Next generation electric drives for HEV/EV propulsion systems: Technology, trends and challenges

Nex gene a ion elec ic d i es o HEV/EV
p opulsion sys ems:
Technology, ends and challenges
I. L´opeza,∗, E. Iba ab, A. Ma allanab, J. And eub, I. Ko aba iab
aDepa men o Elec ical Enginee ing, UPV/EHU, C. Ra ael Mo eno Pi xi xi, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
bDepa men o Elec onic Technology, UPV/EHU, C. Ra ael Mo eno Pi xi xi, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
Abs ac
In ecen decades, se e al ac o s such as en i onmen al p o ec ion, ossil uel sca ci y,
clima e change and pollu ion ha e d i en he esea ch and de elopmen o a mo e clean
and sus ainable anspo . In his con ex , se e al agencies and associa ions, such as he
Eu opean Union H2020, he Uni ed S a es Council o Au omo i e Resea ch (USCAR)
and he Uni ed Na ions Economic and Social Commission o Asia (UN ESCAP) ha e
de ined a se o quan i a i e and quali a i e goals in e ms o e iciency, eliabili y, powe
losses, powe densi y and economical cos s o be me by nex gene a ion hyb id and
ull elec ic ehicle (HEV/EV) d i e sys ems. As a consequence, he au omo i e elec ic
d i es (which consis s o he elec ic machine, powe con e e and hei cooling sys ems)
o u u e ehicles ha e o o e come a numbe o echnological challenges in o de o
comply wi h he a o emen ioned echnical objec i es. In his con ex , his pape p esen s,
o each componen o he elec ic d i e, a comp ehensi e e iew o he s a e o he a ,
cu en echnologies, u u e ends and enabling echnologies ha will make possible nex
gene a ion HEV/EVs.
Keywo ds: EV; HEV; HSEM; SiC; powe elec onics; powe con e e ; ad anced
cooling.
; SBD, Sola Elec ic Vehicle (SEV), Scho ky Ba ie Diode; SiC, Silicon Ca bide;
SiFe, Silicon-i on; SRM, Swi ched Reluc ance Machine; SVM, Space Vec o Modula ion;
∗Co esponding au ho
Email add esses: [email p o ec ed], Tel. +0034 94 601 39 15 (I. L´opez),
[email p o ec ed] (E. Iba a), [email p o ec ed] (A. Ma allana), [email p o ec ed]
(J. And eu), [email p o ec ed] (I. Ko aba ia)
Abb e ia ions:Al-Cap, Aluminium Elec oly ic Capaci o ; BJT, Bipola Union T ansis o ; CoFe,
Cobal -Ion; CuBe, Coppe -Be ylium; CuZ , Coppe -Zi conium; DC, Di ec Cu en ; DOE, U.S. De-
pa men o Ene gy; EMI, Elec omagne ic Emissions; ESR, Cpaci o pa asi ic esis ance; ESL, S ay
Induc ance; EV, Elec ic Vehicle; FC, Fuel Cell; FOC, Field O ien ed Con ol; GaN, Galium Ni ide;
GHG, G eenhouse Gas emissions; HEV, Hyb id Elec ic Vehicle; HSEM, High Speed Elec ic Machine;
ICE, In e nal Combus ion Engine; IGBT, Insula ed Ga e Bipola T ansis o ; IM, Induc ion Machine;
JBD, Junc ion Ba ie Diode; JFET, Junc ion Field-E ec T ansis o ; MLC-Cap, Mul i-laye Ce amic
capaci o ; MPPF-Cap, Me allized Polyp opylene Film Capaci o ; MOSFET, Me al-oxide-semiconduc o
Field-e ec ansis o ; NREL, Na ional Renewable Ene gy Labo a o y; PMSM, Pe manen Magne Syn-
ch onous Machine; PWM, Pulse Wid h Modula ion; RBS, Regene a i e B aking Sys em
P ep in submi ed o Else ie May 15, 2019
This is he accep ed manusc ip o he a icle ha appea ed in inal o m in Renewable and Sus ainable
Ene gy Re iews 114 : (2019) // A icle ID 109336, which has been published in inal o m a h ps://
doi.o g/10.1016/j. se .2019.109336. © 2019 Else ie unde CC BY-NC-ND license (h p://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Lis o symbols
eElec ic equency
pPole numbe
PDTo al Powe Dissipa ion
Pmech Mechanical Powe
Rc−sCase o hea sink he mal esis ance
Rj−cJunc ion o case he mal esis ance
Rs−aHea sink o ambien he mal esis ance
R h The mal esis ance
TaAmbien Tempe a u e
TcCase Tempe a u e
TjJunc ion Tempe a u e
TsSink Tempe a u e
Tmech Mechanical To que
d,on Tu n on delay
d,o Tu n o delay
VDSsa Collec o sou ce sa u a ion ol age
VGSs h Ga e h eshold ol age
ωmech Mechanical speed
SynRM, Synch onous Reluc ance Machine; TE, The moelec ic Cooling; THD, To al
Ha monic Dis o ion; TIM, The mal In e ace Ma e ial; USCAR, Uni ed S a es Council
o Au omo i e Resea ch; UN ESCAP, Uni ed Na ions Economic and Social Commission
o Asia; WGB, Wide Bandgap.
1. In oduc ion
In his decade, en i onmen al p o ec ion and al e na i e g een ene gies ha e become
one o he main conce ns o social and poli ical agen s and o he scien i ic communi y
due o a numbe o ac o s, such as g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, ossil uels sca ci y
and hei p ice ola ili y, o high pollu ion in mode n ci ies. These ac o s a e accele -
a ing he de elopmen o mo e e icien , sus ainable and enewable ene gy sys ems [1–6].
T anspo a ion is one o he sec o s ha mos con ibu e o GHG emissions, p oducing
app oxima ely he 27 % o he o al [7].
Wi hin he anspo a ion sec o (ai , ail and oad anspo ), oad anspo ac-
coun s o he 75 % o anspo GHG emissions [2]. Nowadays, popula ion is g owing
a a ema kable a e. Acco ding o [8], he wo ld popula ion will ise up o 9.8 billion in
2050, which supposes an inc ease o 30 % wi h ega d o 2017 popula ion (7.6 billion).
As a consequence, he numbe o oad ehicles is expec ed o be o a ound 2 billion in
2050 [9]. In his con ex , oad ehicle elec i ica ion becomes c ucial in o de o o e come
he a o emen ioned socie al and en i onmen al issues. This las is o cing he esea ch
and de elopmen o no el concep s and inno a ions o make elec ic ehicles (EV) and
hyb id elec ic ehicles (HEV) mo e e icien , eliable and sa e a an a o dable cos [1].
Nowadays, he e is a g ea numbe o o iginal equipmen manu ac u e s (OEMs)
p oducing EVs, HEVs and uel cell (FC) ehicles ( able 1). Ba e y powe ed and Plug-
in hyb id EV s ock su passed 2 million ehicles in 2016 [10]. The EV ma ke bea a
new eco d in 2016, wi h o e 750 housand sales a ound he wo ld [10], leading o an
inc ease o 33% compa ed o 2015 [11]. As i can be seen in igu e 1, China is he
2
China
EE.UU
Japan
No way
Ne he lands
Uni ed Kingdom
F ance
Ge many
No way
Ne he lands
F ance
Island
Sweden
Swi ze land
Belgium
Aus ia
29.0%
6.3%
6.0%
3.6%
1.9%
1.7%
1.5%
1.5%
646
570
147
116
110
88
83
74
Ranking o coun ies by VE s ock
( housand o uni s, 2016)
Ranking o coun ies by ma ke sha e
by o al lee (%, 2016)
Figu e 1: Elec ic ehicle ma ke in 2016 [10].
Elec ic ca s in he ehicle s ock (millions)
Consis en wi h he ambi ion o he EV30@30 campaign
IEA B2DS Pa is Decla a ion IEA RTS His o ical
Cumula i e coun y a ge s
(as o 2016)
Cumula i e OEMs
announcemen s (es ima e)
200
220
180
140
160
120
80
100
60
20
40
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
IEA 2DS
Figu e 2: Deploymen scena ios o he s ock o elec ic ca s o 2030 o ecas by ele an agen s [10].
coun y wi h he la ges elec ic ca s ock, wi h he Uni ed S a es in a second place.
Acco ding o a numbe o agen s, he u u e ma ke e olu ion in he ollowing yea s is
p omising, and some o ecas s expec a global EV s ock o 20 million o uni s in 2020
( igu e 2). Howe e , he cu en global elec ic ca s ock co esponds o jus 0.2% o he
o al numbe o passenge ligh -du y ehicles in ci cula ion [10]. Conside ing ha he
p e ious o ecas s can be ul illed as long as hey mee all he equi emen s om which
hey ha e been based, i is mo e ealis ic o de ine a scena io wi h an elec i ied ehicle
inc ease be ween 9 million and 15 million uni s by 2020 [11].
In o de o achie e all hese ma ke objec i es, i becomes clea ha i is necessa y o
p o oke a change in he socie y and make he EV an a ac i e oad anspo al e na i e.
F om he end use poin o iew, he main echnical aspec s ha a e conside ed o decide
whe he o no pu chase an EV o HEV a e ehicle powe , e iciency, maximum speed,
dynamic esponse, eliabili y, au onomy and, las bu no leas , economical cos s. All
hese i ems a e ela ed wi h he ehicle elec ic d i es, which include elec ic machines,
powe elec onics and hei espec i e cooling sys ems. F om a echnical poin o iew,
signi ican ad ances will be equi ed in o de o achie e he equi ed cos educ ions o
he popula iza ion o HEV/EV echnologies.
His o ically, ad ances in anspo d i es ha e been conduc ed ollowing p og essi e
s eps. F om 1995 o 2005, elec ic d i e sys ems esea ch a ge s ocused on he de-
elopmen o basic au omo i e componen s (in eg a ed elec ic mo o d i es and powe
3
Table 1: Example o elec i ied ehicles on he ma ke , including hei con igu a ion, machine echnology
and powe a ings.
Model Yea Vehicle Con ig. Mo o Powe (kW)
To al/Elec ic
Audi 2009 Q5 Hyb id Hyb id PMSM 182 / 40
BMW 2014 i8 Hyb id PMSM 265 / 96
BYD 2008 F3DM Plug-in Hyb. PMSM 125 / 75
Honda 2009 Insigh Hyb id PMSM 83 / 10
Honda 2001 Ci ic Hyb id PMSM 69 / 10
Audi 2009 Q5 FCEV Fuel cell IM 80
Fo d 2000 Fo d P2000 Fuel cell IM 67
Honda 2008 FCX Cla i y Fuel cell PMSM 100
Hyundai 2013 ix35 FCEV Fuel cell IM 100
Me cedes 2010 Clase B F-Cell Fuel cell PMSM 100
Toyo a 2015 Mi ai Fuel cell PM 113
BMW 2013 i3 BEV Elec ic PMSM 125
BYD 2014 E6 Elec ic PMSM 90
Ci ¨oen 2011 C-Ze o Elec ic PMSM 47
Ci ¨oen 2016 E-Mha i Elec ic PMSM 50
Fo d 2011 Focus Elec ic Elec ic PMSM 107
Kia 2014 Soul EV Elec ic PMSM 81.4
Land Ro e 2013 De ende Elec ic SRM 70
Me cedes 2014 SLS AMG ED Elec ic PMSM 550
Me cedes 2014 Clase B ED Elec ic PMSM 132
Mi subishi 2009 i-MIEV Elec ic PMSM 47
Nissan 2010 Lea Elec ic PMSM 80
Peugeo 2010 iOn Elec ic PMSM 49
Peugeo 2014 Pa ne Elec ic Elec ic PMSM 49
Po sche 2020 Mission E Elec ic PMSM 440
Renaul 2001 Kangoo I Elec ic PMSM om 22 up o 29
Renaul 2011 Kangoo ZE Elec ic PMSM 44
Renaul 2011 Fluence ZE Elec ic PMSM 70
Renaul 2012 Twizy Elec ic PMSM 8
Renaul 2012 Zoe Elec ic PMSM 65
Sma 2011 Fo wo ED Elec ic PMSM 55
Tazza i 2009 EM1 Elec ic IM 20
Tazza i 2009 Ze o Classic Elec ic IM 20
Tesla 2011 Roads e Elec ic IM 185
Tesla 2012 Model S Elec ic IM om 235 up o 568
Tesla 2015 Model X Elec ic IM om 193 up o 375
Think 2008 Think Ci y Elec ic IM 34
Toyo a 2012 RAV4 EV Elec ic IM 115
Volkswagen 2014 e-Gol Elec ic PMSM 85
Volkswagen 2013 e-UP Elec ic PMSM 60
Table no es:
PMSM: Pe manen Magne Synch onous Machine.
IM: Induc ion Mo o .
SRM: Swi ched Reluc ance Machines.
modules wi h maximum junc ion empe a u es o 125 ◦C and swi ching equencies be-
ween 2 kHz and 10 kHz) [12]. F om 2005 o 2015 g ea e o s we e conduc ed in o de
o achie e highe junc ion empe a u es (150 ◦C), high swi ching equency ope a ion
(up o 12 kHz) and in eg a ed mo o and powe elec onics [12]. Regene a i e b aking
sys ems (RBS), which allow echa ging he ene gy sou ce by eeding back ene gy om
he elec ic machine du ing b aking, ha e also been de eloped and ex ensi ely in es i-
ga ed o e he las yea s, as hei implemen a ion can imp o e uel e iciencies be ween
30 % and 40 % o HEVs [13], and d i ing ange can be ex ended be ween 8 % o 25 %
o EVs [14]. Rele an examples o ecen in es iga ions aiming o imp o e egene a i e
b aking include he dynamic de ec ion o he lowes speed h eshold a which elec ic
b aking is e ec i e [15], con ol algo i hms o independen egene a i e b aking o que-
ec o ing on ehicles wi h in-wheel machines [16, 17], o in es iga ions whe e mo o and
4
Table 2: Cu en s a us and u u e a ge s o EV d i e main componen s (elec ic machine and powe
elec onics) in e ms o powe densi y, e iciency and cos s ( om [23, 24]).
Elec ic mo o Powe elec onics
Cha ac e is ic 2010 2015 2020 2010 2015 2020
Speci ic powe (kW/kg) 1.2 1.3 1.6 10.8 12 14.1
Powe densi y (kW/l) 3.7 5.0 5.7 8.7 12 13.4
E iciency (%) 90 92 93 91 94 97
Cos (
$
/kW) 11.1 7 4.7 7.9 5 3.3
hyd aulic b aking o ces a e coo dina ed [18].
Cu en ly, he U.S Depa men o Ene gy (DOE) iden i ies a numbe o echnical
aspec s in he epo called EV E e ywhe e [19]. Based on he a o emen ioned ea u es
equi ed by he consume s, EV E e ywhe e also de ines a se o goals and echnical
a ge s. In his con ex , able 2 shows quan i a i ely powe densi y, e iciency and cos
a ge s o u u e HEV/EV elec ic d i es. O he na ional and in e na ional p og ammes,
adop ed by each communi y o coun y, ha e also simila quali a i e and quan i a i e
a ge s o be eached by he u u e elec ic p opulsion echnologies. Among hem, Ho i-
zon 2020 [20], he Uni ed S a es Council o Au omo i e Resea ch (USCAR) [21] and
he Uni ed Na ions Economic and Social Commission o Asia (UN ESCAP) [22] ep e-
sen global HEV/EV echnology ends, as hey co e Eu ope, No h Ame ica and Asia.
Acco ding o hese p og ammes, he expec ed imp o emen s in u u e EV p opulsion
sys ems can be summa ized as [20–22]:
1. Inc ease o o que p oduc ion capabili y o he elec ic machine by 30% and speed
by 50%.
2. Reduc ion o 50% on mo o losses.
3. Powe densi y inc ease o 50% in powe con e e s and, a he same ime, educ ion
o powe con e e losses by 50%.
4. O e all e iciency op imiza ion o 20%.
5. Powe ain sys em (mo o , powe con e e and ene gy sou ce) weigh and olume
educ ion o 40%.
6. Cos s educ ions ( ou imes educ ion) on elec ic machine and powe elec onics.
7. Simpli ica ion o he he mal managemen sys ems using on-boa d coolan s wi h
minimal addi ional componen s as possible.
As a consequence o hese speci ic a ge s, he main elemen s o be in eg a ed in u u e
HEV/EV elec ic d i es will ace a numbe o challenges ha should be o e come. In his
pape , he a o emen ioned challenges a e iden i ied, and echnological solu ions equi ed
o cons i u e hese u u e d i es a e also ho oughly e iewed. In his sense, sec ion 2
o e iews ehicle elec i ica ion a chi ec u es and lis s he enabling echnologies o he
equi ed u u e inno a ions, sec ion 3 ocuses on he elec ic machine and o que con ol
challenges and solu ions, while sec ions 4 and 5 de e mine powe con e e and cooling
sys em challenges and solu ions, espec i ely.
5

ICE
Mechanical
ansmission
ICE
ehicle
Powe Elec onic
con e e
M/G
T ansmission
Ba e y
elec ic ehicle
Powe Elec onic
con e e
ICE
GENERATOR
T ansmission
Se ies
hyb id ehicle
Powe Elec onic
con e e
T ansmission
Pa allel
hyb id ehicle
ICE
ICE
M/G
Powe Elec onic
con e e
GENERATOR
T ansmission
Se ies-pa allel
hyb id ehicle
ICE
M/G
M/G
Powe Elec onic
con e e
T ansmission
Complex
hyb id ehicle
ICE
M/G
Powe Elec onic
con e e
T ansmission
Plug in
hyb id ehicle
M/G
Hyd ogen cylinde
T ansmission
Fuel
cell ehicle
M/G
M/G
M/G
Hyd ogen cylinde
T ansmission
Fuel cell
hyb id ehicle
Powe Elec onic
con e e
T ansmission
Sola
hyb id ehicle
ICE
Sola panel
DC/DC
con e e
M/G
Powe Elec onic
con e e
B/UC
DC/DC
con e e
Powe Elec onic
con e e
Figu e 3: A chi ec u e and con igu a ion o ICE and EV, FC and HEV (adap ed om [1]).
2. EV and HEV p opulsion a chi ec u es and enabling echnologies o nex
gene a ion d i es
In gene al, h ee elec ic ehicula a chi ec u es ha compe e wi h in e nal combus-
ion engine (ICE) ehicles can be dis inguished: ba e y powe ed elec ic ehicles (EV),
hyb id elec ic ehicles (HEV), uel cell ehicles (FC), colo ed uel cell hyb id elec ic
ehicles (FCHEV) and hyb id sola elec ic ehicles (HSEV)1. Figu e 3 shows he a o e-
men ioned powe ain con igu a ions.
One o he main di e ences be ween hose a chi ec u es elies on he ene gy sou ce.
Fo example, EVs and HEVs ely on ba e ies, while FCs ely on hyd ogen uel cell
s acks (ze o emission ehicle, only emi s wa e and hea ). FC supplies a cons an powe ,
bu i does no adap p ope ly o a apid change o powe demand, being i s mayo
applica ion slow speed ehicles (buses, ams...) [29, 30]. Howe e , using a FC as he
main ene gy sou ce and ba e y as an addi ional s o age sys em, a FCHEV con igu a ion
1Conside ing cu en echnology, sola ehicles wi hou hyb idiza ion do no ha e enough au onomy
o cu en mobili y equi emen s.
6
Table 3: Cha ac e is ic o ICE ehicle, EV, FC and HEV [25–28].
Fea u e ICE ehicle EV HEV Plug-in HEV FC
P opulsion ICE based ED based(1) ICE & ED based ICE & ED based ED based
Sys em
Ene gy Fuel ank Ba e y Fuel ank Fuel ank Fuel cell ank
s o age Ul a capaci o Ba e y Ba e y Ba e y
Flywheel Ul a capaci o Ul a capaci o Ul a capaci o
Flywheel Flywheel Flywheel
Ene gy Pe ol Elec ic Pe ol & elec ic Pe ol & elec ic Hyd ogen
sou ce
Ene gy sou ce Re ueling Cha ging Re ueling Cha ging s a ion Hyd ogen e ine
in as uc u e s a ion s a ion s a ion & e ueling s a ion & e ueling s a ion
Well- o- ank(2) 88.0% 37.0% 88.0% -(3) 58.4%
Tank- o-wheel(2) 12.1% 83% 22.3% -(3) 46.6%
Well- o-wheel(2) 10.6% 31.3% 19.6% -(3) 27.2%
Comme cialized Yes Yes Yes Pa ially No
Smoo h ope a ion(4) No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Emissions Ve y high No Ve y low Low Ul a low
Sys em complexi y Ve y low low Medium High Ve y high
Bulky Yes No Yes Yes No
(1) ED based: Elec ic D i e sys em based.
(2) App oxima e alues. Gasoline has been conside ed as uel o hyb id con igu a ions.
(3) These numbe s will highly depend on he speci ic ehicle and will be be ween HEV and EV alues.
(4) Rega ding o que ipple.
is ob ained, whe e he ope a ion ange and speed a e inc eased, bu he powe ain
needs o be modi ied. Fo example, some manu ac u e s such as Honda, Toyo a and
Hyundai manu ac u e high pe o mance FCHEVs [30]. Wi h he aim o ex end he
ange au onomy and educe he en i onmen al impac , he e a e also a chi ec u es based
on sola panels ins alled on he op o he ehicle (HSEVs), which combine he bene i s o
sola ene gy (a ailable, sus ainable, enewable and clean) wi h he HEV cha ac e is ics,
ob aining a uel-e icien ehicle [29, 31, 32].
Al hough a numbe o ehicula opologies can be ound in he li e a u e, he majo i y
o manu ac u e s ely on EVs and/o HEVs. EVs ha e a simple s uc u e whe e ene gy
lows om o o he ba e y h ough he bidi ec ional powe con e e ( igu e 3). On he
o he hand and depending o i s in e nal con igu a ion, hyb id ehicles can be classi ied
as se ies HEV, pa allel HEV, se ies-pa allel HEV, complex HEV and plug in HEV [1],
which di e ences ely on he way ene gy lows om he s o age sou ces o ene gy [32–34].
Wi h independence o he ehicula a chi ec u e, he elec ic d i e (powe con e e
and elec ic machine) is he co e o all hese elec i ied powe ains ( igu e 3). The de-
elopmen o nex gene a ion g een ehicles based on ad anced elec ic d i es equi es
o ocus on he ollowing aspec s: cos educ ion, e iciency imp o emen and achie e-
men o high powe densi ies [35]. The key enabling echnologies ha will imp o e he
a o emen ioned ea u es on elec ic machines can be summa ized as [12, 35–39]:

Cos educ ion: (a) usage o new magne ma e ials wi hou a e ea hs and hea y
a e ea hs and (b) simpli ica ion o he cooling sys em (ai cooling is conside ed
among o he solu ions).

High e iciency: (a) de elopmen o high pe o mance alloys, such as magne ic s eels
7
and coppe alloys and (b) he design o machines wi h low coppe and i on losses.

High powe densi y: (a) inc ease o he elec ic machine ope a ion speed and (b)
high pe o mance cooling o inc eased powe capabili ies.
On he o he hand, he ollowing enabling echnologies mus be conside ed o u u e
powe con e e s [12, 35–38]:

Cos educ ion: (a) e olu iona y and/o e olu iona y changes o designs o man-
u ac u ing echniques and (b) simpli ica ion o he cooling sys em (as in he case
o he elec ic mo o , ai cooling is conside ed as a possibili y).

High e iciency a ge s, wi h he implemen a ion o wide bandgap (WBG) semi-
conduc o echnology wi h low swi ching losses.

High powe densi y a ge s, (a) by in oducing WBG echnology including ad anced
packaging and (b) by implemen ing op imum he mal managemen .
No e ha some o he equi emen s lead o opposi e design concep s. Fo example,
ega ding he cooling sys em, a ade o be ween simpli ica ion (cos educ ion) and
he mal managemen op imiza ion (high powe densi y a ge s) mus be ollowed, being
his pa icula aspec challenging o esea che s. The same applies o non a e-ea h
based machine echnologies and powe densi y a ge s.
In he ollowing sec ions, a deep and ex ensi e s udy o he co e componen s and
echnologies o elec ic d i e is pe o med, which include he elec ic mo o , he bidi-
ec ional con e e and he he mal managemen , poin ing ou bo h he ad an ages and
disad an ages o each echnology and he new challenges ha hese en ail o ge he
u u e echnical goals.
3. Nex gene a ion elec ic machines o EV and HEV p opulsion sys ems
3.1. Cu en elec ic machine echnologies: o e iew and compa ison o mos ele an
ea u es
The mos es ablished EV and HEV elec ic machine echnologies a e, by a , Pe ma-
nen Magne Synch onous Machines (PMSM) and Induc ion Machines (IM) [40]. As i
can be de i ed om able 1, PMSM [41–46] a e he p e e ed op ion in cu en EV and
HEV ehicles. The main eason is hei high e iciency and supe io powe densi y, which
is pa icula ly a c i ical ac o in HEVs (due o hei igh space cons ain s). Specially,
In e io PMSMs a e employed, as he addi ional eluc an o que allows o achie e highe
powe densi y han hei Su ace Moun ed PMSM coun e pa s [41]. Howe e , echnolo-
gies ha do no ely on a e-ea h based magne s a e gaining popula i y [2, 41, 47], due
o he sca ci y, p ice luc ua ions and high cos s associa ed wi h hese ma e ials (neodim-
ium and, in lowe quan i ies, dysp osium and e bium) [47–51]. Among hem, he ma u e
squi el cage IM [52–56] has a eal ma ke pene a ion ( able 1) in he au omo i e indus-
y, while o he elec ic machine echnologies, such as Fe i e based Pe manen Magne
Assis ed Synch onous Reluc ance Machines (PM-assis ed SynRM) [57–61] and Swi ched
Reluc ance Machines (SRM) [62–66] a e gaining a ac ion om he scien i ic communi y.
8
In PM-assis ed SynRMs he o o is manu ac u ed in a way ha he asymme y
be ween he d- and q-axes is maximized. Thanks o his, he eluc an o que o he
elec ic machine is maximized, allowing o achie e powe densi ies o a ound 75% o an
in e io PMSM o he same size and liquid cooling echnology [67]. As a d awback,
he e i e-PM-assis ed SynRM machine may su e om demagne iza ion a low em-
pe a u es, which can be a oided o minimized by a p ope design o by p ehea ing he
magne s be o e machine s a [58, 68]. This ype o machine is being ex ensi ely e-
sea ched [58–60, 69] and, al hough he e a e i ually no comme cial solu ions equipped
wi h his echnology [47], i ep esen s a p omising al e na i e o he u u e.
SRMs ha e a double salien s uc u e (saliency in bo h s a o and o o ) and no mag-
ne s no windings in he o o [70]. This saliency is used o elec omagne ic o que p o-
duc ion, equi ing an speci ic con ol app oach ha akes in o accoun he non-linea i ies
o he machine [71]. As opposi e o synch onous and induc ion machines, SRMs equi e
an H-b idge con e e opology (gene ally in asymme ic con igu a ion) ins ead o a com-
mon Vol age Sou ce In e e (VSI) [72]. SRMs exhibi a numbe o ad an ages such as
simple s uc u e, lexibili y o con ol, high e iciency, lowe cos and in insic aul ole -
ance [62, 72]. Al hough SRMs can be conside ed as a low cos solu ion o EV and HEV
applica ions, hey ha e signi ican disad an ages ha mus be conside ed, such as high
o que ipple, medium powe densi y, high DC bus cu en ipple, high acous ic noise
and high elec omagne ic emissions (EMI) [72, 73].
The 6/4 pole SRM can be conside ed as he s anda d con igu a ion o EV applica-
ions [74]. Howe e , new design app oaches ha pa ially o e come he a o emen ioned
d awbacks a e being cu en ly esea ched [63–65, 75]. Gene ally speaking, he main
d awbacks o hese ad anced s uc u es a e hei added manu ac u ing complexi y and
addi ional cos s. Acco ding o [47], SRMs a e now being in oduced in o ehicle p o-
o ypes. Land Ro e and Toyo a (in pa ne ship wi h Renaul -Nissan) a e cu en ly
wo king on SRM d i es ( able 1).
Quan i a i e and quali a i e compa isons o he mos ele an machines (PMSM, PM-
assis ed SynRM, IM and SRM) can be ound in he scien i ic li e a u e [76–85]. Table
4 collec s bo h gene al ea u es and quan i a i e alues o each echnology. I becomes
clea ha he PMSM echnology is supe io ega ding powe densi y. Al hough PM
echnology shows he bes e iciencies bellow base speed, he common ope a ion ange
o he a ge elec ic ehicle mus be conside ed o de e mine he solu ion ha gi es
a be e o e all e iciency du ing he li e-cycle o he ehicle. Gene ally speaking, in
e iciency e ms PMSM could be p e e ed o u ban d i ing, as ex a cu en is equi ed
a ield weakening ope a ion (high speeds), while IMs and SRMs would be mo e e icien
o high speed spo ca s ( igu e 4).
Rega ding cos and simplici y, SRM echnology could be conside ed he bes op ion,
being his a c i ical aspec in he au omo i e indus y. Howe e , he disad an ages
associa ed wi h i s echnology (high o que ipple, noise, ib a ions) seem o a ou he
IM echnology, as i can be con i med om he ma ke pene a ion o each echnology
( able 1).
F om he e iewed li e a u e [76–85], i can be concluded ha he sui abili y o each
echnology depends on he speci ic con ex o a gi en p opulsion sys em. Thus, i is
no possible o de e mine he absolu e supe io i y o one echnology o e o he s and a
echnological decision mus be conduc ed a e analysing a numbe o ac o s o a gi en
applica ion. In his con ex and once he mos signi ican equi emen s o a gi en EV
9
POWER
CONVERTER
DC
Sou ce
Cdc
Cy
Cy
Ga e D i e
Con olle
A
B
C
D
MOTOR
Cold pla e
Powe module (A)
D i e boa d (C)
DC link capaci o s (D)
Bus ba (B)
Figu e 6: Typical layou and elemen s o a h ee-phase au omo i e powe con e e .
capaci o cu en ipple should be inc eased. As a consequence, a capaci o wi h
highe RMS cu en wi hs anding capabili y (which is usually bulkie ) could be
equi ed.
Taking in o accoun he a o emen ioned poin s, i can be concluded ha he mos
e ec i e app oaches ha can be ollowed in o de o cope wi h high speed con ol issues
is he combina ion o he ollowing solu ions:

Include he delay compensa ion con ol app oach p oposed in [127] in he con ol
s uc u e, ensu ing by p og amming ha possible measu emen synch oniza ion
loss is minimized.

Inc ease o he swi ching equency o he powe con e e [128] in o de o educe
he undamen al- o-sampling- equency a io and imp o e bo h o que and ield
weakening egula ion.
This inc ease on he swi ching equency has signi ican echnological consequences,
specially in he elemen s ha cons i u e he powe con e e , i.e., powe semiconduc o s,
d i e boa d, con ol boa d, eac i e elemen s and cooling sys em. In he ollowing, he
consequences o his challenges and he echnological app oaches ha o e come hem
will be ho oughly e iewed.
4. Wide bandgap based powe con ol uni s o au omo i e d i e sys ems
The powe con e e can be conside ed as he co e elemen o he elec ic d i e, as i
is esponsible o con olling he bidi ec ional powe low be ween he elec ic machine
and he ba e y pack. Figu e 6 shows he gene al diag am o an HEV/EV powe con-
e e , which, in his pa icula case, inco po a es a h ee-phase ol age sou ce in e e .
This diag am also shows he common layou o an au omo i e powe con e e , inclu-
ding i s main unc ional blocks, i.e., powe semiconduc o de ices, d i e boa d, dc-link
capaci o (s) and bus ba .
In he ollowing pa ag aphs, he p ima y equi emen s and he majo ends o hese
unc ional blocks o nex gene a ion HEV/EV au omo i e powe con e e s will be des-
c ibed. The he mal managemen echnology (cold pla e in igu e 6) is also a key elemen
o a powe con e e . This block will be sepa a ely e iewed in sec ion 5.
16

Table 6: SiC and GaN ma e ial p ope ies compa ed wi h Si [134].
Ma e ial p ope y Si GaN SiC-4H(1)
Band Gap (eV) 1.1 3.4 3.2
C i ical ield (106V/cm) 0.25 0.3 2.2
Elec on mobili y (cm2/V-sec) 1350 1000 950
The mal conduc i i y (Wa s/cm2K) 1.5 1.3 3-4
(1) The 4H in SiC-4H e e s o he c ys al s uc u e o he SiC ma e ials.
4.1. Powe semiconduc o s
Powe semiconduc o de ices a e he key componen s in any powe elec onics sys em.
Thei op imiza ion en ails imp o emen s in ele an aspec s o he elec ic d i e, such as
e iciency, eliabili y, speci ic mass and olume o powe con e e , powe losses, powe
densi y, o quali y o syn hezised ol age and cu en wa e o ms [132–135].
In he pa icula case o he au omo i e indus y, au omo i e g ade powe semicon-
duc o s a e equi ed o he indus ializa ion o powe con e e s. The au omo i e g ade
ce i ica e ensu es he quali y, pe o mance and sa e y o he p oduc unde he s ingen
au omo i e ope a ion condi ions. The Au omo i e Elec onics Council has de eloped he
AEC Q101 (S ess Tes Quali ica ion o Disc e e elemen s) s anda d, which es ablishes
common pa -quali ica ion and quali y-sys em s anda ds o au omo i e powe semicon-
duc o s in e ms o li e-cycle, ope a ion empe a u e, humidi y and ib a ions.
In gene al, cu en au omo i e powe con e e s ely on he well es ablished and ma-
u e silicon (Si) echnology [136–138]. Howe e , wi h ega d o he echnological and
cos a ge s o nex gene a ion HEV/EV d i es (sec ion 1), Si exhibi s a numbe o
limi a ions in e ms o blocking ol age capabili y, ope a ion empe a u e and swi ch-
ing equency [133, 139]. As con ol o u u e HSEMs will equi e o ope a e a high
swi ching equencies (sec ion 3.3), he ela i ely high swi ching losses o Si de ices will
educe d as ically he e iciency o powe con e e s, leading o he need o complex and
expensi e cooling sys ems [133, 140], o e en making his echnology in easible o he
applica ion. Consequen ly, he in oduc ion o a new gene a ion o powe de ices based
on wide band gap (WBG) semiconduc o ma e ials will be equi ed in u u e au omo-
i e powe con e e s. The la ge band gap o WBG ma e ials leads o a lowe in insic
ca ie concen a ion and an inc ease o he maximum ope a ion junc ion empe a u e.
Thei high he mal conduc i i y also educes he he mal esis ance o he de ice [134].
Thus, Si d awbacks could be o e come o a g ea ex end wi h his echnology [135].
Silicon ca bide (SiC) and gallium ni ide (GaN) a e cu en ly conside ed as he mos
ma u ed WBG echnologies [132–135, 141–144]. The high c i ical ield o SiC and GaN
allows o ope a e a highe ol ages when compa ed o Si de ices [145, 146]. Likewise,
GaN has highe elec on mobili y han SiC, meaning ha , heo e ically, GaN de ices
a e he bes sui ed o high swi ching equency ope a ion. Howe e , SiC exhibi s a
highe he mal conduc i i y. Consequen ly, SiC de ices could be p e e ed o high powe
densi y applica ions [145]. Al hough GaN echnology shows supe io ea u es han SiC
in mos pa ame e s, i s lowe he mal conduc i i y becomes a big challenge o sys em
designe s [147]. As a summa y, able 6 shows a compa ison o he mos ele an physical
pa ame e s o Si, SiC and GaN ma e ials.
In he ollowing, SiC and GaN diode and ac i e swi ch semiconduc o s a e e iewed.
17
The equi emen s o be me o hem in au omo i e elec ic d i es will be discussed.
A. SiC de ices
As in silicon echnology, he e a e di e en SiC de ices, among which s an ou SiC
based Scho ky ba ie diodes (SBD) and junc ion ba ie diodes (JBD), PiN diodes,
JFETs, BJTs and MOSFETs, which ha e been a ailable in he ma ke since some yea s
ago. Rega ding diodes, he junc ion knee ol age o SiC PiN diodes makes hem in-
e ec i e o blocking ol ages below 3.3 kV [140, 148]. Likewise, he e e se eco e y
cu en o SiC PiN de ices esul s in la ge e e se eco e y losses [148]. Consequen ly,
SiC Scho ky diodes could be p e e ed o au omo i e applica ions. Bo h SBD and
JBD diodes a e well sui ed o applica ions in which high swi ching equency ope a ion
is equi ed, and hey also ma ch pe ec ly as eewheeling diodes o be pai ed wi h Si
IGBTs [133, 140]. Howe e , JBDs ha e wo signi ican ad an ages o e SBDs. On he
one hand, hey a e able o handle highe ol ages and, on he o he hand, hey exhibi a
lowe leakage cu en [148, 149]. Typically, blocking ol ages o au omo i e SiC Scho ky
diodes lay be ween 600 V and 1700 V, ea u ing cu en anges be ween 2 A and 47 A
( able 7).
Rega ding SiC powe ansis o s, SiC MOSFETs a e p e e ed as ac i e powe swi ches,
mainly because hey a e able o swich a high equencies, because hei ga e cha ge is
simila o Si MOSFETs and IGBTs, being no mally o , and also because hey equi e
ela i ely simple d i e ci cui s [148, 149].
MOSFETs ha e an in insic an ipa allel diode (body diode) be ween he d ain e mi-
nal and he subs a e. Fo ha eason, i necessa y, he use o he ex e nal eewheeling
diode could be disca ded, being he body diode which pe o ms his unc ion. The e a e
some modules ha ollow ha c i e ia. Ne e heless, he use o he ex e nal Scho ky
eewheling diode is ecommended, because he o e all e iciency and he eliabili y is
imp o ed, and also because he eewheeling dissipa ion occu s in a di e en de ice om
he MOSFETs hemsel es.
Cu en au omo i e SiC MOSFETs ha e ol age anges be ween 400 V and 1700 V,
wi h cu en capabili ies be ween 2.6 A and 100 A ( able 7). I is expec ed ha com-
me cial p oduc s up o 3.3 kV will be a ailable in he nea u u e [148].
Finally, i is impo an o no e ha SiC IGBTs a e s ill unde de elopmen due
o eliabili y p oblems (mainly due o o wa d ol age d i ). Howe e , some au ho s
conside his echnology as he one wi h he highes po en ial o u u e high- ol age
applica ions [139]. Mo eo e , some manu ac u e s such as CREE, In ineon, Mic osemi
and o he s can make ull SiC modules o di e en opologies ( able 8).
Thei comme cializa ion will depend on o e coming eliabili y p oblems h ough he
imp o emen o he quali y o he ini ial semiconduc o ma e ial [133]. The scien i ic
communi y is pe o ming signi ican ad ances in ha ield, being ele an examples he
con e e s based on 15 kV/40 A SiC N-IGBT p esen ed in [150, 151], o he se ies con-
nec ed 15 kV SiC IGBTs and MOSFETs p esen ed in [152] o MV powe con e sion
sys ems.
B. GaN de ices
GaN echnology is in i s i s de elopmen s ages conce ning o powe applica ions.
Ve ical GaN de ices a e being conside ed o esea ch due o hei po en ial. GaN
swi ches a e expec ed o ha e a 100 imes pe o mance imp o emen o e Si-based de-
18
Table 7: Some o au omo i e g ade and au omo i e o ien ed SiC disc e e de ices a ailable on he ma ke .
Company De ice Packaging P oduc name Vol age (V) I (A) @ Tc (ºC)
C2M0040120D 1200 40 @ 100
C2M0045170D 1700 48 @ 100
C2M0025120D 1200 60 @ 100
CPM2-1200-0025B 1200 71 @ 100
CPM2-1200-0040B 1200 40 @ 100
CPM2-1700-0045B 1700 48 @ 100
C3D20060D 600 26 @ 135
C3D30065D 650 36 @ 135
C5D50065D 650 50 @ 130
C4D40120D 1200 54 @ 135
TO-247-2 C4D30120D 1200 43 @ 135
TO-220-2 C4D20120A 1200 25 @ 135
CPW5-0650-Z030B 650 30 @ 150
CPW5-0650-Z050B 650 50 @ 175
CPW5-1200-Z050B 1200 50 @ 175
CPW5-1700-Z050B 1700 51 @ 150
GP1T036A060B 1200 50 @ 100
GP1T025A120B 1200 50 @100
GP1T040A120B 1200 31 @ 100
GP1T072A060B 600 25 @ 100
GP2D020A120B 1200 24 @ 150
GP2D020A120B 600 29 @ 150
GP2D050A120B 1200 58 @ 150
IXFN70N120SK 1200 48 @ 100
IXFN50N120SK 1200 33 @ 100
IXFN50N120SiC 1200 35 @ 80
TO-268AA MCB60I1200TZ 1200 60 @ 100
DCG45X1200NA 1200 40 @ 100
DCG85X1200NA 1200 76 @ 100
DCG100X1200NA 1200 94 @ 100
DCG130X1200NA 1200 114 @100
APT40SM120B 1200 29 @ 100
APT70SM70B 700 41 @ 100
APT80SM120B 1200 55 @ 100
APT70SM70J 700 34 @100
APT40SM120J 1200 23 @ 100
APT80SM120J 1200 36 @ 100
TO-247 MSC030SDA120B 1200 30 @ 140
S4001 650 70 @ 25
S4002 650 93 @ 25
S4003 650 118 @ 25
S2301 1200 40 @ 25
S4101 1200 55 @ 25
SCT3017AL 650 83 @ 100
SCT3022AL 650 65 @ 100
SCT3022KL 1200 67 @ 100
SCT3030AL 650 49 @ 100
SCT3030KL 1200 51 @ 100
SCT3040KL 1200 39 @ 100
TO-247 SCH2080KE 1200 28 @ 100
SCS215AG 650 15 @ 175
SCS230AE2 650 30 @ 130
SCS215AE 650 15 @ 130
SCS215AM 650 15 @55
Embossed ape SCS215AJ 650 15 @ 120
SCT50N120 1200 50 @ 100
SCT30N120 1200 34 @ 100
SCTW100N65G2AG 650 85 @ 100
TO-247 STPSC40065C-Y 650 40 @ 130
TO-220AC / D2PAK STPSC20H12-Y 1200 20 @ 150
TO-247 LL STPSC40H12C 1200 40 @ 150
TO-247 / TO-220 AB STPSC20H065C-Y 650 20 @ 150
TO-247 / TO-220 AC / D2PAK STPSC20065-Y 650 20 @ 140
PG-TO220-2-1 IDH20G120C5 1200 20 @ 150
IDW30G120C5B 1200 30 @ 150
IDW40G120C5B 1200 40 @ 148
IDW40G65C5
Scho�ky
diode
650 40 @ 110
TO-220AC
TO-247
TO-220FM
ST Mic oelec onics
MOSFET
HIP247
INFINEON
PG-TO247-3
Mic osemi
MOSFET
TO-247
SOT-227
ROHM
MOSFET
Ba e Die
TO-247N
IXYS
MOSFET
SOT-227B
SOT-227B
Global Powe
MOSFET
TO-247
TO-247-2L
CREE
MOSFET
TO-247-3
Ba e Die
Scho�ky
TO-247-3
Ba e Die
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
diode
Scho�ky
diode
Scho�ky
diode
Scho�ky
diode
Scho�ky
diode
Scho�ky
diode
(∗) P oduc wi h au omo i e g ade ce i ica ion.
19
Table 8: Some o au omo i e o ien ed SiC modules de ices a ailable on he ma ke .
De ice Company P oduc name Vol age (V) I (A) @ Tc (ºC)
Hal B idge CAS120M12BM2 1200 138 @ 90
CAS300M12BM2 1200 293 @ 90
CAS300M17BM2 1700 225 @ 90
APTSM120AM14CD3AG 1200 180 @ 80
APTMC120AM08CD3AG 1200 190 @ 80
APTSM120AM09CD3AG 1200 268 @ 80
APTSM120AM08CT6AG 1200 293 @ 80
APTMC120AM12CT3AG 1200 165 @ 80
APTMC120AM09CT3AG 1200 220 @ 80
BSM180D12P2C101 1200 180 @ 60
BSM120D12P2C005 1200 120 @ 60
BSM180D12P3C007 1200 180 @ 60
BSM300D12P2E001 1200 300 @ 60
Semik on SKM500MB120SC 1200 431 @ 80
Six Pack
T iple phase leg APTSM120TAM33CTPAG 1200 89 @ 80
APTMC120TAM17CTPAG 1200 110 @ 80
APTMC120TAM12CTPAG 1200 165 @ 80
Rec�fie GHXS020A060S-D1 600 25 @ 125
GHXS030A060S-D1 600 36 @ 150
GHXS030A120S-D1 1200 30 @ 125
GHXS045A120S-D1 1200 45 @ 150
APT40DC60HJ 600 40 @ 100
APT40DC120HJ 1200
40 @ 100
MOSFET module
Scho�ky diode
module
CCS020M12CM2
SK45MAHT12SCp
MOSFET module
MOSFET module
1200
20 @ 90
Semik on
1200
38 @ 70
Mic osemi
Global Powe
Mic osemi
CREE
Mic osemi
ROHM
CREE
u
w
ices, and a 10 imes imp o emen o e SiC, due o he excellen ma e ial cha ac e is ics
such as high elec on mobili y, high b eakdown ield and high elec on eloci y [153].
GaN shows he highes b eakdown ol age le el wi h he lowes conduc ion esis ance
o he same ma e ial a ea [148]. Howe e , one o he majo d awbacks o GaN de ices
esides in one o hei main heo e ical ad an ages, i.e., he ul a- as swi ching speeds
o hese de ices (o a ound 1-2 ns), which makes pa asi ic induc ances become a se ious
p oblem [149].
Cu en ly, mos o he comme cialized GaN Scho ky diodes (600 V/10-15 A) a e
ei he la e al o quasi- e ical, due o he lack o elec ically conduc ing GaN subs a es
[133, 140]. Mo eo e , GaN ma e ial is e y expensi e, so ha manu ac u e s p e e o
design diodes wi h he e ogeneous s uc u es such as silicon, SiC, and e en za i e [147].
On he o he hand, he g ea majo i y o he exis ing GaN ac i e swi ches a e High
Elec on Mobili y T ansis o s (HEMTs) and hei de i a i es [133, 139, 140]. An HEMT
is an he e ojunc ion de ice composed by an AlGaN laye o med on op o a GaN sub-
s a e. These de ices ep esen a ema kable adeo be ween speci ic on- esis ance and
20
Table 9: Some o au omo i e g ade and au omo i e o ien ed GaN disc e e de ices a ailable on he
ma ke .
Company De ice Packaging P oduc name Vol age (V) I (A) @ Tc (ºC)
GS66516T 650 V 47 @ 100
GS66516B 650 V 47 @ 100
T anspho m GaN FET TO-247 TPH3205WSBQA 650 V 22 @ 100
GaN Sys ems
E-HEMT
GaNPX packaging
*
(∗) P oduc wi h au omo i e g ade ce i ica ion.
b eakdown ol age [133]. GaN HEMTs a e inhe en ly no mally-on de ices, bu high
powe applica ions equi e no mally-o (sa e) de ices wi h high cu en s and ol age
capabili y [133, 153]. One solu ion o he no mally-on challenge is o make a cascode
connec ion o a GaN HEMT wi h a low ol age Si MOSFET. In ha way, he ga e d i e
is he same as o a Si MOSFET (no mally-o ) [146, 149]. Howe e , he main disad an-
ages o cu en au omo i e GaN de ices a e he low ol age and cu en a ings ( able 9)
and, on he o he hand, he need o package wo swi ching de ices in a leaded mul ichip
package [146, 149]. Addi ionally, he e a e only a ew GaN powe de ices a ailable in he
ma ke ( able 9), as mos o hem a e p o o ypes.
C. Elec ical equi emen s o au omo i e WBG powe s age dimensioning
Once he mos sui able powe semiconduc o de ices a ailable in he ma ke ha e
been iden i ied, i is impo an o de ine he elec ical equi emen s (in e ms o ol age
blocking and cu en handling capabili ies) o be me by nex gene a ion HEV/EV powe
con e e s.
Vol age equi emen s mainly depend on he na u e o he ehicle and elec ic machine.
In his con ex , nominal ol ages anging om 100 V o 150 V can be ipically ound in
mild HEV ba e y packs [154]. Rega ding hea ily elec i iec ehicles, highe ol ages a e
he no m. Fo example, nominal ol ages be ween 200 V and 360 V a e common in ligh
o medium weigh ehicles moun ing medium ol age elec ic machines [44, 103, 154–156],
while ol ages close o 800 V o 900 V a e he no m in hea y du y ehicles including high
powe ol age machines [156, 157]. I is impo an o no e ha his ol ages can become
highe depending on he ba e y S a e o Cha ge (SoC) o du ing egene a i e b aking, as
well as o e ol ages ha appea in he swi ching pa h due o he pa asi ic induc ances.
Depending on he ba e y pack maximum ol age a ings, SiC o GaN de ices belonging
o he 600 V, 1200 V o 1700 V amilies should be selec ed.
The de e mina ion o he cu en equi emen s is no s aigh o wa d, as i will depend
on a numbe o ac o s, such as he machine maximum o que and powe a ings, and
also on i s o que pe ampe e p oduc ion capabili ies [44, 158, 159]. In synch onous
machines based on PMs, ield weakening cu en injec ion equi emen s mus also be
de e mined conside ing he wo s ope a ion scena io (i.e., conside ing he minimum dc-
link ope a ion ol age) [42, 44]. Thus, an analysis o he speci ic d i e would be equi ed
o he de e mina ion o he exac cu en equi emen s. F om he a ailable li e a u e,
i can be concluded ha maximum cu en s anging om 200 A o 255 A a e common
o d i e sys ems including 200 V -400 V ba e y packs and synch onous machines wi h
powe a ings be ween 50 kW and 70 kW [44, 103, 160]. Simila equi emen s can be
ound o IM echnologies, as cu en a ings o a ound 235 A a e common o 50 kW
IMs [47].
21

Signi ican cu en handling capabili ies will be equi ed o highe powe ehicles o
o e load ope a ion condi ions (80 kW-125 kW). Fo example, maximum cu en s be ween
400 A and 480 A a e equi ed o he synch onous machines p esen ed in [160, 161]. Fo
hese powe a ings, less cu en would be equi ed in elec ic d i es including high ol age
elec ic machines and ba e y packs [156]. Howe e , his ype o machines/ba e y packs
a e, in mos cases, in ended o highe powe applica ions, equi ing signi ican ly highe
cu en a ings.
Thus, conside ing he ac ual HEV/EV equi emen s and au omo i e SiC and GaN
de ices in he ma ke , and aking in o accoun he cu en a ings o disc e e de ices,
con e e s based on his echnology could co e he a o emen ioned equi emen s by
means o disc e e/ba e die de ice pa alleliza ion.
The main objec i e o he pa alleliza ion is o inc ease cu en capabili y and, he e-
o e, he con e e powe capabili y is also inc eased. The as majo i y o manu ac u e s
o e powe modules in which each swi ch is composed o se e al semiconduc o s (ba e
dies) a anged in pa allel, o be able o each he cu en s equi ed by he applica ion. To
achie e his objec i e, cu en dis ibu ion o each pa allelized de ice mus be as equal
as possible. Howe e , he e a e se e al ac o s ha cause cu en imbalances, among
o he s [162]:

Di e ences in he in e nal pa ame e s which cha ac e ize each de ice o be pa -
allelized. On he one hand, hese pa ame e s a ec he s a ic beha iou . The
a ia ion o collec o -sou ce sa u a ion ol age (VDSsa ) and he ga e h eshold
ol age (VGS h) wi h he empe a u e in ol es a cu en change. In o de o p e-
en high cu en imbalances, powe ansis o s mus ha e simila cha ac e is ic
cu es. On he o he hand, dynamic beha iou is also a ec ed by he a ia ion
o in e nal pa ame e s wi h he junc ion empe a u e, since de ices can p esen
di e en u n on ( d,on) and u n o ( d,o ) delays which can p oduce cu en
imbalances [163, 164]

D i e ci cui design. An op imal d i e ci cui ga e design is essen ial, since i
has a di ec in luence o e cu en balance. In his sense, he design mus be
symme ical. In o de o achie e his objec i e, d i e ou pu impedance mus be
con olled. The e a e also in he echnical li e a u e a ious con ol s a egies o
common o sepa a e ga e [165, 166]

Powe ci cui layou design. I is undamen al o minimize, as much as possible,
pa asi ic induc ances o educe he ol age peaks caused by di/d h ough he
swi ching pa h [167].
4.2. Reac i e elemen s and bus ba
As shown in igu e 6, he powe con e sion s age may include a numbe o passi e
elemen s be ween he ehicle ba e y and he powe semiconduc o s, such as Y- ype
capaci o s (CY) and dc-link capaci o s (Cdc).
The dc-link capaci o (o dc-link capaci o bank) can be conside ed as he mos ele-
an eac i e elemen in an au omo i e powe con e e . In o de o p e en signi ican
ba e y deg ada ion, ba e y cu en ipple should be kep bellow 10% o he a ed ba-
e y cu en [168, 169]. The dc-link capaci o mus il e he high equency cu en
22
MPPF-Caps
o MLC-Caps
Case I - high ipple
cu en applica ions
Al-Caps
Case II - low ipple
cu en applica ions
IC2
C1C2
IC1
Ripple cu en a ing
Capaci ance
Figu e 7: Capaci ance equi emen s o a ious capaci o echnologies unde high cu en ipple ope a ion
(adap ed om [172]).
ipple p oduced by semiconduc o swi ching a he con e e inpu side. On he o he
hand, as powe elec onics a e one o he majo EMI sou ces in a ehicle, Y capaci o s
can be moun ed om he dc-bus e minals o he ehicle chassis ( igu e 6) o e ec i e
EMI educ ion [170].
A numbe o design aspec s mus be conside ed when selec ing o designing his
c i ical elemen . Fi s ly, he capaci o mus be a ed acco ding o he ba e y ol age and
mus be able o wi hs and he maximum ms cu en ha will ci cula e h ough i . The
capaci ance alue mus be selec ed o keep he cu en ipple bellow he a o emen ioned
le els. A he same ime, he high equency ol age ipple ac oss he dc-link capaci o
should be limi ed o ±10% o he a ed ol age o all expec ed load condi ions [168, 171].
This second aspec is ele an o gua an ee a p ope o que con ol [171].
Ano he c i ical aspec is he s ay induc ance (ESL). The capaci o ESL mus be low
enough o a oid o e ol age ailu es du ing semiconduc o ’s u n-o swi ching and also
o educe swi ching losses on he semiconduc o [169]. This is o pa icula impo ance
when using WBG semiconduc o s wi h high speed swi ching capabili ies (sec ion 4.1).
The dc-link is a bulky elemen , and one o he main aul sou ces in mode n powe
con e e s [172–174], being, in gene al, i s li e ime sho e han ha o he o he compo-
nen s o he con e e [175]. Thus, p ope capaci o dimensioning and he mal managing
mus be ca ied ou in o de o ex end he capaci o li e cycle [172]. The capaci o pa -
asi ic esis ance ESR is esponsible o i s hea ing; hus, he lowe he ESR he be e
he dc-link eliabili y.
Aluminum Elec oly ic Capaci o s (Al-Caps), Me allized Polyp opylene Film Capac-
i o s (MPPF-Caps) and high capaci ance Mul i-Laye Ce amic Capaci o s (MLC-Caps)
a e commonly used in high ol age dc-link applica ions. In p ac ice, Al-Caps and MLC-
Caps allow high ene gy densi ies up o 2 J/cm3[172]. Howe e , MPPF-Caps a e p e e ed
o au omo i e applica ions, as hey p o ide a well-balanced pe o mance in e ms o cos ,
ESR alue, equi ed capaci ance s cu en ipple ( igu e 7) and eliabili y [172, 174, 176–
23
Table 10: Au omo i e g ade me allized polyp opylene ilm capaci o s capaci o s a ailable on he ma ke
o dc-link applica ions.
Manu ac u e Family Vnom (V) Capaci y (µF) Imax (A ms) ESR (mΩ) ESL (nH) Desc ip ion
Epcos PCC M651/M652 450 300-500 110-140 0.6 25 Fo M651/M652 modules
Epcos PCC HP1 450 300-500 80 0.5-1.0 25-30 Fo Hyb idPack 1 packaging
Epcos PCC HP2 450 500-1000 120-135 0.4-1.0 15
Fo Hyb idPack 2 packagingKemen C4E se ies 450 500 120 1.0 15 nH
Vishay Dale MKP1849 500 500-1000 120-160 0.25-0.3 15-20
Vishay Dale MKP1848 450-1200 1-400 2.5-54.0 1.3-54 >1 Fo PCB moun ing
Supe io In e media e In e io
Rela i e
pe o mance
Capaci ance
Vol age
Ripple cu en
ERS and DF
F equency
Cap. S abili y
Vol. de a ing
Tempe a u e
Reliabili y
Ene gy densi y
Cos
Al-Caps
MPPF-Caps
MLC-Caps
Figu e 8: Pe o mance compa ison o he main ypes o capaci o s o dec-link applica ions (adap ed
om [172].)
178]. Figu e 8 shows a pe o mance compa isons be ween Al-Caps, MPPF-Caps and
MLC-Caps. MPPF-Caps ha e a supe io pe o mance, hey p o ide a well-balanced pe -
o mance o high ol age applica ions (abo e 500 V) in e ms o ESR and cos . The
cos o MPPF-Caps is abou 1/3 o Al-Caps, and i implies he possibili y o achie e a
lowe cos , highe powe densi y dc-link design wi h MPPF-Caps in high ipple cu en
applica ions, such as in elec ic ehicles [172].
Table 10 summa izes a ious au omo i e g ade MPPF dc-link capaci o s a ailable on
he ma ke , including hei mos signi ican ea u es. In gene al, wo packaging echnolo-
gies can be dis inguished:
(a) Capaci o s wi h in eg a ed bus ba s ( igu e 9(a)), which a e speci ically designed
o a ious pa icula au omo i e powe module layou s. These solu ions p o ide
easy in eg a ion and high capaci ances wi h a e y low ESL ( able 10).
(b) Capaci o s o PCB o bus ba moun ing ( able 10 and igu e 9(b)). They allow
lexible capaci o bank and bus ba desings, which can e ec i elly educe he alue
o ESL and imp o e semiconduc o s swi ching dynamics. Fo example, in [169], he
DC link induc ance has been educed om 15,4 nH o 2,8 nH using an op imized
swi ching cell.
Thus, p ope bus ba desing wi h low s ay induc ance is equi ed when ollowing
he PCB o bus ba app oach and as swi ching WBG de ices a e used in he powe
24
(a) Epcos B25655J4507K005 au o-
mo i e g ade capaci o wi h in e-
g a ed bus ba .
(b) Vishay MKP1848 amily
h ough-hole au omo i e g ade
capaci o .
Figu e 9: Au omo i e g ade high powe MPPF-Caps.
s age [179]. A numbe o conside a ions mus be aken in o acoun ega ding his c i ical
elemen . On he one hand, powe semiconduc o s and DC-link capaci o geome y mus
be p ope ly selec ed in o de o op imize he powe densi y, as well as o minimize he
bus ba complexi y. The bus ba shape will be di ec ly in luenced by he powe con e -
sion s age equi ed by he speci ic ehicle d i e opology ( h ee-phase, dual h ee-phase,
asymme ic H-b idge, e c.). I capaci o cooling is equi ed, his will also in luence he
design geome y [180]. On he o he , e minal connec ions ha e a signi ican impac on
s ay induc ance and hei in luence mus be conside ed, and special ca e mus be aken
ega ding sha p co ne s and bends, as hey can cause eddy cu en s and, consequen ly,
ol age d ops which esul in addi ional losses and hea gene a ion [180]. Finally, i
mus be bo ne in mind ha he ESR o an MPPF capaci o depends on bo h capaci o
empe a u e and cu en ipple equency. In his case, he empe a u e dependency is
low. Howe e , he ESR signi ican ly inc eases while inc easing he swi ching equency o
he con e e [168]. Thus, his aspec should be ca e ully analysed in high WBG powe
con e e s wi h high swi ching equency ope a ion.
5. Ad anced powe con e e he mal managemen
An e ec i e ehicle cooling sys em a chi ec u e and pe o mance enables a mo e com-
pac powe con e e packaging, educing he p opulsion sys em size and weigh , while
inc easing sys em eliabili y and powe densi y [181–184]. Ne e heless, cu en app o-
aches o powe con e e cooling, in gene al, do no simul aneously mee he u u e
cos , pe o mance and size a ge s ( able 2). Fo his eason, he mal managemen ep-
esen s one o he majo echnical challenges o HEV/EV d i e designe s and manu ac-
u e s [181, 183].
The mal esis ance (R h) is one o he mos impo an pa ame e s o be conside ed
in he design o an au omo i e powe con e e . I indica es i s hea ans e capabili y
and de e mines he empe a u e g adien be ween he hea sou ce and hea sink. Fo
a laye o a gi en ma e ial, R h is de e mined by he ma e ial hickness ( ), he mal
25
Liquid
Vapo
Hea Sou ce
123
4
Wo king luid e apo a es o apou abso bing he mal ene gy.
Vapou goes along ca i y o lowe empe a u e end.
Vapou condenses back o luid and is abso bed by he wick, eleasing he mal ene gy.
Wo king luid lows back o he hige empe a u e end.
1
2
3
4
Hea sink
High empe a u e
(E apo a o )
Low empe a u e
(E apo a o )
En i onmen empe a u e
Wick
Casing
Figu e 14: Hea pipe based cooling ope a ion p inciple.
by phase change, i.e., he abso p ion o he mal ene gy in he p ocess o e apo a ion
(liquid o apou ) and elease o hea in he condensa ion p ocess ( apou o liquid). A
numbe o wo-phase cooling al e na i es, such as hea pipes, he mosyphon cooling and
he moelec ic cooling can be highligh ed [216, 244–246].
Hea pipe echnology elies on na u al o ces o ans e hea . Hea pipes a e com-
posed by h ee main elemen s: con aine , luid and wicked s uc u e ( igu e 14). The
cooling liquid is e apo a ed by he hea sou ce a one end o he hea pipe. The apou
is ans e ed o he opposi e end by con ec ion, whe e i is condensed and he hea is
ans e ed o he en i onmen h ough a hea exchange . The apou cools and con-
denses in o liquid, and is ca ied back o he hea sou ce h ough he capilla y wick
s uc u e along he pe ime e o he hea pipe. To o m he capilla y s uc u e o he
hea pipe, a po ous ma e ial is applied on he inne wall o he pipe. This can be done
using ei he me al oams (such as s eel, aluminium, coppe o nickel) o using ca bon
ib es [182, 247]. Due o he impo ance o he wick s uc u e, many wo ks a e ocused
in i s de elopmen and manu ac u ing in o de o imp o e he hea ans e [247, 248].
The main ad an ages o hea pipes a e hei lexibili y o be p oduced in all o ms
and sizes and he ob ained high hea ans e capabili y (hea luxes in he ange o ens
and hund eds o W/cm2). Ope a ion empe a u e limi a ions and e ical heigh a e
hei main d awbacks [216, 244]. The applicabili y o his cooling echnology in EVs is
demons a ed in [244, 249]. Howe e , he e a e mo e ad anced me hods able o inc ease
ope a ion ange while imp o ing hea dissipa ion, as is he case o pulsa ing hea pipes
(PHP) [250–253].
On he o he hand, he mosyphon cooling ( igu e 15) is a special ype o hea pipe
in which he luid is d i en only by g a i y o ces [216]. The hea ed liquid is less dense
han he coole wa e . The e o e, i ises o he op o he cooling sys em, o cing na u al
ci cula ion o he cooling liquid. Then, he hea is dissipa ed o he ambien ai h ough
a condense . Finally, he cold liquid e u ns o he sou ce and he cooling p ocess s a s
32

Hea sou ce
E apo a o
Condense
Fan
Hea
Column
wi h ho
luid
Column
wi h cold
luid
Figu e 15: The mosyphon cooling ope a ion p inciple.
again. Unlike he hea pipe, i does no inco po a e a wick s uc u e h ough which
he condensed wo king luid e u ns. The main disad an age o his echnology is ha
he sys em mus always be posi ioned in a e ical di ec ion equi ing a la ge amoun o
space.
The mosyphon echnology achie es hea lux ans e alues o a ound 230-240 W/cm2,
wi h mode a e empe a u e luc ua ions [245]. Many e o s ha e been done o imp o e
he hea dissipa ion capabili y. In [245], a pump has been inse ed in he loop o a y he
low a e o he coolan , allowing a cooling capaci y up o 500 W/cm2wi h a he mal e-
sis ance o 0.125 (Kcm2)/W. Likewise, NREL (Na ional Renewable Ene gy Labo a o y)
has de eloped a he mosyphon based sys em o cool he powe elec onics asocia ed
o an EV mo o . Wi h his app oach, 3.5 kW o semiconduc o losses ha e been dis-
sipa ed [254]. In [255], a powe module cooling sys em consis ing o a he mosyphon
ci cui composed by double-sided e apo a o has been p esen ed allowing a o al dissi-
pa ion powe o 1500 W.
The moelec ic cooling (TE) mus also be conside ed. TEs a e based on he Pel ie
e ec [256]. When a dc cu en lows h ough he module, a hea ans e ence is p oduced
so ha each side o he module is cooled o hea ed espec i ely ( igu e 16). This allows
o cool each semiconduc o de ice indi idually and uni o mly, leading o semiconduc-
o iso he maliza ion [256]. F om he elec ic design poin o iew, his imp o es he
p edic ion o de ice ailu es, he mal s ess, eliabili y and li e ime o he powe module
[216, 246, 249]. P ecise empe a u e con ol, as dynamic esponse, educed weigh and
small size a e he main ad an ages o his echnology, al hough he maximum powe
dissipa ion is limi ed o se e al ens o wa s, he e iciency is also low and i s cos is
high [216, 246].
The applica ion o TE cooling o cool powe elec onics ci cui s ep esen s a se ious
handicap [216, 246]. Howe e , some ecen app oaches inc ease bo h he e iciency and
ope a ion empe a u e [257]. Hyb id solu ions ha e been also p oposed [258], whe e cold
33
Powe de ice
TE elemen
NNPP
Hea sink
DC sou ce
Elec ical
insula ion
Hea dissipa ion
Figu e 16: Diag am o a he moelec ic coole .
pla e liquid cooling is combined wi h TE cooling. The cold pla e is used o cool he powe
module globally, while he embedded TE is used o ensu e he empe a u e uni o mi y
in he semiconduc o .
Finally, he solu ion p esen ed in [259] is also wo h o men ion, as i p oposes an
inno a i e wo-phase cooling sys em ha uses con en ional ai condi ioning componen s
al eady a ailable in ehicles, oge he wi h a con en ional wa e cooled cold pla e, no
equi ing he de elopmen o new echnology, while achie ing he bene i s o wo-phase
cooling.
5.3. O he cooling echnologies o high powe applica ions
Sp ay cooling [260] and je impingemen [261] echnologies a e somehow popula in
he indus y. Up o da e, hey ha e no been used in ma ke ed HEV/EVs, bu hey
can be conside ed as p omising op ions, since hey a e a cooling echnologies capable
o dissipa ing he la ge hea luxes equi ed in a high-powe elec onics de ices [262].
Wi h sp ay cooling, e y high hea ans e coe icien s can be achie ed wi h ela i ely
low coolan low, leading o ligh and compac cooling sys ems [260]. Following his
app oach, he e ige an is sp ayed in o ine d ople s ha indi idually impinge on he
su ace a ea o be cooled ( igu e 17). Sp aying educes low a e equi emen s, bu
equi es a high p essu e a he sp ay nozzle. NREL has de eloped a cooling sys em
based on sp ay cooling [203]. This app oach can dissipa e hea luxes be ween 150 and
200 W/cm2. Likewise, s udies ca ied ou in [263–266] demons a e he e ec i eness o
his cooling app oach.
Je impingemen cooling is simila o sp ay cooling, bu is pe o med wi h a lowe
p essu e d op a he sp ay nozzle and a highe coolan low, educing noise and he
possible sp ay nozzle clogging [261, 267]. As an example, [268] and [269] p esen a powe
module cooling sys em based on his echnology. Figu e 18 shows a compa ison o hea
ans e coe icien shapes o bo h je and sp ay cooling echnologies.
Dan oss Silicon Powe has de eloped a sys em called Showe Powe wich is based
on his app oach [201]. This elimina es he empe a u e g adien s, allowing o homo-
geneously cool la ge powe modules, and he pa allel placemen o many powe chips
and imp o ing hei ope a ion li e-cycle [201]. Ano he ad an age o his echnology is
34
Solde Cu
IGBT Diode
Subs a e: Al2O3 o AlN
Coole
Sp ay nozzle
Figu e 17: A powe module cooled by sp ay cooling echnology.
Hea Sou ce
h
Je
Sp ay
Figu e 18: Hea an e coe icien shapes o je impingemen and sp ay cooling.
he possibili y o using low-cos ma e ials, such as plas ics, o manu ac u e he cooling
de ice [234]. In [181, 261, 267, 270], he in eg a ion o je impingemen echnology in
anspo applica ions has been s udied wi h p omising esul s.
6. Conclusions
F om he e iewed li e a u e, i becomes clea ha he de elopmen o a sus ain-
able oad anspo sys em is o capi al impo ance due o en i onmen al, socie al and
economical ac o s. Op imis ic o ecas s ela ed wi h u u e HEV/EV s ock e olu ion
should be achie ed in o de o signi ican ly educe in oad anspo GHG emissions.
In o de o make HEV/EV an a ac i e op ion o consume s, a numbe o echnical
aspec s, such as e iciency, eliabili y, au onomy and cos mus be imp o ed. Being he
elec ic d i es a key elemen o HEV/EV echnologies, imp o emen s on he ollowing
aspec s will be equi ed:
35
1. A ele an e olu ion in elec ic machine echnologies will be equi ed o nex ge-
ne a ion d i es. In his con ex , a signi ican cos educ ion is pu sued and, a
he same ime, powe densi ies mus be imp o ed while educing powe losses and
imp o ing e iciency.
In some aspec s, hese a ge s lead o opposi e design concep s. Cos educ ion
equi es he in es iga ion on non a e ea h based machine echnologies (IMs, SRMs
and PM-assis ed SynRMs a e being mainly conside ed). Howe e , his echnologies
ha e a signi ican ly lowe powe densi y han a e ea h based machines, making
i di icul o achie e he olume educ ions a ge ed by he in e na ional agen s.
Thus, i can be concluded ha an ex ensi e esea ch in HSEM echnology (wi h
mechanical speeds beyond 10000 pm) would be conduc ed in he ollowing yea s
in o de o simul aneously achie e he a o emen ioned a ge s. Due o he speci ic
equi emen s o au omo i e machines, a numbe o elec omechanical aspec s and
he usage o ad anced ma e ials should be in es iga ed o he success o his high
speed echnology.
2. To que con ol o au omo i e HSEMs can be challenging, mainly due o he high
undamen al- o-sampling equency a ios o p ope cu en egula ion, and due o
he di icul ies o implemen eliable ield weakening algo i hms wi h such a ios.
As i could di icul o implemen eliable ad anced egula ion s uc u es unde
high non-linea i ies (common in au omo i e machines), i can be concluded ha
a signi ican educ ion o he execu ion ime o he con olle is equi ed o nex
gene a ion HEV/EV d i e con olle s.
3. As his con olle execu ion ime educ ion implies he inc ease o he swi ching e-
quency o he powe con e e , and aking in o accoun ha in e na ional agen s
equi e a signi ican imp o emen in he con e e e iciency, i becomes manda-
o y o in oduce WBG echnologies wi h e y low swi ching losses in au omo i e
d i e sys ems powe con e sion s ages. F om he a ailable WBG echnology, SiC
Scho ky diodes and SiC MOSFETs could be p e e ed due o hei ea u es. Cu -
en handling equi emen s could be achie ed by means o he pa alleliza ion o
a ailable au omo i e g ade disc e e de ices, ba e dies, o using high powe modu-
les om he majo WBG powe semiconduc o manu ac u e s.
The pa icula i ies de i ed om he high swi ching speed o such WBG de ices will
equi e a p ope powe con e e layou design, specially ega ding bus ba and
powe semiconduc o placemen . In his con ex , i is concluded ha MPPF-Caps
could be p e e ed due o hei well-balance pe o mance o high ol age applica-
ions. I will be also equi ed o use capaci o s wi h he lowes ESL possible in
o de o educe he s ay induc ances and, consequen ly, minimize he o e ol ages
p oduced du ing as swi ching.
4. Finally, a numbe o ele an conside a ions ega ding u u e HEV/EV d i e cooling
sys ems mus be aken in o accoun . Being he high powe densi y a manda o y
equi emen , cu en s a e o he a shows ha mos comme cial HEV/EVs use
sepa a e liquid-cooling sys ems o he powe elec onics and he elec ic machine.
Gene ally, di ec cooling s uc u es a e used in he powe con e e s in o de o
educe he he mal esis ance and imp o e he eliabili y o he d i e. Howe e ,
he cos s associa ed wi h his cooling a chi ec u e a e high.
36
One clea endency o cos educ ion leads o he elimina ion o one o he liquid
cooling loops. Howe e , his implies ha he nominal coolan empe a u e o he
powe semiconduc o s is inc eased om 65 ◦C o 105 ◦C. This equi es an op i-
miza ion o he cooling sys em o he mal esis ance minimiza ion, and a numbe
o cooling concep s such as double sided cooling o mic ochanneled cold pla es a e
being implemen ed and in es iga ed. On he o he hand, high pe o mance ai -
cooling is also being conside ed o achie e signi ican cos educ ions. Howe e ,
he cooling e iciency is e y low when compa ed o liquid-cooling, and op imized
designs a e equi ed in o de o make use o he ci cula ing ai low p oduced when
he ehicle is in mo ion. In bo h scena ios, educed powe losses o WBG de ices
would make hem manda o y o he powe con e sion s age.
Las bu no leas , i is impo an o poin ou ha a g ea numbe o in es iga ions
ega ding al e na i e cooling a chi ec u es, such as sp ay cooling, je impingemen
cooling, hea pipes, he mosyphon and he moelec ic cooling a e being conside ed,
among o he s. This echnologies exhibi in e es ing ea u es, bu hey mus be
u he in es iga ed o hei implemen a ion in eal HEV/EVs.
7. Acknowledgemen s
This wo k has been pa ially suppo ed by he Depa men o Educa ion, Linguis ic
Policy and Cul u e o he Basque Go e nmen wi hin he und o esea ch g oups o
he Basque uni e si y sys em IT978-16, by he Minis e io de Econom´ıa y Compe i i i-
dad o Spain wi hin he p ojec DPI2014-53685-C2-2-R and FEDER unds and by he
Go e nmen o he Basque Coun y wi hin he esea ch p og am ELKARTEK as he
p ojec KT4TRANS (KK-2015/00047 and KK-2016/00061), as well as by he p og am
o suppo he specializa ion o Ph.D esea che s a UPV/EHU ESPDOC16/25.
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