion (e.g., I gi e ou
child easons why ules should be obeyed, I alk i o e and eason wi h
ou child when he child misbeha es). Fac o 2 was e med Au ho i a i e‐
Wa m Fa he ing (WF)and e e ed o a he s who a e wa m and o en
show hei a ec ion o hei child en (e.g., I exp ess a ec ion by hugging,
kissing, and holding ou child, I ha e wa m and in ima e imes oge he
wi h ou child). Gi en ha hese dimensions a e wo o hose ha make
up he au ho i a i e s yle, and ha in ou PCA hese ac o s we e
independen , we named hem by highligh ing ei he easoning o a ec
dimensions o he au ho i a i e s yle. CP (Fac o 3) included i ems
e lec ing a he s' use o physical punishmen wi h hei child en (e.g., I
g ab ou child when he child is being disobedien ; I use physical
punishmen as a way o disciplining ou child). IN (Fac o 4) was ela ed o
a he s who a e inconsis en , unclea , o con adic o y in e ms o ules o
h ea s owa d hei child en and who demons a e a lack o sel ‐
con idence (e.g., I am a aid ha disciplining ou child o misbeha io will
cause he child o no like his/he pa en s, I h ea en ou child wi h
punishmen mo e o en han ac ually gi ing i ). C onbach's α o he
a he ing ac o s we e .82, .76, .68, and .60, espec i ely.
2.3.3 |Tempe amen
Tempe amen was assessed using he Tempe amen in Middle Childhood
Ques ionnai e (TMCQ; Simonds & Ro hba , 2004). Pa en s join ly a ed
he 157 i ems on a 7‐poin Like ‐ ype scale anging om 1 (ex emely
un ue) o 7 (ex emely ue). The 157 i ems a e g ouped in o 17 scales.
Howe e , due o some au ho s (e.g., Ko elniko a e al., 2016)hadshown
ha he highe ‐o de s uc u e o empe amen in middle childhood did
no bea esemblance o he ou ‐ ac o s uc u e posi ed by Simonds and
Ro hba (2004), a P incipal Componen Analysis (PCA) using a a imax
(o hogonal) o a ion was pe o med on hese 17 scales, wi h loadings
≥0.40, o ob ain a eliable ac o s uc u e. The esul s o he PCA yielded
a ou ‐ ac o solu ion wi h a good ma ices indica o (K‐M‐O=0.76;
Ba le 's sphe ici y x
2
[d = 136] = 1542.11, p< .001), accoun ing o
60.1% o he o al a iance. Fac o 1 was de ined as NA and included he
Soo habili y/Falling Reac i i y ( e e sed), Sadness, Ange /F us a ion,
Discom o , Ac i a ion con ol ( e e sed), A en ional Focus ( e e sed),
and Impulsi i y scales. Fac o 2 was e med EC and encompassed he
Low‐In ensi y Pleasu e, Fan asy/Openness, Pe cep ual Sensi i i y, Inhibi-
o y Con ol, and A ilia ion scales. Fac o 3 was AC, comp ising he AC
Le el and High‐In ensi y Pleasu e scales. Finally, Fac o 4 was called SH
andencompassed heSH,Fea andAsse i eness/Dominance ( e e sed)
scales. C onbach's α o he empe amen ac o s we e .92, .85, .87, and
.79, espec i ely.
2.3.4 |RA
This o m o child agg ession was measu ed using a pee ‐es ima ion
e sion o he Mini Di ec Indi ec Agg ession In en o y (Mini‐DIA;
Ös e man, 2010), a sho e e sion o he Di ec & Indi ec
Agg ession Scales (DIAS; Bjö kq is e al., 1992). Se e al di e en
esea ch s udies endo se his es as a sui able ins umen o
measu ing agg essi e beha io in child en om a young age
(Bjö kq is e al., 2001; Valles & Knu son, 2008). The Spanish e sion
o he scale was de eloped by he au ho s hemsel es. The Mini‐DIA
comp ises six i ems in which each child is asked o a e each o hei
classma es on a Like scale o beha io in ela ion o physical
agg ession ( wo i ems), e bal agg ession ( wo i ems), and indi ec
agg ession ( wo i ems). To assess child en's agg ession, a s uc u ed
in e iew was used. Pa icipan s we e asked how o en‐on a scale o
0 (ne e ) o 4 ( e y o en)‐each o hei pee s had engaged in physical
(e.g., hi ing, kicking), e bal (e.g., yelling, name‐calling), o indi ec
(e.g., alking behind someone's back) agg ession. The e alua o i s
explained in de ail and wi h examples he di e ences be ween he
h ee ypes o agg ession and hen asked he child en, allowing
su icien ime o all h ee o be answe ed. Fo he pu poses o his
esea ch only he sco es ob ained o indi ec agg ession we e used
and ans o med o ensu e no mal dis ibu ion.
2.4 |S a is ical analysis
All s a is ical analyses we e ca ied ou using IBM SPSS S a is ics
so wa e e sion 21. To analyze gende di e ences in ela ion o he
di e en a iables, a one‐way analysis o a iance was conduc ed.
The associa ions be ween he di e en a iables included in he
s udy we e explo ed using he Pea son co ela ion coe icien . To
de e mine he addi i e and in e ac i e ela ions be ween a he ing
and child en's empe amen and RA, hie a chical eg ession analyses
we e conduc ed wi h child en's RA being ea ed as c i e ion a iable.
Acco ding o he a iance in la ion ac o s, mul icollinea i y was no a
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p oblem. In each model, child en's gende was en e ed in he i s
s ep, ollowed in he second s ep by he main e ec s o he ou
a he ing ac o s (CF, WF, CP, and IN). In he hi d s ep, we en e ed
he main e ec s o he empe amen ac o s (NA, EC, AC, and SH).
The wo‐way a he ing × empe amen in e ac ions we e en e ed
in he ou h s ep, and he wo‐way ( a he ing × gende and
empe amen × gende ), and h ee‐way ( a he ing × empe amen ×
gende ) in e ac ions we e en e ed in he i h s ep. We examined he
wo‐way and h ee‐way in e ac ions when F a io >1.0 and p< .25 o
hem. Acco ding o Belsky and Widaman (2018), he magni ude o
he F a io o he in e ac ion can p o ide e idence ha he model
es ing app oach is easible, wi h an F a io >1.0 being a much be e
c i e ion o mo ing o es he in e ac ions han equi ing ha he
in e ac ion be signi ican a p< .05.
To p obe he in e ac i e e ec s ha me his c i e ion, we applied
Aiken e al. (1991) p ocedu e. Rega ding he wo‐way a he ing ×
empe amen in e ac ions, simple slopes o a he ing in he p edic ion
o child en's RA we e calcula ed and p esen ed using s anda dized
sco es sepa a ely o child en who sco ed ei he low (–1SD),medium
o high (+1 SD) o he empe amen ac o s. The wo‐way and h ee‐
way gende in e ac ions we e p obed using he echniques ou lined in
Wes e al. (1996). Hie a chical eg ession analyses we e un wice o
es hese in e ac ions. Fi s , gende was ecoded as boys = 0, gi ls = 1.
The eg ession coe icien s ha esul ed om his eg ession e lec ed
he e ec s o boys. Second, gende was ecoded as gi ls = 0, boys = 1,
wi h he esul ing eg ession coe icien s showing he e ec s o gi ls.
This p ocedu e was used and ecommended p e iously by o he
esea che s because he eg ession coe icien s anda d e o es i-
ma es a e unbiased (e.g., Lengua, 2008). A pos hoc powe analysis was
conduc ed u ilizing G*Powe (Faul e al., 2007). Wi h an αle el o .05,
a sample size o 234, and a medium e ec size o .12 (Cohen 1992),
he achie ed powe o he s udy was .994, .932, and .857 (models 2, 4
and 5, espec i ely).
3|RESULTS
3.1 |Desc ip i e s a is ics
The means and s anda d de ia ions o he a iables a e p esen ed in
Table 1sepa a ely o boys and gi ls. Gi ls sco ed highe han boys o
WF and lowe o CP. Gi ls also sco ed highe han boys o he
empe amen dimensions NA and EC and lowe o AC. Finally, boys
sco ed highe han gi ls o RA.
3.2 |Co ela ions be ween a he ing,
empe amen , and child en's RA
Table 2summa izes he co ela ions among he a iables. Only
among boys, CF and IN was posi i ely associa ed wi h RA. Mo eo e ,
among boys bu no gi ls, NA and AC we e posi i ely associa ed wi h
RA; and CF and IN we e posi i ely linked o AC. Among gi ls, EC was
nega i ely associa ed, and AC posi i ely associa ed wi h RA; and
inally, WF was posi i ely associa ed wi h EC. In boys and gi ls, CP
and IN we e posi i ely associa ed wi h NA.
3.3 |Fa he ing and RA: The mode a ing oles o
empe amen and gende
Following Lengua (2008), he e ec s o a he ing and he mode a ing
e ec s o empe amen we e in eg a ed wi h gende in e ac ions,
and when mode a ion by gende was obse ed, he e ec s o boys
and gi ls a e p esen ed sepa a ely in pa en heses (Table 3).
The se o a he ing ac o s explained a signi ican deg ee o he
a iance obse ed. CF and CP posi i ely p edic ed RA. The e ec o
he IN × gende on RA sugges ed a mode a ion by gende (F= 4.95,
p= .03), wi h he posi i e associa ions obse ed be ween IN and RA
being signi ican only o boys.
The se o a he ing × empe amen in e ac ions added a
nonsigni ican p opo ion o a iance o RA (ΔR
2
= 0.07, p= .64).
Howe e , se e al double and iple in e ac ions be ween a he ing,
empe amen dimensions and child en's gende we e ound o be
signi ican and/o candida es o be es ed.
3.3.1 |CF × empe amen
Two‐way CF × NA in e ac i e e ec s sugges ed a possible mode a-
ion by NA o he associa ions be ween CF and RA (F= 1.37, p= .24).
TABLE 1 Means and s anda d de ia ions o he a iables,
by sex.
Boys Gi ls
Va iables MSD MSD F es
Fa he ing p ac ices
Au ho i a i e‐
cold (CF)
0.056 0.982 −0.070 1.022 0.919
Au ho i a i e‐
wa m (WF)
−0.121 1.049 0.151 0.918 4.337*
Co po al
punishmen (CP)
0.203 1.133 −0.253 0.734 12.601**
Insecu i y (IN) −0.028 0.979 0.035 1.029 0.235
Tempe amen
Nega i e a ec (NA) −0.125 1.014 0.149 0.967 4.667*
E o ul con ol (EC) −0.197 1.049 0.233 0.888 11.821**
Ac i i y (AC) 0.124 0.996 −0.147 0.986 4.566*
Shyness (SH) −0.017 1.008 0.020 0.995 0.086
Rela ional
agg ession (RA)
0.647 0.602 0.471 0.412 11.256**
*p≤.05; **p≤.01.
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Thus, he associa ion be ween CF and RA was only signi ican o
child en wi h medium and high le els o NA (Figu e 1). The F a io o
he wo‐way CF × EC and he h ee‐way CF × EC × gende in e ac-
ions (F= 2.22, p= .14; F= 1.53, p= .22, espec i ely) sugges ed ha
he associa ion be ween CF and RA may be mode a ed by EC and
Gende . Only among boys, he F a io o CF × EC in e ac ion on RA
(F= 2.79; p= .09) sugges ed ha he associa ion be ween CF and
RA may be mode a ed by EC. Speci ically, he posi i e e ec o CF on
RA was only signi ican o boys wi h low le els o EC (Figu e 2). The
F a io o he wo‐way CF × AC (F= 3.21; p= .07) sugges ed ha he
associa ion be ween CF and RA may be mode a ed by AC. Fo
child en wi h low o medium le els o AC, CF p edic ed high le els o
RA (Figu e 3). Finally, he F a io o he wo‐way CF × SH in e ac ion
sugges ed a possible mode a ion by SH on RA (F= 3.37, p= .07).
Thus, o child en wi h low o medium le els o SH, CF p edic ed high
le els o RA (Figu e 4).
3.3.2 |WF × empe amen
WF signi ican ly in e ac ed wi h EC o p edic RA, al hough his
e ec was only signi ican in he g oup o child en wi h high EC
(Figu e 5). The wo‐way WF × SH in e ac ion sugges ed a possible
mode a ion by SH o he associa ion be ween WF and RA (F= 1.98,
p= .16). Thus, among child en wi h low le els o SH, WF nega i ely
p edic ed RA (Figu e 6).
3.3.3 |IN × empe amen
The e ec o he wo‐way in e ac ion be ween IN and all empe a-
men a iables on RA was no signi ican . Howe e , he F a io o he
h ee‐way IN × NA × gende in e ac ion sugges ed ha he pa h om
IN × NA o RA may be mode a ed by gende (F= 3.50, p= .06). Fo
boys only, he F a io o IN × NA in e ac ion on RA (F= 3.17; p= .08)
sugges ed ha he associa ion be ween IN and RA may be
mode a ed by NA; speci ically, IN p edic ed highe le els o RA
among boys wi h medium and high le els o NA (Figu e 7).
4|DISCUSSION
We aimed o explo e he e ec s o a he ing on RA in middle
childhood, as well as he mode a ing ole o child en's empe amen
and gende in hese ela ions. The esul s e ealed ha gende ,
a he ing, and empe amen dimensions addi i ely accoun ed o a
signi ican p opo ion o he a iance obse ed in RA. Mo eo e ,
se e al signi ican in e ac ions sugges ha he e ec o a he ing on
RA is mode a ed by empe amen and, in some cases, also by
child en's gende . Fo example, NA exace ba ed he po en ial isk o
IN o RA among boys. The isk e ec o CF on RA was also
exace ba ed by NA in all child en, and only o boys, was mi iga ed by
EC. The p o ec i e e ec o WF on RA was po en ia ed by EC in all
child en. SH bu e ed he isk e ec o CF and dec eased he
p o ec i e e ec o WF on RA. Las ly, AC also bu e s he isk e ec
o CF on RA.
Be o e discussing hese indings, i is in e es ing o no e ha ou
esul s also e ealed some di e ences in he pa en ing s a egies
used by a he s wi h hei sons and daugh e s. Fa he s we e wa me
and mo e a ec iona e wi h hei daugh e s and used CP mo e wi h
hei sons. One likely explana ion o his may be gende di e ences
in empe amen and agg ession; indeed, in ou s udy, boys we e
ound o ha e highe le els o RA and lowe le els o EC han gi ls.
This gende di e ences could inc ease he use o ha she me hods o
pa en ing, including CP. I is also in e es ing o no e ha in ou s udy
he e ec o CP was no mode a ed by ei he he empe amen o
child en's gende , showing ha CP i sel is a isk o child en RA.
Some au ho s ha e gi en some possible explana ion, o example,
Choe e al. (2013) poin ed ou ha ha sh pa en al physical discipline
p o ides pa en s wi h a powe ‐asse i e means o elici ing immedia e
TABLE 2 Co ela ions be ween a he ing, empe amen and child en's ela ional agg ession.
123456789
1. Au ho i a i e‐cold (CF) 0.035 0.143 −0.029 −0.015 −0.038 0.099 −0.028 0.086
2. Au ho i a i e wa m (WF) −0.010 0.153 −0.048 −0.054 0.507** 0.003 0.032 −0.152
3. Co po al punishmen (CP) −0.100 −0.023 −0.022 0.252*−0.017 0.044 0.129 0.082
4. Insecu i y (IN) 0.029 0.028 0.024 0.204*−0.046 0.193 0.005 −0.037
5. Nega i e a ec (NA) −0.107 0.004 0.267** 0.262** −0.158 0.028 −0.055 0.142
6. E o ul con ol (EC) 0.067 0.063 −0.160 −0.105 0.056 0.064 0.055 −0.207*
7. Ac i i y (AC) 0.190*−0.110 0.061 0.238** 0.011 0.006 −0.099 0.367**
8. Shyness (SH) 0.095 −0.014 0.083 0.109 0.039 −0.046 0.086 −0.066
9. Rela ional agg ession (RA) 0.187*−0.074 0.171 0.265** 0.209*−0.104 0.454** 0.090
No e: In e co ela ions a e p esen ed sepa a ely o gi ls (abo e diagonal) and boys (below diagonal).
*p≤.05; **p≤.01.
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compliance, modeling ela ional, as well as physical, dominance o
hei child en. In addi ion, ou esul s e ealed ha empe amen
dimensions and gende mode a ed he associa ions o IN and
au ho i a i e a he ing o RA.
Fa he 's IN was ound o impac RA only among boys.
Al hough some esea che s (e.g., S ocke , 2000) ha e ela ed
insecu e mo he ing o RA among adolescen s, o he s (e.g.,
Sands om, 2007) ha e ound ha mo he s' inconsis ency is
linked o RA only among p eadolescen gi ls. Ou esul s a e
simila o hose epo ed by Casas e al. (2006), who ound a
ela ion be ween insecu e a he ing and RA in boys, al hough in
oddle s. These indings seem o sugges ha he e ec s o
TABLE 3 S anda dised eg ession coe icien s o ela ional
agg ession.
Rela ional agg ession
βFΔR
2
S ep 1: 11.304** .048**
Child en's sex
a
.219**
S ep 2: 5.806*** .069**
Au ho i a i e‐cold .163*
Au ho i a i e‐wa m −.107
Co po al punishmen .135*
Insecu i y .122 (.250*/−.122)
S ep 3: 9.203*** .161***
Nega i e a ec .143*
E o ul con ol −.147*
Ac i i y .378***
Shyness −.075 (−.176*/.103)
S ep 4: 4.280*** .071
Au ho i a i e‐cold ×
Nega i e a ec .072
b
E o ul con ol −.093
b
(−.163
b
/.020)
Ac i i y −.113
b
Shyness −.113
b
Au ho i a i e‐wa m ×
Nega i e a ec .029
E o ul con ol −.158*
Ac i i y .035
Shyness .087
b
Co po al punishmen ×
Nega i e a ec −.030
E o ul con ol −.070
Ac i i y .021
Shyness .040
Insecu i y ×
Nega i e a ec −.002 (.155
b
/−.117)
E o ul con ol −.054
Ac i i y −.017
Shyness .058
a
Child en's sex is coded 0 = gi ls, 1 = boys. In associa ions mode a ed by
sex, s anda dised eg ession coe icien s o boys/gi ls a e p esen ed in
pa en heses.
b
p< .25 and F>1.
*p≤.05; **p≤.01; ***p= .00.
FIGURE 1 In e ac ions be ween au ho i a i e‐cold a he ing and
nega i e a ec (NA) o p edic ing ela ional agg ession.
FIGURE 2 In e ac ions be ween au ho i a i e‐cold a he ing and
e o ul con ol (EC) o p edic ing ela ional agg ession in boys.
FIGURE 3 In e ac ions be ween au ho i a i e‐cold a he ing and
ac i i y (AC) o p edic ing ela ional agg ession.
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pa en ing a e magni ied when he pa en and child is he same
gende , since modelling is s onge wi h same‐gende dyads
(Decka d & Dodge, 1997). Howe e , we ag ee wi h Ge sho
(2002) ha same‐gende imi a ion is likely oo simplis ic an
explana ion and ha he e is no much e idence o suppo his
hypo hesis. In any case, child's gende seems o be a ele an
mode a o o he associa ion be ween a he 's IN and agg ession.
Ou indings p o ide no e idence ha empe amen mode a es
hese associa ions, wi h only NA appea ing o enhance he e ec
o insecu e a he ing on RA among boys.
Rega ding au ho i a i e a he ing, ou esul s e ealed ha CF
was a isk ac o o RA. I is impo an o no e ha while cold
au ho i a i e a he ing include mos ly easoning p ac ices, a ec ion
is mos ly p esen in he au ho i a i e‐wa m s yle. This a ec i e
componen in pa en ing has epea edly been linked o low le els o
child agg ession and he lack o a ec ion has been linked o inc eased
agg ession in child en (Zahn‐Waxle e al., 2008). The ac ha CF
was associa ed wi h RA may be ela ed o he ac ha his ype o
agg ession equi es ce ain sociocogni i e and communica ion skills
(Ca e as e al., 2014) ha may be enhanced by an au ho i a i e‐cold
s yle ha is cha ac e ized by he use o easoning o ensu e
compliance wi h social no ms.
Fu he mo e, in ou s udy, he isk o CF o RA was exace ba ed
by NA and bu e ed by EC, al hough, in his las case, only among
boys. Al hough he e is su icien e idence o a di ec associa ion
be ween hese empe amen ai s and RA (Tacke e al., 2014), hei
mode a ing ole in he ela ion be ween nega i e pa en ing and RA
has no been explo ed in ea nes (Smack e al., 2015). I is no
su p ising ha NA ( ea , us a ion, sadness, discom o , and ange )
enhances he u ge owa d agg essi e beha io , including RA when
child en ha e he social skills equi ed o his ype o beha io .
Indeed, esea che s ha e ound ha NA ein o ces he impac o
inapp op ia e pa en ing on RA in gi ls and boys (Aimé e al., 2018).
Rega ding EC, p e ious esea ch has ound ha gi ls exe mo e EC
han boys (Else‐Ques e al., 2012). Howe e , in ea ly childhood,
while highe le els o EC we e ound o be linked o less agg ession in
boys, hey we e no signi ican ly associa ed wi h agg ession in gi ls
(e.g., Smi h & Day, 2018). In ou s udy, which ocused on middle
childhood, he bene icial e ec s o EC on RA we e simila in bo h
sexes. Mo eo e , e en hough boys had lowe le els o EC han gi ls,
his empe amen ai was also ound o ha e an addi ional bene i
o boys only in he educ ion o he ha m ul e ec o au ho i a i e
a he ing on RA.
Rega ding he mode a ing ole o AC and SH on he associa ions
be ween au ho i a i e a he ing and agg ession, i is impo an o
conside ha AC and sociabili y ha e been cons ued by some as wo
aspec s o a b oade cons uc e med su gency (De Pauw
FIGURE 4 In e ac ions be ween au ho i a i e‐cold a he ing and
shyness (SH) o p edic ing ela ional agg ession.
FIGURE 5 In e ac ions be ween au ho i a i e‐wa m a he ing
and e o ul con ol (EC) o p edic ing ela ional agg ession.
FIGURE 6 In e ac ions be ween au ho i a i e‐wa m a he ing
and shyness (SH) o p edic ing ela ional agg ession.
FIGURE 7 Insecu i y and nega i e a ec (NA) o p edic ing
ela ional agg ession in boys.
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e al., 2009). The ac ha ou esul s e ealed hese ai s o be
independen ac o s enables us o dis inguish he ole played by each
dimension o su gency (AC and SH— he opposi e elemen o
sociabili y) in he associa ion be ween au ho i a i e a he ing and
agg ession. Thus, ou esul s e ealed ha associa ions be ween
au ho i a i e a he ing (cold and wa m) and RA we e weake among
shy child en. This is consis en wi h o he s who ound ha SH
mi iga ed he associa ion be ween pa en ing and agg ession (e.g., De
Haan e al., 2010). In ou s udy, AC was ound o a enua e he e ec
o au ho i a i e–cold a he ing on agg ession. I seems ha , al hough
p obably o di e en easons, child en wi h high AC le els and hose
who a e e y shy a e less sensi i e o he e ec s o au ho i a i e
pa en ing. In ou s udy, SH was in e sely ela ed o agg ession, while
wi h AC his associa ion was posi i e. I is likely ha , among hese
child en, empe amen ai s a e a s onge p edic o o agg ession
han au ho i a i e a he ing.
Finally, ou esul s con ibu e o models ha explain indi idual
di e ences in sensi i i y o en i onmen al in luences. The empe a-
men dimensions included in ou s udy may ende child en mo e
ulne able o he ad e se e ec s o nega i e a he ing (dia hesis‐
s ess hypo hesis), mo e sensi i e o he bene i s o posi i e a he ing
( an age‐sensi i i y hypo hesis), o bo h simul aneously (di e en ial
suscep ibili y hypo hesis). A i s glance, when conside ed oge he ,
he in e ac i e e ec s ound in ou s udy do no seem o be
comple ely consis en wi h any o hese heo e ical models. Thus, NA
was ound o be a cha ac e is ic ha was associa ed wi h mo e
ulne abili y o he ad e se e ec s o CF on RA, and o boys in
pa icula , hey we e mo e ulne able o he isk e ec s o insecu e
a he ing on he same ype o agg ession. In his case, NA seems o
ac as a ma ke o ulne abili y. EC was e ealed as an ad an ageous
cha ac e is ic in child en in ela ion o he bene icial e ec s o WF on
RA wi h EC ac ing as a ma ke o an age‐sensi i i y. P e ious
esea ch has sugges ed and con i med ha ai s such as NA o a
di icul empe amen (combina ion o high NA and low EC) may
se e as ma ke s o di e en ial suscep ibili y in in an s. Fo example,
a me a‐analysis by Slag , Dubas, e al. (2016) ound ha be o e 1 yea
o age, hese ai s mode a ed he e ec s o he quali y o pa en ing
on he child's de elopmen , which a e consis en wi h he di e en ial
suscep ibili y hypo hesis. Rega ding EC, esea ch indings ha e been
mixed, wi h some s udies showing ha oddle s wi h low sel ‐
egula ion espond mo e s ongly o pa en ing (Poehlmann
e al., 2011) and o he s showing s onge esponses among in an s
wi h high sel ‐ egula ion (Halpe n e al., 2001). S ill o he s (Slag ,
Semon Dubas, e al., 2016) ha e sugges ed, as indeed ou esul s
indica e, ha in middle childhood, EC may ope a e as a an age‐
sensi i i y ac o , since child en wi h mode a e le els o EC seem o
bene i mos om suppo i e pa en ing.
The ends ha eme ged in ou esul s in ela ion o SH a e also
wo h discussing. Child en wi h low le els o SH ended o bene i
mo e han o he s om WF (suppo i e en i onmen ), while a he
same ime being hu mo e han o he s by CF (unsuppo i e
en i onmen due o he absence o wa m h). Tha is, SH appea s o
be a suscep ibili y ac o . A e iew examining how empe amen
(including SH) in e ac wi h amily en i onmen in he p edic ion o
ex e nalizing beha io ound ha he esul s o mos s udies
assessing empe amen in childhood suppo ed he di e en ial
suscep ibili y model, while hose assessing empe amen in adoles-
cence suppo ed he dia hesis–s ess model (Rioux e al., 2016).
Ou indings suppo he idea ha he beginning o he middle
childhood may be a ansi ion s age in which NA and EC, g adually
(and a a di e en pace), change om being indica o s o suscep ibil-
i y in in ancy o being ulne abili y (NA) o an age‐sensi i i y (EC)
ma ke s in middle childhood. Howe e , du ing his pe iod, low SH s ill
seems o ac as a suscep ibili y ac o and i may be only la e , in he
ansi ion o adolescence, ha his empe amen ai becomes an
indica o o ulne abili y o ad e se en i onmen s. This idea could be
conside ed wi hin he di e en ial suscep ibili y amewo k. F om an
e olu iona y pe spec i e, Ellis and Del Giudice (2019) poin ed ou
ha , al hough i is well‐known ha ea ly childhood is a c i ical
sensi i e pe iod, as child en g ow olde , hey unde go o he di e en
sensi i e pe iods, including key de elopmen al ansi ions such as he
beginning o middle childhood and he onse o pube y. Tempe a-
men al ai s may ope a e in a di e en way in each o hese sensi i e
pe iods. So, physiological sel ‐ egula ion and nega i e emo ional
eac i i y seem o be suscep ibili y ma ke s du ing he ea ly sensi i e
pe iod, bu hey a e no la e du ing de elopmen , when i would be
o he empe amen al ai s ha cap u e his suscep ibili y. Whe eas
in ea ly adolescence, senso y p ocessing sensi i i y is a empe amen
ai ha has been widely s udied as a ma ke o suscep ibili y (A on
e al., 2019), ou indings poin o low SH as a possible candida e o
his a he beginning o middle childhood.
4.1 |S eng hs, limi a ions, and u u e s udies
Ou s udy con ibu es o he sca ce body o knowledge ega ding he
e ec s o a he ing on RA in child en wi h di e en empe amen .
Fi s , he s udy ocused on he ole o a he s in child ea ing; mos
pa en ing s udies do no include a he s no do hey con ol o
a he s' e ec s on child en's ou comes. Mo eo e , when a he s a e
included, measu es o a he ing a e o en de i ed om assessmen s
made by mo he s. Second, PCA analyses o empe amen and
a he ing enabled us o dis inguish wo dimensions o su gency (SH
and AC), as well as wo dimensions o au ho i a i e a he ing (cold
and wa m). This in u n allowed us o di e en ia e he e ec s o
hese dimensions o empe amen and a he ing on RA.
Se e al limi a ions wa an cau ion in he in e p e a ion o some
indings. The mos impo an is ela ed o he sample size. In his
explo a o y s udy, whene e an in e ac i e e ec was ound,
ollowing he sugges ion by Belsky and Widaman (2018), i was
explo ed by e alua ing he pa e n o he in e ac ion. Al hough he
e alua ion o egions o signi icance could be help ul in unde -
s anding he ela ions be ween a iables, he sample size was no
la ge enough o gene a e s a is ically signi ican esul s.
Second, cau ion should be exe cised when gene alizing he
indings epo ed he e, due o he cha ac e is ics o he s udy sample,
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