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1 | INTRODUCTION
Recognising and espec ing alue plu alism is needed o nu u -
ing sus ainable human– na u e ela ionships and human well- being
(IPBES, 2019; Wallace e al., 2021). Resea ch in o alue plu al-
ism p o ides a lens h ough which o be e unde s and cogni i e
models abou human– na u e ela ions (Mu adian & Pascual, 2018;
O'Conno & Ken e , 2019) and he di e si y o alues abou na u e
(Chan e al., 2016, 2018; Díaz e al. 2018; Pascual e al., 2017; Za a-
Cal o e al., 2020). Recen explo a ions in o he links be ween alues
and belie s as ela ed o people's pe sonal iden i ies (e.g. in ela ion
o connec edness o na u e, place iden i y and cul u al iden i y;
Kleespies & Die kes, 2020), d awing on long- e m s udies o he
co- cons uc i e ela ions be ween indi iduals, collec i es and na-
u e (Ba eson, 2000; G eide & Ga ko ich, 1994), p omise o be a
powe ul lens h ough which o map ou human– na u e ela ions and
associa ed alue sys ems.
The ole o language in discussions abou conse a ion o na u e
has been en iched by he pa allels d awn be ween cul u al and bio-
logical di e si y (P e y e al., 2009) and h ough esea ch in ields
such as ecolinguis ics and linguis ic an h opology (Du an i, 2009; Fill
& Mühlhäusle , 2006). Bu a need o u he emphasis on language
Recei ed: 10 No embe 2020
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Accep ed: 6 Ma ch 2021
DOI: 10.1002/pan3.10205
RESEARCH ARTICLE
The Mul iple Values o Na u e
On he links be ween na u e's alues and language
Dylan Inglis1 | Unai Pascual2,3,4
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2021 The Au ho s. People and Na u e published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish Ecological Socie y
1Uni e si y o B is ol, B is ol, UK
2Basque Cen e o Clima e Change (BC3),
Bilbao, Spain
3Ike basque, Basque Founda ion o Science,
Bilbao, Spain
4Cen e o En i onmen and De elopmen
(CDE), Uni e si y o Be n, Be n, Swi ze land
Co espondence
Unai Pascual
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Handling Edi o : An onio J. Cas o
Abs ac
1. Recen esea ch in o he plu al alues abou na u e is ocusing on ela ional alues
as a concep h ough which o be e unde s and he b ead h and impo ance o
si ua ed human– na u e ela ions. Howe e , po en ial ele ance o language as a
media ing ac o in ela ional alues has no been su icien ly examined.
2. To in es iga e he links be ween language and alues, we explo e he in luence o
he ancien non- Indo- Eu opean Basque language (‘Euska a’) upon people's ela-
ionships wi h moun ain o es s in he Wes e n Py enees o he Basque Coun y.
3. Resul s based on iangula ion o da a om Q- me hodology, ocus g oups and a
socio- demog aphic su ey indica e ha while ela ional alues a e highly a ed in
all p incipal iewpoin s abou local o es s, he e is an eme gen pe spec i e ha
emphasises Euska a's key ole in ela ions wi h he o es ia cul u al iden i y and
place a achmen .
4. We conclude ha posi i e ela ional alues linked o Euska a may be seen as key
le e s o local sus ainabili y ansi ions.
5. The ac ha posi i e appo s wi h language can ha e a meaning ul ole in
human– na u e ela ions poin s o he need o u he esea ch in o he conse-
quen ial links be ween biological and linguis ic di e si y.
KEYWORDS
Basque language, biocul u al di e si y, cul u al iden i y, en i onmen al alues, linguis ic
iden i y, ela ional alues, sense o place
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h ough in e disciplina y en i onmen al schola ship has been oiced
(LeVasseu , 2015). Al hough ecen ly language has been discussed in
he li e a u e on en i onmen al alues as an impo an a iable in e h-
ical esea ch (Saxena e al., 2018) and has been highligh ed in e ms
o i s ole in ha bou ing indigenous and subal e n epis emologies and
wo ld iews (Gould e al., 2019), li le a en ion has been paid o he
po en ial o languages o angibly in luence people's human– human
and human– na u e ela ions (B idgewa e & Ro he ham, 2019). This
may be pa ly explained by he ac ha while he e is ample li e -
a u e on he in e linkages be ween cul u al iden i y, place and na-
u e (Hay, 1998; He nandez e al., 1998; I es e al., 2017; Raymond
e al., 2010), his li e a u e has a ely ocused on he ole o language
in shaping en i onmen al alues (Hanks, 1990).
He e we se ou o explo e whe he and in which ways language
in luences people's appo s wi h na u e. Mo e speci ically, we ask
he ollowing ques ions: is language a salien a iable in people's al-
ues abou na u e? And, a e ela ional alues abou na u e, beyond
he adi ional dicho omy be ween in insic and ins umen al ca e-
go ies o alues, shaped by he ole o language? (and i so how?). We
ackle hese ques ions by means o an empi ical s udy in o he links
be ween he Basque language (‘Euska a’) and he alues o and abou
moun ain o es s in a mul ilingual egion o he Wes e n Py enees
in he Basque Coun y (bo de ing F ance and Spain). Possessing a
base ocabula y and syn ax highly dis inc om F ench and Spanish,
Euska a is a language isola e and is widely conside ed as he las
emnan o p e- Indo- Eu opean language in Wes e n Eu ope (Hualde
e al., 1996). We conduc an empi ical analysis based on a mixed-
me hods app oach using he semi- quan i a i e Q- me hodology
(Zabala, 2014; Zabala e al., 2018) and quali a i e me hods (e.g. in-
dep h in e iews wi h key in o man s and ocus g oup discussions)
o ob ain as comp ehensi e pic u e as possible o he ole o lan-
guage wi hin alue sys ems abou (local) o es s.
In he nex sec ion, we p esen a concep ual amewo k ha
in oduces and links key concep s abou plu ali y o alues (em-
phasising ela ional alues) and language, as media ed by cul u e,
iden i y and place. Sec ion 3 p esen s a b ie o e iew o na u e
in he case s udy a ea and p o ides con ex ual in o ma ion abou
he Basque language. Sec ion 4 in oduces he me hodological ap-
p oach including he use o he Q- me hod. Resul s a e desc ibed
and discussed in Sec ions 5 and 6, espec i ely, wi h emphasis on
he links be ween Euska a and ela ional alues, as e lec i e o
meaning ul ela ions wi h na u e h ough lea ning and li ing he
Basque language. We conclude by highligh ing he link ound been
be ween language and ela ional alues and call o u he s udy
in o how appo s wi h language can ac as le e s o mo e sus-
ainable ways o li e.
2 | CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: LINKING
LANGUAGE AND RELATIONAL VALUES
The explo a ion o he links be ween language and alues abou na-
u e (and mo e speci ically ela ional alues) can be acili a ed by a
concep ual amewo k ha d aws on di e en esea ch adi ions.
Al hough ela ional alues associa ed wi h he idea o pe sonal lou -
ishing (Knippenbe g e al., 2018) and ca e (Wes e al., 2018) may be
a icula ed h ough appo s wi h language, he concep ual ame-
wo k ha we de elop he e ocuses mos ly on ela ional alues abou
na u e as connec ed o cul u al iden i y and place a achmen , and
hei explici links wi h language.
2.1 | Rela ional alues
Theo ies o ela ionali y as ega ds human– na u e in e ac ions
include hyb id geog aphies (Wha mo e, 2002) and ib an ma e-
ialism (Benne , 2010). While many social scien is s call o an
o e hauling o he human– na u e bina y (see e.g. Descola, 2013;
Haila, 2000), in e disciplina y sus ainabili y science e ains he
b oad socially ecognised ca ego ies o humans/cul u e and na-
u e/en i onmen while endea ou ing o aise socie al awa eness
o complex human– na u e in e dependencies (Fische e al., 2015;
Wes e al., 2020). Na u e's alues end o be unde s ood in a
simplis ic bina y way, ha is, as ei he ins umen al o in insic,
and his aming domina es la ge ac s o he global conse a ion
policy landscape (Pascual e al., 2021). This bina y unde s anding
o alues is being b oadened by explici ly ecognising he di e se
con ibu ions na u e makes o people's good quali y o li e, bo h
indi idually and collec i ely. One way o mo e beyond his di-
cho omy is h ough he concep o ela ional alues (RVs; Chan
e al. 2016, 2018; Pascual e al., 2017).
Rela ional alues encompass p e e ences (e.g. wo h and/o
impo ance o local na u e connec ed o o he - ega ding, beques ,
p e e ences) and guiding p inciples (e.g. ca ing as he ‘ igh hing
o do’) which o a la ge ex en can de e mine human ela ionships
wi h li ing na u e (Chan e al., 2016, 2018; Díaz e al. 2018; Pascual
e al., 2021). La gely in o med by he ea men o human well- being
in he social sciences, including esea ch in o indigenous and local
ela ional on ologies (Gould e al., 2019), he concep o RVs encou -
ages esea ch in o he impo ance o desi able ela ions wi h na u e
and among people h ough na u e (Himes & Mu aca, 2018; Klain
e al., 2017).
Al hough all alues a e ela ional in o igin ( alues o hings a ise
by means o ela ing o hose hings), RVs a e he e seen as speci i-
cally hose whose wo h o igina es in he ela ionships hemsel es
wi h na u e o wi h humans h ough na u e (Chan e al., 2016, 2018).
As a concep o ame he need o conse a ion and mo e desi -
able human– na u e appo s, RVs a e being esea ched in e ms o
hei base concep s (Chan e al., 201), componen s (Jax e al., 2018),
cul u al oo s— including local and indigenous cosmologies (Gould
e al., 2019; She ema a, 2018)— and applica ions in policy and p ac-
ice (e.g. B eme e al., 2018; Chapman e al., 2019).
Rela ional alues a e gene ally seen as combining gene al alue
concep s and con ex speci ic o place and, unlike ins umen al al-
ues, a e no eadily subs i u able, in pa due o incommensu abili y
(Chan e al., 2018; Pascual e al. 2017). The eme gen li e a u e on
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RVs ocuses on he impo ance o connec edness, ca e, esponsi-
bili y, s ewa dship, kinship, communi y and iden i y (indi idual and
collec i e) and pe sonal lou ishing (‘eudaimonia’) in connec ion
o how people expe ience na u e (Chan e al., 2016; dos San os &
Gould, 2018; Kleespies & Die kes, 2020; Knippenbe g e al., 2018).
2.2 | Cul u al iden i y
Cul u al iden i y unde pins RVs. I is o med ou o wo con es ed
concep s. Cul u e deno es he ‘ways o li e’ o social g oups and hei
ongoing p ocess, as e lec ed in he e m's e ymological link wi h
‘cul i a ion’. The e m e ains ele ance in he social sciences as a
lens h ough which o unde s and p ocesses o social media ion and
ep esen a ion (Mi chell, 1995). While cul u e is a luid ela ionally
cons uc ed concep , i s ill cons i u es a co e iden i y ma ke o indi-
iduals and communi ies (Eisens ad & Gie- sen, 1995). Meanwhile, he
no ion o iden i y has been adap ed in esponse o changing discu si e
in e p e a ions o he human subjec (Hall & Du Gay, 1996). O iginally
ounded on humanis concep s depic ing essen ialised, s a ic en i-
ies, inc easing a en ion is now paid o he ole o social p ocesses in
iden i y o ma ion (Hall & Du Gay, 1996). In his ein, iden i y becomes
a use ul concep ual lens o unde s and discu si e p ocesses which
ei y new hyb id isions o sel and communi y (Abdelal e al., 2006;
Buchol z & Hall, 2005). The composi e e m ‘cul u al iden i y’ is hus
aken o e e o a si ua ed way in which people in e p e hemsel es
and hei posi ion in social g oups and local places.
2.3 | Place a achmen , sense o place and place
meanings
The concep o ‘place’ comp ises bo h an objec o s udy and a
sou ce o meaning h ough which knowledge abou he wo ld is c e-
a ed (C esswell, 2014). The b oad concep o ‘sense o place’ e e s
o he meanings and a achmen s ha indi iduals o communi ies
may ha e owa ds a loca ion (Tuan, 1977). Unde s anding alues e-
la ed o place is c ucial o p omo e meaning ul place- based human–
na u e in e ac ions (B own & Raymond, 2007; Lee, 2011; P ed, 1984;
S enseke, 2018). Wi hin he concep o sense o place, ‘place a ach-
men ’ is a e m aken om en i onmen al psychology which empha-
sises he emo ional ( ela ional) ies o ex en o a achmen be ween
people and place (Lewicka, 2011; Scannell & Gi o d, 2010), whe eas
‘place meanings’ a e he signi icance ha people a ibu e o a gi en
loca ion (Manzo, 2005).
Sense o place is commonly associa ed wi h indi idual and col-
lec i e RVs bu unde s anding place a achmen can d aw om
di e se and o en di e gen me hodological and heo e ical a-
di ions (B ehm e al., 2013; C esswell, 2014). B oadly, place s ud-
ies ha e been pu sued h ough quan i a i e me hods (‘place as a
locus o a achmen ’) o quali a i e me hods (‘place as a cen e o
meaning’; Manzo & De ine- W i e, 2013). A dis inc ion has been
made be ween he conse a i e and p og essi e meanings o place
(Lewicka e al., 2019), wi h ea ly schola ship depic ing a place's sin-
gula i y as ixed and na u ally bounded (Di Masso e al., 2019). Such
essen ialis (‘seden a is ic’) iews o place seem o p edomina e
among place schola ship (Malkki, 1992), bu ha e also been chal-
lenged by he p og essi e heo ies o place as ‘ ela ional’, ‘global’
(Massey, 2010) and de ined by being in a cons an s a e o ‘be-
coming’ (C esswell, 2006; Massey, 1993). He e we conside sense
o place om he pe spec i e o ‘place as a locus o a achmen ’
(En ikin, 1976; Manzo & De ine- W igh , 2013).
2.4 | Language
Cu en ly, o e 7,000 languages a e used wo ldwide (Ebe ha d
e al., 2020). Spoken languages a e in cons an p ocesses o e o-
lu ion, and de ini ion o wha cons i u es a language, a he han a
dialec o a ian , owes much o socio- poli ical and his o ical ac-
o s which ully ecognise some linguis ic o ms as ‘languages’ and
s igma ise o he s ( elega ed o ca ego ies like ‘dialec s’ o ‘pa ois’;
Edwa ds, 2009). Beyond hei communica i e unc ions, languages
also cons i u e c ucial symbolic ma ke s o indi idual and com-
muni y iden i y, and language issues can be sou ces o con lic
(Dwye , 2005; Lijpha , 1979). The con inued loss o linguis ic di e -
si y globally implies an i e e sible loss o unique ways o knowing
and dwelling (Ne le & Romaine, 2000). Language loss can indica e
and ein o ce socio- economic inequali ies, as unila e al powe a -
o ded o some linguis ic a ie ies can indica e and in ensi y he
dominance o ce ain social g oups o e o he s (Blanche , 2017;
Phillipson, 2012).
Jus as people hold a ange o alues abou na u e, we posi ha
a i udes owa ds language can also be unde s ood h ough he lens
o ins umen al, in insic and ela ional alues. The ins umen al
alue o a language can be seen o a ise om i s u ili y as a ool
o communica ion and comp ehension and e en as a ec o o eco-
nomic gain. The in insic alue o language ises om he pe cep ion
ha i has in angible signi icance independen o i s ins umen al
u ili y (Smee s, 2004). One can also iden i y a hos o ela ional al-
ues abou language, wi h one's p e e ences and a i udes owa ds
language being inex icably linked, o ins ance, o indi idual and
communi y iden i y o ma ion and a achmen o place.
2.5 | Linking na u e's ela ional alues and language
Language, cul u e and na u e (as social cons uc ) a e inex ica-
bly in e ela ed. Cul u al and place iden i y can be in ima ely
connec ed wi h he idea o RVs in so a as hey a e exp essions
o he signi icance ha people's ela ions wi h na u e (includ-
ing he no ion o ‘place’) can ha e on hei own in e p e a ion
o ‘sel ’, he ensemble o symbols making up collec i e ‘cul u e’
and impo an ly, on hei e alua ion and a achmen o he local
socio- ecological con ex . In a gi en place, he local en i onmen
sus ains people wi h ma e ial condi ions o li e and a sense o sel
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o li e by. In u n, people sus ain and shape he local en i onmen
h ough knowledge, alues and p ac ices embedded in hei cul-
u es and hei languages. As a case in poin , indigenous languages
a e immense ese es o adi ional ecological knowledge (Ma i &
Woodley, 2012), and hus, in e es ing pa allels ha e been d awn
be ween biological and linguis ic di e si y (Go en lo e al., 2012;
Ma i, 2001), gene ally explo ed unde he e m ‘biocul u al di-
e si y’ (Me çon e al., 2019). Howe e , in e links and po en ial
c oss- e ilisa ion be ween language and na u e conse a ion
mus gua d agains non- c i ical, sweeping and non- consequen ial
analogies (Bas a das- Boada, 2002).
Linguis ic speci ici y is linked o he concep o place. Mos lan-
guages a e spoken in a limi ed geog aphical a ea and end o lea e
hei ma k on place, while con e sely places lea e hei ma k on
language ia cons an ly ei ied associa ions be ween languages
and hei ‘na i e e i o y’ (Myhill, 1999). Fo ins ance, i has been
posi ed ha people's ela ionships wi h place names play a signi -
ican ole in connec ions wi h locali y and iden i y cons uc ion
(Helleland, 2012; MacDonald, 2017). Resea ch in linguis ics has e-
cen ly ocused on language and communi ies h ough he concep ual
lens o place (Mon gome y & Moo e, 2017) while he sub- discipline
o ecolinguis ics places g ea impo ance on how (mino i y) lan-
guages in e ac wi h each o he in a socio- poli ical con ex , and how
linguis ic a ie ies, people and na u e coe ol e wi h a gi en place o
egion (Mühlhäusle , 2003; S ibbe, 2015).
Language is in cons an ela ion wi h human knowledge and
p ac ices associa ed wi h he use and expe ience o local na u e.
Mo eo e , language is a a iable exis ing in co- p oduc i e appo
wi h cul u al iden i y and he eby po en ially in luences people's a -
achmen o place. Gi en ha cul u al iden i y is la gely de ined by
posi i e disassocia ion om he ‘o he ’, in con ex s whe e speake s
o di e en languages a e in close in e ac ion, language may eme ge
as a key iden i y symbol and hus cons i u e a co e componen o
alue sys ems (Abd- el- Jawad, 2006; Taj el, 1978).
S ong ela ions be ween people's iden i y, local na u e and lan-
guage can also be e lec ed h ough place a achmen (Ramkissoon
e al., 2012). Simila ly, place names in local languages also o en
ca y social his o ies and consequen ly, languages— pa icula ly,
bu no only, hose ansmi ed mainly o ally— can cons i u e a
connec ion be ween place and memo y (Basso, 1996; Be g &
Kea ns, 1996). I is none heless impo an o no e ha indi idual-
and communi y- le el appo s be ween place and cul u al iden i y,
language and local na u e a e plu al and dynamic and a e u he
complexi ied by he une en spa ial impac s o changes in language
use o e ime.
We can ake he example o local o es s. People may see local
o es s in e ms o ei he (in insic) alue- in- hemsel es (indepen-
den o he alue ) o in e ms o he bene i s hey de i e om hem,
ha is, as a means o an end (ins umen al alues; links 1 and 2 in
Figu e 1). Ye , many o he alues o local o es s also a ise h ough
FIGURE 1 Concep ual amewo k linking language and ela ional alues abou na u e. Language he e is unde s ood as he local
e nacula o a egion, whe eas na u e e e s o all bio ic and inanima e beings ha cons i u e he en i onmen , he e ep esen ed by a
local o es . The main easons why people may ca e abou local o es s can be unde s ood in e ms o o es s (i) p o iding a means o
an end (e.g. economic bene i s) o people (‘ins umen al alues’: link 1), (ii) ha ing ‘in insic wo h’ independen o alue s (link 2) and (iii)
p o iding he oppo uni ies o alued ela ions wi h people and among people (‘ ela ional alues: link 3). In a simila ein, any language can
also be associa ed wi h ins umen al alues (link 4), in insic alues (link 5) and ela ional alues (link 6). The e ical ( hick) a ow (link 3)
sugges s ha language and ela ional alues co- e ol e in appo wi h indi idual and collec i e human ela ions. The concep ual amewo k
emphasises how language shapes RVs abou na u e (downwa d link be ween language and ela ional alues)
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speci ic, si ua ed human– na u e ela ionships ha canno be e-
duced o subs i u able alues (link 3).
He e, we mainly ocus on how RVs linked o people's cul u al
iden i y (link 3a) and place a achmen (link 3b) a e shaped and ex-
p essed h ough ela ionship wi h language. While human ela ion-
ships wi h a gi en pa o na u e, such a local o es , can shape one's
cul u al iden i y, he impo ance o language as an iden i y symbol
can also in luence alues abou na u e (link 3a). Simila ly, people's e-
la ions wi h local na u e a e undamen ally connec ed o hei emo-
ional ies o place, wi h s ong connec ions o local language and
na u e hus in a iably linked o place a achmen (link 3b). Al hough
no he ocus o his s udy, eudaimonia ela ed o na u e may also
be a icula ed h ough p olonged engagemen wi h language as a
c i ical link o local his o ies and iden i ies, which can, in u n, os e
meaning ul ways o li ing h ough deepening human– na u e con-
nec ions (link 3c). Ano he impo an bundle o RVs, including alues
o ca e, s ewa dship and esponsibili y o local na u e, may be ein-
o ced by long- e m p o ec ion o language as his may ca y speci ic
and embedded meanings o na u e and locali y (link 3d).
Fu he mo e, we posi ha language i sel can also be associa ed
wi h h ee ypes o alues (ins umen al, in insic and ela ional).
The ins umen al alue o language lies in i s communica i e (and
by ex ension i s economic) po en ial (link 4), whe eas languages and
linguis ic di e si y can also be seen as possessing in insic alue, in-
dependen o hei communica i e alue (link 5). The RVs amewo k
can also be applied o people's ela ions wi h and a i udes owa ds
language. The alue o a gi en linguis ic a ie y can a ise h ough
i s ole as a key symbol o cul u al iden i y (link 6a) and as a co e
elemen o local geog aphies and socio- his o ical meanings (link 6b).
Languages can also be alued h ough ela ions o ca e and s ewa d-
ship and sen imen s o esponsibili y o he local e nacula and i s
signi icance o a sense o communi y (link 6c). The sel - ealisa ion
and pu pose ound in such las ing ela ions wi h and h ough h ea -
ened local languages is a good example o eudaimonia (link 6d).
3 | CASE STUDY BACKGROUND
The case s udy was conduc ed in a egion o he Wes e n Py enees
e enly di ided be ween he F ench Py énées- A lan iques depa -
men in he no h and he Spanish Au onomous Region o Na a e
in he sou h (Figu e 2), bo h wi hin he his o ic and cul u al Basque
FIGURE 2 The case s udy egion loca ed in he Basque Coun y (Euskal He ia)
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Coun y (‘Euskal He ia’ in Euska a, li e ally meaning he ‘Coun y
o he Basque language’). This a ea is mos ly comp ised o o es s,
moun ain pas u e and small se lemen s and is di ided be ween
ou main alleys.1 Local se lemen s a e in close p oximi y o local
moun ain o es s, namely he A bailles and I a i, he la e being one
o he la ges and bes - p ese ed mixed beech- i o es s in Eu ope
(Bou quin- Migno & Gi a dclos, 2001).
The Wes e n Py enean egion has been isola ed om F ance and
Spain o much o eco ded his o y and has long been essen ialised as
a pe iphe al zone o spa sely popula ed wilde ness, wi h F ench geog-
aphe s, only a ew sho decades ago, calling i ‘ he end o he wo ld’
(Chade aud & Dalla- Rosa, 1973, p. 5). Along wi h pas u e and small-
scale ag icul u e, o es s co e o e hal o he egion (see Figu e 2)
and hos nume ous a e plan and animal species (Sanz, 2008, p. 23).
His o ically o ming a c ucial pa o local li e, he economic signi -
icance o he o es in he communi y has declined in ecen yea s:
while p ima y sec o ac i i ies such as anshumance s ill con ibu e o
local economies in he F ench alleys, he Spanish alleys in he sou h
a e mo e se ice based (Sanz, 2008, p. 178). Regional o es manage-
men plans mainly emphasise ins umen al alues as p o ide s o ma-
e ial and non- ma e ial con ibu ions o he local people, o ins ance
ia ou ism e enue (B ocas & Legaz, 2005; GDN, 1998).
While F ench and Spanish a e cu en ly he dominan languages,
Basque (Euska a) has been he main language in he egion o
mos o documen ed his o y and is s ill spoken o a ying ex en s
by Basque– F ench and Basque– Spanish bilinguals. In he sou he n
alleys, amily ansmission o he Basque language was se e ely
ep essed du ing Spain's ascis dic a o ship (1939– 1975), bu he
in oduc ion o Basque- medium schools in ecen decades has en-
su ed ha mos people bo n pos - 1977 can speak he language
(Ju ío, 1997). In he no he n F ench egion, he si ua ion is di e en :
al hough Basque was s ill locals' p edominan language o communi-
ca ion in o he la e hal o he 20 h cen u y and mos middle- aged
and elde ly people speak Euska a, he majo i y o young people a e
F ench monolinguals.2
Al hough cul u al g oups a e a om homogeneous, we adop ed
he p e alen local ep esen a ions used o di e en ia e cul u es
(p incipally Basque/Spanish/F ench) along his o ical and e hno-
linguis ic lines. Wi hin he Basque cul u al communi y, Euska a e-
mains a co e iden i y symbol. This is e lec ed in he ac ha people
om he egion a e called ‘Basque’ o euskaldun, li e ally meaning
‘(s)he who possesses he Basque language’. The language i sel has
been ein igo a ed in he Basque Coun y hanks o la ge- scale so-
cial mobilisa ion and he de elopmen a s anda dised o m, e med
‘uni ied Basque’ (euska a ba ua), om a di e gen se o dialec s spo-
ken ac oss he Basque Coun y (U la, 2012). The s anda d has been
widely adop ed as a means o educa ion and media and is he o m
o Euska a known and used by younge inhabi an s in he sou he n
pa o he case s udy a ea.
The high a ia ion in dialec s o Euska a and a ied ex en s o o -
icial s a us ac oss he alleys p esen ed a challenge du ing esea ch.
This was pa icula ly he case in he No he n si es, whe e we ind
signi ican ly dis inc Basque dialec s such as Baxena a e a and
Zube e a and less amilia i y wi h he s anda dised ‘uni ied Basque’
(Zuazo, 2019). The linguis ic p o ile o he esea che s3 o e ed pa -
icipan s he chance o use hei local e nacula , he eby gene a ing
a iche se o a iables h ough which o explo e links be ween lan-
guage, iden i y and ela ional alues.
4 | METHODS
4.1 | Fieldwo k
We adap ed ou guiding esea ch ques ions o he speci ic con ex o
he case s udy and asked (a) do ela ions wi h Euska a a ec he way
people in he egion unde s and and come in o ela ions wi h hei
local o es ? and (b) i so, wha o m do hese links ake? The em-
pi ical analysis was based on ieldwo k ca ied ou be ween Augus
and Decembe 2019. Fieldwo k had wo p incipal a ge s: i s , o
FIGURE 3 P e alence (p oxied by p o iciency) o Euska a in he case s udy egion. (a) Basque p o iciency among young people (18– 40)
in he egion (UEMA, 2020). (b) Basque p o iciency among middle aged (40– 65) in he egion. (c) Basque p o iciency among elde ly people
(66+) in he egion
(a) (b) (c)
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ga he in o ma ion abou local people's ela ions wi h he local o -
es and languages h ough key in o man s, ocus g oups and e iews
o w i en documen s; and second, o design and apply a ailo ed
Q- me hod alongside he adminis a ion o a semi- s uc u ed su ey.
All ieldwo k pa icipan s, including Q- me hod pa icipan s, ocus
g oup pa icipan s and key in o man s ag eed eely o ake pa in
he esea ch and hey all signed an in o med consen o m whe eby
anonymi y o hei iews and opinions would be gua an eed and
we e ee o in e up pa icipa ion a any s age o he ieldwo k.
A he ime o ieldwo k, he e was no local e hics commi ee no
a o mal e hics p o ocol equi ed by he Basque Cen e o Clima e
Change (BC3) o conduc ield esea ch.
Ou posi ionali y shaped he di ec ion o he esea ch. The au-
ho s a e bo h Euska a speake s, sha e an in e es in alue plu al-
ism abou na u e and we e la gely mo i a ed by he ac ha he
ole o language in human– na u e ela ions was an unde s udied
a ea o high impo ance. We se ou wi h he idea ha he ole
o Euska a in people's ela ional alues abou he local moun ain
o es s could be unde s ood h ough c oss- e e encing local pe -
spec i es (and alue sys ems) abou na u e wi h people's linguis ic
cha ac e is ics. Gi en he lack o a ailable empla es o empi ical
s udy o links be ween language and RVs, we assumed an open-
ended, i e a i e app oach ha was ecep i e o di e en possi-
ble connec ions be ween local language and na u e in he Basque
Coun y.
Key in o man s (18) we e iden i ied ia con ac wi h local own
halls and adio s a ions, and included his o ians, Basque eache s, ou
guides, illage mayo s, a me s, local a is s, o icials o egional ag i-
cul u al syndica es and dynamic young adul s. Key in o man s assis ed
in ob aining con ac s and p o iding ele an documen s and o en had
excep ional knowledge o he egion's his o y and communi ies. They
also helped o ganise ocus g oups, whe e on occasions hey held co-
media o oles, and in some cases helped loca e pa icipan s o he
Q- me hod. A emp s we e made o include a ep esen a i e sha e o
pa icipan s in e ms o gende , sub- egion o s udy, age and di e en
language p o iles (Basque, Spanish and F ench). The as majo i y o
hose ecommended as key in o man s we e men, wi h some pa ic-
ipan s a ibu ing his gende imbalance o he belie ha men we e
mo e knowledgeable abou egional na u e and his o y and o he s o
he ac ha men spend mo e ime in he o es . In con as , when
looking o a wide a ie y o pa icipan s o he Q- s udy, women
we e mo e likely o be sugges ed and a end han men. We a ge ed
p opo ionally simila pa icipa ion om he no he n (N), F ench, and
sou he n (S), Spanish, sub- egions, wi h key in o man s (NW: 6, NE:
5, S:6), ocus g oups (N:4, S:4) and he Q- s udy pa icipan s (N: 25, S:
31). When we ied o ge an equal di ision o Basque and non- Basque
speake s, i anspi ed ha e en in a eas wi h high le els o F ench o
Spanish monolingualism, Basque speake s we e mo e likely o pa ici-
pa e in he s udy. This may ha e occu ed due o one o he au ho s (DI)
being a o eign Euska a speake , a a i y ha encou aged some local
Basque speake s o ge in ol ed.
O he 56 Q- pa icipan s, all spoke ei he F ench o Spanish.
Mos spoke Basque (82%) and nea ly hal o he Q- pa icipan s'
p edominan language was Euska a (48%). Spanish, F ench,
‘uni ied’ Basque and wo dialec s o Euska a (Behena a e a
Basque and Zube e a, he Basque a ian o Zube oa) we e used
in he ieldwo k (see Q- pa icipan s p o iles in Table A1, in he
annex). Al hough all h ee languages we e used in ocus g oups,
Euska a was he mos employed language du ing ocus g oup
discussions.
The mixed- me hods app oach p io o he deploymen o he
Q- me hodology las ed se e al mon hs. Fi s , based on discussion
wi h key in o man s, a lis o possible alues abou local moun ain
o es s was d awn up, and his lis was discussed and u he de el-
oped by pa icipan s in ocus g oups. A e conduc ing a pilo ocus
g oup, eigh ocus g oup discussions (45 pa icipan s) we e held in
Sep embe 2019 in six illages, ( i e o which we e conduc ed in
Euska a, wo in Spanish and one in F ench). The ocus g oups we e
media ed by DI and we e di ided in o h ee pa s: (a) explo ing pa -
icipan s' ela ionship wi h local na u e h ough engaging wi h he
lis o human– o es ela ions, as p oposed by key in o man s; (b)
discussion o indi idual and communi y ela ions wi h Euska a and
(c) inqui ing abou any pe cei ed and expe ienced links be ween
language and local na u e. This yielded an ex ensi e ‘concou se’ o
po en ial s a emen s a icula ing appo s wi h local moun ain o -
es s (n = 120) which cons i u ed he basis o s a emen s elec ed o
inclusion in he inal se o s a emen s used in he applica ion o he
Q- me hod.
4.2 | The Q- me hod
Q- me hod (he ein Q) is becoming inc easingly popula in conse a-
ion esea ch, whe e i is used o unde s and people's pe spec i es,
p e e ences and alues (No dhagen e al., 2017, 2021; Zabala, 2014;
Zabala e al., 2018). Q equi es a se o s a emen s (also known as
i ems) om di e se da a sou ces e lec ing he mul iplici y o pe -
spec i es on a gi en opic, usually ob ained om a combina ion o
in o ma ion om seconda y li e a u e, key in o man s and ocus
g oups (B own, 1996). The s a emen s a e no mally p in ed on o
ca ds which a e la e o de ed by pa icipan s on o a g id (Figu e 4).
Al hough so ing p ocesses a y be ween s udies, pa icipan s ul i-
ma ely g ada e he s a emen s acco ding o hose which mos and
leas e lec hei poin o iew. This p ocess enables an explo a-
ion o he alue pa e ns ha unde pin he pa icipan s' a i udes
(Ellis e al., 2007). Resea che bias and in luence when designing he
s a emen s and guiding he es is a isk (Ockwell, 2008) and can
be mi iga ed by aiming o anspa ency and comp ehensi eness in
design and clea and concise ins uc ions du ing he Q- exe cise i sel
(Zabala e al., 2018). The 56 Q- pa icipan s we e a ied in e ms o
socio- demog aphic p o iles and came om 11 illages ( ou in Spain
and se en in F ance) whose popula ions anged be ween 126 and
584 inhabi an s (see Table A1 o mo e de ails).
We selec ed a se o 33 s a emen s om he concou se and
adap ed some o hem o mo e clea ly i wi h he ca ego ies o e-
la ional, in insic o ins umen al alues associa ed wi h he o es
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(Table 1). The Q- s a emen s we e ansla ed in o F ench, Spanish
and h ee Basque e nacula s. Wi h ega d o he la e , ou ini ial
ansla ions we e hen checked by con ac s luen and li e a e in
hese local a ian s, wi h his co ec ion cons i u ing an impo an
i e a i e p ocess which on se e al occasions p oblema ised he use
o ce ain wo ds in he o iginal wo ding o he Q- s a emen s. The Q-
se was designed o ep esen he b ead h o alues abou he o es
exp essed du ing he ocus g oup discussions, wi h an emphasis on
he a ay o local ela ional alues a icula ed. I is impo an o no e
ha when designing he s udy, we did no pu pa icula emphasis on
s a emen s abou Euska a in he Q- se i sel , as we expec ed ha any
links be ween Euska a and o es s (e.g. his o ical knowledge, uses
o he o es , associa ed my hs, alues and any o he ela ionships)
would eme ge h ough c oss- e e encing local pe spec i es abou
he o es s ( ia he esul ing pe spec i es h ough he Q- me hod)
wi h Q- pa icipan s' language p o iles (linked o a complemen a y
s uc u ed su ey). Thus, he Q- se i sel did no speci ically ocus
on s a emen s ha linked alue sys ems abou na u e and people's
language p o iles, al hough some s a emen s a icula ing his ela-
ion we e included.
Mos s a emen s in he Q- sample we e associa ed wi h ela-
ional alues abou he local moun ain o es s (n = 24), al hough im-
po an ins umen al alues (n = 7) and in insic alues (n = 4) we e
also included (Table 1). Gi en he luidi y be ween he h ee b oad
ypes o alues, we ca ego ised ela ional alues ollowing Chan
e al. (2018). Fo ins ance, i acco ding o he local pe cep ions and
expe iences he ype o well- being ob ained h ough speci ic e-
la ions wi h he local o es could no be eplaced o a ained ia
o he ac i i ies (i.e. a non- subs i u able ela ionship), such a ela-
ion wi h he o es was associa ed wi h a ela ional alue. Bu i he
bene i s o a gi en ela ionship could be ully o pa ly ob ained ia
o he ac i i ies, his would cons i u e an ins umen al alue o he
o es . In addi ion, some s a emen pai s a e simila bu dis inc ; o
ins ance, s a emen s #11 and #22 link he local o es wi h cul u al
iden i y: he o me e e s o a b oade idea o local cul u e (no
necessa ily limi ed o Basque), and he la e e e s speci ically o
Basque cul u e. This sub le di e ence enables us o e alua e he
ela i e impo ance o (Basque) cul u e in people's alue sys ems, a
ein o analysis assis ed by ques ions in he supplemen a y su ey
abou pa icipan s' language and iden i y. Al hough he Q- me hod
combines he e lec i e capaci y o quali a i e me hods and he
empi ical po en ial o quan i a i e app oaches, i should be no ed
ha he ope a ionalising o RVs like place a achmen h ough sel -
epo s a emen s may ha e o e ed Q- pa icipan s less oppo u-
ni y o exp ess he b ead h o place meanings han may ha e been
enabled h ough mo e quali a i e me hods (B own e al., 2015;
S edman, 2002).
Pa icipan s ended o ini ially ag ee wi h mos s a emen s, so
consequen so ing o ca ds in o u he g oups was unde aken
h ough conside ing hei ela i e deg ee o impo ance o he indi-
idual. Once pa icipan s had b oadly g aded he deg ee o impo -
ance h ough o ming se e al piles o ca ds, hey hen ans e ed
hese on o he g id using a like - ype scale om −4 o +4 (leas
ag ee o mos ag ee; Figu e 4). Q- so ing usually ook pa icipan s
be ween 30 and 60 min.
The inal dis ibu ion o Q- so s was pho og aphed, ansc ibed
and hen g ouped using he mul i a ia e da a educ ion echniques
p o ided by he ‘qme hod’ package in R so wa e (Zabala, 2014).
A e conduc ing he p incipal componen analysis (PCA), he
‘pe spec i es’ esul an om summa y esponses o pa icipan s'
Q- so s, also e med ‘ ac o s’, we e in e p e ed. The numbe o ac-
o s o be ex ac ed was decided h ough assessing hei salience
and simila i y (Zabala e al., 2018). These ex ac ed ac o s we e
hen in e p e ed h ough bo h ac o loadings (showing he ex en
o which indi iduals loaded4 on o each ac o o pe spec i e) and
z- sco es (which indica e how well each s a emen i s wi h each o
he ac o s ex ac ed). The in e p e a ion o ac o s is based on he
s a emen esul s, ha is, hei salience wi hin each o he ac o s
and he ex en o hei dis inc i e posi ion as compa ed o ha o
o he ac o s. S a emen s ha ha e s a is ically signi ican di e -
en sco es ac oss ac o s can be in e p e ed as being dis inguish-
ing s a emen s. Each ac o deno ed a dis inc iewpoin abou he
local o es and, aken oge he , he ac o s p o ided an indica ion
o cu en local alue sys ems abou na u e. Fou ac o s we e ini-
ially ex ac ed, bu wo o hese indica ed e y simila alue sys-
ems, and d awing on Zabala e al. (2018), we limi ed abs ac ion o
he h ee quali a i ely dis inc ac o s which s ill cap u ed enough
in e nal consis en a iabili y o he da a. To assis wi h iden i ica-
ion and in e p e a ion, each ac o was gi en a label ha e lec ed
i s key dis inguishing ai s.
Quali a i e in o ma ion was also collec ed h ough eco ding
pa icipan s' commen s abou he so ing p ocess and he a ionales
FIGURE 4 The Q- g id
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behind hei choices. In addi ion, we nuanced eme gen Q- ac o s by
c oss- e e encing hem wi h a socio- demog aphic su ey which doc-
umen ed he language p o iles o he Q- pa icipan s. The s uc u ed
su ey included demog aphic ques ions abou age, gende , educa-
ion and occupa ion; linguis ic ques ions abou languages spoken,
dominan language(s), language(s) o educa ion and home and na i e
language; and speci ic ques ions abou dis ance om he local o es
and equency o isi s o he local o es .
5 | RESULTS
Q- me hod e ealed h ee dis inc alue ac o s o ypologies o peo-
ple ega ding he local moun ain o es in he case s udy. We name
hem (a) S ewa ds, (b) Eudaimonians and (c) Euska ians. These h ee
dis inc pe spec i es a e ep esen ed by he alue s a emen s ha
ob ained he highes z- sco es. Figu e 5 shows he main dis inguish-
ing s a emen s used o in e p e he h ee salien pe spec i es as
TABLE 1 S a emen s used in he Q- me hod in ela ion o di e en ypes o alues
No (#) S a emen Valuea RV ype Sou ceb
1 Being in o nea he o es makes me eel ee RV Eudaimonia FG
2 The o es is cul u ally impo an o me as he home o he Basajaun and o he my hical
beings
RV Cul . iden i y KI
3 We should be espec ul o he o es RV Responsibili y FG
4 Ca ing o he o es helps me lead a mo e ul illing li e RV Eudaimonia FG
5The o es should be s ewa ded o u u e gene a ions RV Equi y FG
6 The o es e lec s he beau y o na u e In . — FG
7The o es is impo an because i enables a sense o communi y RV G oup iden i y LR
8The o es is impo an in people's educa ion RV Eudaimonia FG
9 The o es is impo an o my iden i y as a pe son RV Indi . iden i y FG
10 Ca ing o he o es and i s di e en species is a mo al du y RV S ewa dship FG
11 The o es connec s me wi h he cul u e o he egion RV Cul . iden i y LR
12 When I am in he o es , I eel a mo e spi i ual pe son RV Eudaimonia LR
13 People, plan s and animals a e all pa o he same web o li e RV Kinship FG
14 The ees o he o es ha e alue, e en i we do no ha e a ela ionship wi h hem In . — LR
15 The o es is an impo an place o enjoy ela ionships wi h o he people RV Communi y KI
16 Sensing wildli e in he o es makes me eel happy RV Eudaimonia FG
17 The o es is impo an because i is a place whe e I p ac ice leisu e ac i i ies RV/Ins Eudaimonia FG
18 Going o he o es is good o my heal h RV/Ins Eudaimonia FG
19 Human beings a e esponsible o he ca e o he o es RV Responsibili y FG
20 I canno unde s and my cul u al iden i y wi hou he o es RV Cul .iden i y KI
21 Reliance on he o es is a de ining aspec o my li es yle RV Indi . iden i y FG
22 The o es is impo an o my Basque iden i y RV Cul . iden i y FG
23 Connec ion o he o es h ough Basque place names is impo an in helping me
unde s and and enjoy he o es
RV Cul .iden i y LR
24 Being in he o es gi es he oppo uni y o enjoy and deepen ela ionships wi h iends
and amily
RV Communi y KI
25 I eel deeply a ached o my local o es RV Place
a achmen
FG
26 Fo es esou ces should be equally sha ed among all people in he communi y RV Equi y FG
27 Tou ism gene a ed by he o es p oduces economic well- being in he egion Ins . — FG
28 The clean ai and wa e egula ed by he o es a e impo an o ou well- being Ins . — LR
29 Non- imbe o es p oduc s a e impo an o he communi y's economy Ins . — FG
30 Timbe p o ided by he o es is impo an o he communi y's economy Ins . — FG
31 Ou o es is impo an o abso bing ca bon and egula ing clima e change Ins . — LR
32 The o es has always been impo an in and o i sel In . — FG
33 The li ing beings o he o es should be espec ed in all ci cums ances In . — FG
aType o alue: Rela ional alue (RV), ins umen al alue (Ins ) and in insic alue (In ).
bMain sou ce o in o ma ion: Focus g oups (FG), Li e a u e e iew (LR), Key in o man s (KI).
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Addi ional suppo ing in o ma ion may be ound online in he
Suppo ing In o ma ion sec ion.
How o ci e his a icle: Inglis, D., & Pascual, U. (2023).
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