Young bilingual s uden s’use o
me acogni i e s a egies o o e come
comp ehension di ficul ies when eading in
he o eign language
Oihana Leone , Elizabe A ocena and Eide Sa ague a
Abs ac
This s udy in es iga es he use o me acogni i e s a e-
gies by young eme gen mul ilingual s uden s in a
anslanguaging pedagogy scena io. F om a mul ilin-
gual pe spec i e, we unde s and me acogni ion as a
b oade concep ha e e s o he lea ning o hinking
p ocesses ha encapsula e me alinguis ic and c osslin-
guis ic awa eness. We ocus on he pe o mance phase
o he eading p ocess whe e s uden s deploy s a e-
gies and moni o he p og ess and quali y o he ac i -
i y. The pa icipan s we e 48 bilingual fi h g ade s in a
mul ilingual school in he Basque Au onomous Com-
muni y in he no h o Spain; 39.5% o he s uden s
had Basque as hei fi s language, while 60.5% had
Spanish, simila o he sociolinguis ic con ex o he
school, and all we e lea ning English as a o eign lan-
guage. Da a o his s udy we e collec ed in he English
class while he s uden s we e se in pai s o comple e a
eading comp ehension ask. Thei pe o mance was
audio- eco ded, and language- ela ed episodes we e
analysed o explo e he s a egic beha iou o he s u-
den s. This analysis iden ified episodes whe e s uden s
alked abou ei he hei language p oduc ion o lan-
guage use. The findings show ha al hough pedagog-
ical anslanguaging ocuses mainly on aising
c osslinguis ic awa eness, i can also de elop a b oade
me alinguis ic awa eness and acili a e me acogni i e
eflec ion. The s udy highligh s he link be ween en-
hancing me alinguis ic awa eness and he de elop-
men o mul ilingual s uden s’me acogni i e
knowledge o e ec i e sel - egula ed s a egic beha -
iou when eading in a o eign language.
Key wo ds: me acogni i e s a egy, me alinguis ic
awa eness, mul ilingualism, pedagogical
anslanguaging
In oduc ion
Recen ly, wi hin he mul ilingual con ex o educa ion
in he Basque Au onomous Communi y (BAC) in he
no h o Spain, he depa men o educa ion has es ab-
lished a mo e holis ic iew o mul ilingualism in he
cu iculum and has s a ed o ain language eache s
o be e se e he needs o he s uden s. The cu en
s udy is se wi hin a b oade esea ch p ojec ha aims
a explo ing mul ilingual s a egies o de elop s u-
den s’language compe ence in Basque and Spanish,
he wo co-o ficial languages in he e i o y, and he
o eign language English (Leone , 2018). One o he as-
pec s ha mos conce ns he educa ional communi y o
he BAC is comp ehension, since i is a undamen al
compe ence o he pe sonal and academic de elop-
men o s uden s. The educa ional depa men is cu -
en ly suppo ing u he esea ch p ojec s o explo e
new eaching app oaches o enhance eading comp e-
hension in an inc easingly mul ilingual educa ional
sys em. Gi en he impo ance o comp ehension in his
mul ilingual con ex , i is c ucial o unde s and he
s a egies ha s uden s employ o na iga e and en-
hance hei eading skills. This s udy, he e o e, ocuses
on he me acogni i e s a egies young eme gen mul i-
lingual s uden s use when moni o ing, handling and
comple ing a eading comp ehension ask. Acco ding
o B own and La son-Hall (2015, p. 137), ‘lea ne s need
o be able o hink abou hei own lea ning: how o
plan o i , how o s uc u e i , and how o e alua e
i ’. In ou s udy, we explo ed whe he s uden s a e able
o choose app op ia e s a egies based on a specific
goal o condi ion and whe he hey a e awa e o he e-
la ionship be ween he selec ed s a egy and he
ou come.
Me acogni i e s a egies in language lea ning
Me acogni ion e e s o he abili y o eflec on one’s
own hough p ocesses and o moni o and con ol
one’s own lea ning (Veenman e al., 2006).
Pin ich (2004)defines me acogni ion as s uden s’
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Li e acy published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Uni ed Kingdom Li e acy Associa ion.
Li e acy Volume Numbe xxxx 2024 1
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o ig-
inal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modifica ions o adap a ions a e made.
cogni ion con ol, which, acco ding o
Zimme man (1986), is pa o s uden s’sel - egula ed
lea ning (SRL), a p oac i e p ocess ha in ol es mo i-
a ion and beha iou oge he wi h me acogni ion.
These s a egies a e echniques and me hods ha
lea ne s can use o be e unde s and and egula e
hei own lea ning. In second-language lea ning, he
use o me acogni i e s a egies can lead o mo e e ec-
i e and e ficien lea ning ou comes (Cai & Zhao, 2023),
since hese s a egies a e ans e able ac oss languages
(Cummins, 2017). Based on he scien ific li e a u e o
he las decades, me acogni i e s a egies ha e been
b oadly s uc u ed in o planning, moni o ing and
e alua ion (Ox o d, 2017).
Chamo and El-Dina y (1999) iden ified he s a e-
gies used by s uden s in he eading and w i ing p o-
cess and classified hem in o me acogni i e and cogni-
i e s a egies. The o me includes knowledge o
planning, con ol o he p ocess (moni o ing) and e al-
ua ion. Cogni i e s a egies, on he o he hand, would
be ela ed o he ollowing ac ions: connec ing p io
knowledge wi h new knowledge o build meaning; o
use specific language knowledge o answe p oblems;
manipula ion o in o ma ion; access o esou ces (e.g.,
dic iona y and eache /pee s); and memo y s a egies.
D i en by he esea ch o language acquisi ion and
mul ilingualism, in ecen yea s, he e has been a
g owing in e es in iden i ying s a egies ha enable
he use o he en i e linguis ic epe oi e o mul ilin-
gual s uden s. Se e al s udies ha e highligh ed he im-
po ance o de eloping s uden s’me alinguis ic
awa eness and explici ly eaching o ecognise
c osslinguis ic simila i ies (see, e.g., A eagoi ia &
Howa d, 2015; Cenoz e al., 2022; Cenoz &
Go e , 2020,2021; Cenoz & San os, 2020; D essle
e al., 2011; Hopp & Thoma, 2021; Leone e al., 2020;
Leone & Sa ague a, 2023).
Acco ding o Cummins (2017), common ea u es be-
ween languages (e.g., concep ual elemen s, linguis ic
elemen s, and me acogni i e and me alinguis ic lea n-
ing s a egies) and indi idual cogni i e abili ies o a -
ibu es (e.g., o al communica ion skills) a e ac o s
ha influence each o he , o he ex en ha indi idual
a ibu es allow ans e s be ween languages. Skills
a e lea ned o e ime h ough he conscious lea ning
o s a egies, and once hey a e in he indi idual’s cog-
ni i e appa a us, hey a e use ul o making ans e s
be ween languages, as long as he social and school
con ex s encou age s uden s o do so (Cummins, 2017).
In his s udy, he ans e o me acogni i e s a egies
was a emp ed om a pedagogical anslanguaging
pe spec i e.
Acco ding o Ringbom (2007), simila i ies be ween
languages a e impo an a iables in he use o lea n-
ing s a egies, because, h ough hem, he s uden
seeks he e ec i eness o he lea ning ac i i y. When
mul ilingual s uden s make a conscious sea ch o sim-
ila i ies be ween languages, hey a e using lea ning
s a egies, and his beha iou can also be linked o
he de elopmen o me alinguis ic awa eness
(Jessne , 2008; Kemp, 2007; O winowska, 2016). In he
con ex o mul ilingual educa ion and language lea n-
ing, he concep o me alinguis ic awa eness, unde -
s ood as ‘ he abili y o ocus on linguis ic o m and o
swi ch ocus be ween o m and meaning’
(Jessne , 2014, p. 176), is closely ela ed o me acogni-
ion. Me acogni ion e e s o he awa eness o one’s
lea ning o hinking p ocesses, while me alinguis ic
awa eness is a subfield because i e e s o he eflec-
ion on he p ocesses ela ed o language (Ru ge s &
E ans, 2017). In he same line, c osslinguis ic awa e-
ness is a concep in which a en ion is placed upon
he language(s) in use and h ough es ablishing simi-
la i ies and di e ences. As indica ed by Cenoz and
Go e (2021), me alinguis ic awa eness can be consid-
e ed as pa o me acogni ion. These au ho s explain
ha me acogni i e awa eness, me alinguis ic awa e-
ness and c osslinguis ic awa eness can be ep esen ed
as h ee concen ic ci cles, as shown in Figu e 1.
As Cenoz and Go e (2021) s a ed, pedagogical
anslanguaging ocuses mainly on de eloping c oss-
linguis ic awa eness, bu i can also p omo e me alin-
guis ic awa eness, which is a b oade concep han
c osslinguis ic awa eness. In he ollowing sec ion,
we will del e in o mul ilingual pedagogies ha aise
s uden s’me alinguis ic and c osslinguis ic awa eness.
Figu e 1: Me acogni i e awa eness, me alinguis ic awa e-
ness and c osslinguis ic awa eness in language lea ning
(Cenoz & Go e , 2021).
2Young bilingual s uden s’use o me acogni i e s a egies o o e come comp ehension di ficul ies when eading in he o eign language
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
Raising me alinguis ic awa eness h ough
anslanguaging pedagogies
T anslanguaging is an umb ella e m ha encapsula es
di e en heo ies and p ac ices. Fo he pu pose o he
cu en s udy, we ha e coined he concep o pedagogi-
cal anslanguaging, which is ‘a pedagogic heo y and
p ac ice ha e e s o ins uc ional s a egies which in e-
g a e wo o mo e languages’(Cenoz & Go e , 2020,p.
2). Following he o iginal use o he e m
anslanguaging in Wales, pedagogical anslanguaging
is a pedagogical p ac ice designed be o ehand o de-
elop mul ilingualism and mul ili e acy (Cenoz &
Go e , 2020,2021). D awing om Cenoz and Go e ’s
in e p e a ion o anslanguaging, we adop a cogni i e
pe spec i e, iewing language as a ool ha media es
men al p ocesses. In his amewo k, Basque, Spanish
and English a e dynamically and unc ionally in e-
g a ed o cogni i e ope a ions (see Lewis e al., 2012).
Cenoz and San os (2020) epo ed he esul s o a
s udy in which in-se ice eache s we e ained o plan
and implemen pedagogical anslanguaging ac i i ies
in ol ing he use o wo o mo e languages o he cu -
iculum in hei own class ooms. Acco ding o he e-
sul s, he pa icipa ing eache s and hei s uden s
ound anslaguaging pedagogical s a egies use ul o
language lea ning and o inc easing language awa e-
ness. Uddling and Rea h Wa en (2023)also ound ha
acili a ing s uden ’s en i e linguis ic esou ces in sci-
ence class can enhance me alinguis ic awa eness and
p o ide oppo uni ies o language lea ning o new-
come s wi h limi ed p oficiency in he a ge language.
Simila ly, AUTHOR4 ca ied ou an in e en ion s udy
wi h fi h-g ade p ima y school s uden s in which
Basque, Spanish and English we e fluidly used wi h di-
dac ic pu pose. S uden s we e bilingual in Basque and
Spanish and ecen English lea ne s, wi h e y limi ed
communica i ecompe encein hisla e language.E h-
nog aphic field no es and ansc ip ions om ocus
g oup discussions we e quali a i ely analysed. The e-
sul s showed ha when discussing c osslinguis ic simi-
la i ies and anslanguaging s a egies, he s uden s ex-
hibi ed di e en le els o awa eness. Acco ding o hose
s uden s, he ac i i ies o enhance me alinguis ic awa e-
ness we e pa icula ly help ul when lea ning he o -
eign language, and he mos alued anslanguaging
s a egies we e cogna e iden ifica ion and complex
wo d decomposi ion.
In ac , one o he mos impo an unc ions o ped-
agogical anslanguaging is o enhance s uden s’me a-
linguis ic awa eness (Cenoz & Go e , 2021), al hough
i is wo h dis inguishing be ween me alinguis ic
awa eness and me alinguis ic knowledge. While me a-
linguis ic awa eness does no necessa ily in ol e
dep h analysis, me alinguis ic knowledge implies ex-
plici and e balised eflec ion (Cenoz & Go e , 2021;
Falk e al., 2015). Acco ding o Cenoz and
Go e (2021), pedagogical anslanguaging can boos
bo h me alinguis ic awa eness and knowledge; how-
e e , he deg ee o me alinguis ic awa eness needed
o c osslinguis ic compa ison will depend on he
lea ne ’s age and p io knowledge. Ye a highe le el
o me alinguis ic awa eness can acili a e associa ion
wi h p io language knowledge (Jessne , 2014;
Woll, 2018).
One o he mos well-known c osslinguis ic awa e-
ness s a egies is cogna e iden ifica ion. Mo eo e , a
posi i e ela ionship be ween cogna e awa eness and
eading has been ound (A eagoi ia & Howa d, 2015;
D essle e al., 2011; Nagy e al., 1993), ye s uden s
do no always no ice hem (AUTHOR2; Nagy
e al., 1993). In ano he in e en ion s udy ela ed o
he cu en pedagogical p ojec , AUTHOR2 explo ed
he ela ionship be ween eaching cogna es and me a-
linguis ic awa eness. The esul s showed ha he iden-
ifica ion o cogna es is ela ed o he linguis ic cha ac-
e is ics o cogna es. O e all, bo h s uden s in he
expe imen al and con ol g oups ailed in iden i ying
cogna es ha we e opaque a he o hog aphic and se-
man ic le els. Howe e , s uden s in he expe imen al
g oup showed mo e awa eness o he cogna e s a egy.
They concluded ha cogna e ins uc ion should ocus
on de eloping s a egies o iden i y non- anspa en
a he han all ypes o cogna es. In a simila ein,
Nagy e al. (1993) ound ha cogna e anspa ency in-
fluenced uppe -elemen a y s uden s’abili y o iden i y
cogna es. Acco ding o hem, e en a small o ho-
g aphic shi can hinde cogna e ecogni ion. In u n,
Vanho e and Be hele (2015) in es iga ed
i em- ela ed a iables ha a ec ed cogna e iden ifica-
ion. They concluded ha he o e all o mal dis ance
be ween he wo d pai s was he mos impo an p e-
dic o o cogna e iden ifica ion. Howe e , no only o -
hog aphic anspa ency de e mines cogna e iden ifi-
ca ion, bu also seman ic co espondence de e mines
whe he o hog aphically simila wo ds in di e en
languages can lead o c osslinguis ic ans e (Mölle
& Zee ae , 2015). Fo example, polysemic wo ds
may cause p oblems in c osslinguis ic ans e a he
seman ic le el (Lubline & Hiebe , 2011). Since o ho-
g aphic and seman ic anspa ency a ec co ec cog-
na e associa ion when eading, ins uc ion on cogna e
iden ifica ion should ocus on ‘helping s uden s be-
come amilia wi h high- equency cogna e pa e ns
and gain expe ise in classi ying cogna es based on
hese pa e ns’(Lubline & Hiebe , 2011, p. 88). Mölle
and Zee ae (2015) ca ied ou a quali a i e s udy
based on a hink-aloud p o ocol and ound ha in
c osslinguis ic iden ifica ions, cogna es con ibu e bo h
seman ic an icipa ions based on he con ex and pe -
cep ion o simila i ies. These au ho s sugges ha
Li e acy Volume Numbe xxxx 2024 3
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
lea ne s made use o he con ex when a ge wo ds
we e no o hog aphically anspa en while hey o-
cus on o mal simila i ies when cogna es we e iden i-
cal o e y simila .
Pedagogical anslanguaging in he cu en s udy
aims a eaching c osslinguis ic s a egies o de elop
eading comp ehension. Howe e , he de elopmen
o eading compe ence in ol es u he me acogni i e
and me alinguis ic knowledge. As indica ed by Cenoz
and Go e (2021), me acogni ion encapsula es me a-
linguis ic awa eness ac oss languages as well. When
lea ne s mobilise hei me acogni i e knowledge o de-
elop communica i e compe ence, hey a e building
hei mul ilingual compe ence ha d aws on me alin-
guis ic awa eness. We explo e bilingual p ima y s u-
den s’me acogni i e and me alinguis ic awa eness
when comple ing a join eading ac i i y in hei o -
eign language (English). We analyse how s uden s
use di e en me acogni i e s a egies oge he and
how hey na iga e ac oss languages o unde s and
and build new meaning. The ollowing ques ion will
guide he s udy:
RQ: Wha a e he me acogni i e s a egies bilingual
young s uden s use when comple ing a comp ehen-
sion ask in he EFL?
Me hods
A quali a i e me hodology has been chosen o unde -
s and he dis inc i e ea u es o he phenomenon and
i s complexi y a he han o highligh gene ali ies
(S ake, 2000). The pedagogical in e en ion epo ed in
his s udy is pa o a la ge p ojec conduc ed by he
Donos ia Resea ch g oup on Educa ion and Mul ilingualism
(DREAM) esea ch g oup ha aimed a de eloping s u-
den s’communica i e compe ence in h ee languages
and inc ease hei language and me alinguis ic awa e-
ness. Fo mo e de ailed in o ma ion ega ding he p o-
jec design, implemen a ion and findings ega ding
me alinguis ic awa eness g ow h, see AUTHOR1, AU-
THOR2, AUTHOR3 and AUTHOR4.
Resea ch con ex
The s udy da a came om he second yea o a 2-yea
esea ch p ojec conduc ed in a ilingual p ima y
school in he BAC in he no h o Spain. Educa ion in
he BAC is conside ed mul ilingual and is
cha ac e ised no only o ha ing he mino i y lan-
guage Basque a all le els o educa ion bu also o
he inc easingly p ominen ole o he o eign language
English. The educa ional law s a es ha all s uden s
mus de elop language compe ences in he wo
co-o ficial languages, Basque and Spanish, and a leas
in one o eign language, mainly English. Due o he
low social use o Basque, a la ge popula ion o s u-
den s in he e i o y has limi ed o no access o he
language ou side school; hus, ha ing Basque as he
main language o ins uc ion ensu es exposu e o he
language o all s uden s. In ecen yea s, he educa ion
depa men has es ablished a holis ic iew o mul ilin-
gualism in he cu iculum and has s a ed o ain lan-
guage eache s on new mul ilingual pedagogical
s a egies. The esea ch g oup DREAM wo ked closely
o 2 yea s wi h eache s and s uden s in a ilingual
p ima y school o design and implemen a p og amme
based on pedagogical anslanguaging o de elop
mul ilingual communica i e compe ence and o p o-
mo e mul ilingual and me alinguis ic awa eness. The
s udy da a came om he second yea o a 2-yea e-
sea ch p ojec .
The p ojec las ed 12 weeks and consis ed o
eache -led lessons du ing Basque, Spanish and En-
glish language classes o abou 40–50% o he ime.
S uden s wo k wi h he h ee languages a he same
ime in each o he language classes so as o ac i a e
hei whole linguis ic epe oi e and enhance me alin-
guis ic awa eness ac oss languages. In his a icle, we
ocus on he in e ac ion o s uden pai s when comple -
ing a eading comp ehension ask in a o eign lan-
guage (English).
Pa icipan s
The pa icipan s in his s udy we e 28 emale s uden s
and 20 male s uden s en olled in he fi h g ade o p i-
ma y educa ion. The language spoken by hese s u-
den s eflec s he sociolinguis ic con ex o he school,
wi h 39.5% o he s uden s speaking Basque and
60.5% speaking Spanish as hei fi s language. All s u-
den s we e English eme gen lea ne s. The c i e ia o
selec he pa icipan s we e a simila le el o mul ilin-
gual compe ence in he h ee languages as measu ed
a he beginning o he academic yea .
Da a collec ion
The da a we e audio- eco ded du ing a join eading
ac i i y comple ed by s uden s du ing a 2-yea p ojec
(see AUTHOR2). A o al o 24 ac i i ies we e eco ded,
wi h an a e age du a ion o 17 min each. The e-
sea che placed audio eco de s on s uden s’desks
while she ook de ailed field no es. F om he class oom
obse a ions in he fi s yea o he p ojec and he p e-
limina y analysis o he comple ed ma e ials, we iden-
ified ac i i ies ha p omo ed he mos
4Young bilingual s uden s’use o me acogni i e s a egies o o e come comp ehension di ficul ies when eading in he o eign language
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
language- ela ed episodes (LREs). We selec ed a join
eading ac i i y due o he low p oduc i e capaci y o
he pa icipan s in English. In pai s, he s uden s ead
an exposi o y passage ha was adap ed o hei p ofi-
ciency le el. The leng h o he ex was 86 wo ds. Once
he s uden s had ead he ex , hey had o answe ou
open ques ions. These ques ions we e p o ided in bo h
English and Basque o ensu e ha he s uden s could
unde s and wha hey we e asked (see Figu e 2). The
language used by he esea che was Basque, as i is
he main language o he school, bu he s uden s we e
allowed o use Basque, Spanish o English. We encou -
aged equi able collabo a ion du ing he eading by
asking he s uden s o ead in u ns. While one pa ne
ead, he o he would lis en and ollow he eading.
Each pai o s uden s was gi en only one wo kshee ,
so collabo a ion be ween he wo was necessa y, and
u he equi able collabo a ion was encou aged du ing
he discussion and ag eemen be o e w i ing he e-
sponses. This o ma was amilia o he s uden s;
howe e , hey all ecei ed clea and same ins uc ions.
Da a analysis
D awing om esea ch examining collabo a i e dia-
logue (Swain, 2000; Swain & Lapkin, 2000), we
analysed he collec ed da a by iden i ying he fi s
LREs occu ing du ing he collabo a i e eading ask.
As defined by Swain and Lapkin (1998), LREs a e
‘any pa o a dialogue whe e he s uden s alk abou
he language hey a e p oducing, ques ion hei lan-
guage use, o co ec hemsel es o o he s’(p. 326).
LREs ha e been used in u he in es iga ion wi h
young s uden s in bilingual se ings (Fos e &
Oh a, 2005; Lapkin e al., 2002; Ma in-Bel án, 2010;
Mayo, 2002).
Quali a i e analysis was conduc ed (E ickson, 1998;
Miles & Hube man, 1994) o he subjec i e in e p e a-
ion o alk ha eme ged om he da a. We ead
h ough ansc ip ions and field no es se e al imes
o disco e ing pa e ns ha cap u ed he s uden s’a -
en ion o language and hei s a egic beha iou when
collabo a i ely eading. Following Swain and
Lapkin (1998), we iden ified LREs in which s uden s
explici ly eflec ed on hei language use, ques ioned
abou language(s) and played wi h new language
o ms. In an ini ial open-coding p ocess, a o al o 198
LREs we e iden ified, o which 48 eflec cogni i e
and me acogni i e eading s a egies. The o he 150
episodes cap u ed me alinguis ic awa eness and
knowledge. In an axial analysis, LREs ela ed o ead-
ing s a egies we e classified acco ding o
p e-es ablished ca ego ies as ei he me acogni i e o
cogni i e. Fu he mo e, hey we e g ouped acco ding
Figu e 2: Answe shee o he eading comp ehension ask comple ed by s uden s.
Li e acy Volume Numbe xxxx 2024 5
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
o he pu pose o he s a egy used (see Table 1). In ac-
co dance wi h he guidelines o he E hics Commi ee
o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU),
he da a we e anonymised o ensu e confiden iali y.
Findings
In o de o explo e he use o me acogni i e and cogni-
i e s a egies he young language lea ne s use when
pa icipa ing in an in e en ion o de elop me alin-
guis ic awa eness, we will look a he quali a i e da a
ob ained du ing he comple ion o he ask.
The s a egic beha iou o he s uden s when com-
ple ing he eading comp ehension ask will be de-
sc ibed ollowing he s uc u e o he eading ask
( ou comp ehension ques ions). Once we analysed
he da a, we ound se e al examples o s uden s using
a a ie y o me acogni i e s a egies p esen ed in Ta-
ble 1. The s a egies used by he s uden s can be classi-
fied as (1) me acogni i e s a egies used o acknowl-
edge he di ficul y when comp ehending he ex and
(2) cogni i e s a egies used o o e come he comp e-
hension di ficul ies. Among he me acogni i e s a e-
gies s uden s may use when acknowledging comp e-
hension di ficul ies a e planning s a egies (e.g., ead
aloud and di ec a en ion); selec i e a en ion owa ds
unknown wo ds, keywo ds o salien linguis ic ea-
u es; and moni o ing s a egies (e.g., sel -co ec e -
o s, confi m o change in o ma ion, and sel -
ques ioning). On he o he hand, among he cogni i e
s a egies o hose used o o e come comp ehension
di ficul ies, s uden s can use hei backg ound knowl-
edge o make in e ences and p edic ions based on
known wo ds and con ex . Fu he mo e, s uden s can
also use s a egies o manipula e in o ma ion (e.g.,
ansla ion and e elling) and ask ques ions o cla i y
unknown in o ma ion, seek gene al help, o ge help
wi h spelling wo ds.
The s uden s, in pai s, ead a ex on An a c ica and
collabo a i ely answe ed ou comp ehension ques-
ions. Al hough, du ing he in e en ion, s uden s
ecei ed aining on cogna e iden ifica ion, hey we e
no explici ly encou aged o iden i y cogna es in he in-
s uc ions p esen ed. Howe e , we ound se e al e i-
dence o cogna e awa eness in he da a. Acco ding o
he da a, some dyads used hei cogna e knowledge
in a mo e accu a e way han o he pai s. We ound
some accu a e and inaccu a e examples o he simul a-
neous use o di e en s a egies du ing he eading
comp ehension ask. Tha is, we ound se e al e i-
dence o he accu a e use o cogna e knowledge along
wi h o he cogni i e (e.g., use o con ex ual clues) and
me acogni i e (e.g., sel - egula ion) s a egies. Fo ex-
ample, in Exce p 1,wefind an LRE be ween S uden s
1 and 2 when ying o answe Ques ion 1: Wha is he
p o ession o he people who li e in An a c ica?
In his LRE, S uden 1 emphasised he ad e b only,
which became a use ul clue o iden i y he co ec e-
sponse. In his case, his s uden uses he
me acogni i e s a egy o pu ing selec i e a en ion
on he salien linguis ic ea u e, he ad e b only. This
ad e b in o ms he s uden ha he only people in
An a c ica a e he scien is s; hus, he p o ession o
hose people mus be ha .
When looking o he answe o he same ques ion,
S uden s 21 and 22 (Exce p 2) show di ficul y iden i y-
ing he cogna e scien is . The di ficul y seems o de i e
om he incapabili y o iden i y meaning ul pa s in
he cogna e. Du ing he la ge p ojec , i was obse ed
ha s uden s made seman ic and o hog aphic c oss-
linguis ic connec ions ocusing on he oo , bu igno ed
he in o ma ion p o ided by he a fixes. In his LRE,
he e balisa ion sugges s ha al hough hey iden ified
he meaning o he co e mo pheme wi hin he cogna e,
hey we e no able o link he su fix-is o he oo .
The e o e, hey did no iden i y scien is as a p o ession
ha was c ea ed by combining he wo mo phemes.
S uden s 21 and 22 seem o be elying on he moni o -
ing me alinguis ic s a egy, sel -ques ioning and also
on he cogni i e s a egy o eso ing o backg ound
knowledge. Howe e , in his case, hei backg ound
knowledge has been incomple e, missing he unc ion
o he su fix-is .
Table 1: Me acogni i e and cogni i e s a egies o comp ehension iden ified in he analysis o he LREs.
(1) Me acogni i e (2) Cogni i e
Planning Read aloud and di ec a en ion
Reso ing o
backg ound knowledge
In e ences and p edic ions based
on known wo ds and con ex
Selec i e
a en ion
A en ion o unknown wo ds,
keywo ds, salien linguis ic ea u es, …
Manipula ing
in o ma ion
T ansla ion and e elling
Moni o ing Sel -co ec e o s, confi m o
change in o ma ion, and sel -ques ioning
Ques ioning To cla i y unknown in o ma ion,
o ask o gene al help, and o seek
help when spelling wo ds
6Young bilingual s uden s’use o me acogni i e s a egies o o e come comp ehension di ficul ies when eading in he o eign language
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
In Exce p 3, S uden s 3 and 4 made use o he
me acogni i e s a egy o moni o ing o sel -co ec
an inaccu a e esponse. A fi s , hey mixed he e-
sponse o he fi s ques ion (Wha is he p o ession o
he people who li e in An a c ica?) wi h he esponse o
he second one (Wha do hey in es iga e?). Howe e ,
la e , hey did a be e in e p e a ion o he con en , ap-
pa en ly due o combining sel - egula ion s a egies,
mo phological awa eness and cogna e knowledge.
Figu e 2shows he answe shee comple ed by S u-
den s 3 and 4.
Though he ansla ion was no accu a e, he use o
cogna e knowledge can be seen when S uden 4 fi s
men ions he wo d cienciak (Spanish/Basque), making
a seman ic and o hog aphic connec ion be ween he
English oo and he equi alen s in Spanish/Basque.
When S uden 4 ansla ed he wo d, she used Spanish
phone ic ules. Howe e , she also added he Basque
a icle -ak a he end o he wo d. She igno ed he su fix
-is , and ha could be he eason why she did no
ma ch he answe om he s a . E en hough hey
did no pay a en ion o he cogna e clue a fi s , hey
changed he answe la e on when hey ealised ha
he fi s ques ion e e ed o a p o ession and no o
he ocus o he in es iga ion. We canno asse ha
hey ans e ed he in o ma ion p o ided by he su fix
-is om hei e balisa ion. Howe e , i seems ha he
combina ion o me acogni i e and me alinguis ic s a -
egies helped hem ge he co ec answe .
Conside ing ha he ex was in he pa icipan s’
hi d language and ha hey did no know all he o-
cabula y in he ex , we ound many examples o pa -
icipan s ocusing on he mos anspa en cogna es
(e.g., dinosau and ossils) and a oiding o he clues
ha would lead hem o figu e ou he p ecise answe .
Tha is he case p esen ed in Exce p 4, whe e S uden s
33 and 34 a e looking o he answe o Ques ion 2:
Wha do hey in es iga e?
In his case, we can see ha hey elied on he mos
anspa en cogna es as he e e ence wo ds o answe
he ques ion wi hou making use o any o he
me acogni i e o cogni i e s a egy. As a esul , hese
wo s uden s commi ed he mos common e o du -
ing he eading comp ehension ask, answe ing Ques-
ion 2 (Wha do hey in es iga e?) wi h he answe o
Ques ion 3 (Wha did hey find?).
Mo e s uden s had di ficul ies wi h he second ques-
ion due o he seman ic ambigui y o he cogna e
s udy, which was in oduced pu posely in he ex in-
s ead o using he mo e anspa en cogna e in es iga-
ion. Fo example, in Exce p 5, S uden 27 and S uden
28 sel -co ec ed he answe , using he me acogni i e
s a egy o moni o ing, when hey ealised ha in he
second ques ion, hey we e asked abou wha he sci-
en is li ing in An a c ica in es iga ed (s udied) in
gene al, whe eas in he hi d ques ion, hey we e asked
abou wha hose scien is s specifically ound he e. In
his case, S uden 28 ansla ed he ques ion using he
cogni i e s a egy o manipula ing he in o ma ion.
When S uden 27 sugges ed ha he in o ma ion hey
had w i en in he second ques ion ac ually belonged
o he hi d one, S uden 28 empa hised and ansla ed
he wo d in es iga zen (in es iga ing), which is c ea ed
by combining Spanish and Basque esou ces ( he Span-
ish oo plus he ending o he e b o m [ge und] in
Basque). In he fi s eading, he s uden s could ha e
Exce p 1:
S 1: which is he p o ession o he people who li e in An a c ica? Scien is s, ez? […scien is , isn’ i ?]
S 2: ¿a e ? [le ’s see?]
S 1: Ze hemen ipin zen du: he only people who li e in An a c ica a e scien is . [Because i says he e: …]
S 2: Bai [yes]
S 1: o duan, scien is . [S1 w i es he esponse on he answe shee ]
Li e acy Volume Numbe xxxx 2024 7
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
ans e ed he meaning o ‘s udy’ei he om he cog-
na e pai s es udia (Spanish) o es udia u (Basque),
which could ha e been unde s ood as lea ning. How-
e e , in he second eading, he s uden s co ec ed
hemsel es upon ealising ha he wo d
’s udy’ac ually e e ed o in es iga e. In his case,
S uden 28 deal wi h seman ic ambigui y and accu-
a ely linked he wo d s udy wi h he ac o in es iga -
ing when en husias ically saying in es iga zen. The
cogni i e s a egy o esou cing o he backg ound
knowledge may ha e acili a ed he c osslinguis ic
connec ion. Simila ly, in he nex line, S uden 27
emphasised he cogna e disco e ed ela ed o he e b
find, which is in he hi d ques ion (Wha did hey find?).
These s uden s used c osslinguis ic esou ces in a s a-
egic way.
In con as , in Exce p 6, S uden 39 and S uden 40
iden ified he co ec answe a he beginning o he ex-
ce p , bu hen hey changed hei mind due o an
inco ec seman ic ans e . They linked he wo d s udy
o he ac o lea ning abou a school subjec ins ead o
in es iga ing, which was key o he iden ifica ion o
he co ec answe . In his case oo, he s uden s eso
o hei p io knowledge e en hough, in his case, i is
used inco ec ly; he s uden s only ake one meaning
o s udy: o lea n some hing o abou some hing.
In Ques ion 4: Wha kind o dinosau s li ed in An a c-
ica? The pa icipan s had o look o wo compounds:
plan -ea ing and mea -ea ing, in o de o answe co -
ec ly. Mos o he dyads we e able o find a co ec
o pa ially co ec esponse. We ound e idence o s u-
den s’s a egic beha iou and mo phological awa e-
ness ha may ha e been acqui ed as a esul o expo-
su e o anslanguaging ma e ials. In Exce p 7,
S uden s 7 and 8 discuss he meaning o he wo d
mea -ea ing. They accu a ely use hei backg ound
knowledge abou he opic along wi h mo phological
awa eness o answe he ques ion. S uden 7
Exce p 2:
S 21: zein da An a ikan bizi di en pe sonen lanbidea? [which is he p o ession o he people who li e in An a c ica?]
S 22: he only people who li e in An a c ica a e [he poin s ou he wo d scien is ]
S 21: nik e e bai us e du ho i [I also hink i is ha ]
S 22: ya, baina esque ez du ja zen [yes, bu i doesn’ say ha ]
S 21: ya [Yeah]
R: Ze ez du ja zen? [wha is no said?]
S 22: adibidez, eh, eu en lanbidea, p o ession hi za ez du ja zen e a o duan ez daki . [Fo example, hei job, he wo d
p o ession is no he e, so I don’ know.]
[They decide o mo e on o he second ques ion]
8Young bilingual s uden s’use o me acogni i e s a egies o o e come comp ehension di ficul ies when eading in he o eign language
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
immedia ely iden ified he co ec esponse. When he
esea che asked he o go on explaining how she
knew he meaning o mea -ea ing, she s a ed ha as
she knew he meaning o mea and ea sepa a ely, she
was able o find ou he meaning o mea -ea ing. She
also p o ided ansla ion o each pa (mea /
ha agia/ca ne; ea /jan) in Basque and Spanish, as well
as he equi alen wo d (ha agijalea) in Basque. Then,
when he esea che made a c osslinguis ic connec ion
be ween he way mea -ea ing and ha gijalea a e o med,
bo h s uden s iden ified he wo ds o be compounds
showing o ha e a decla a i e knowledge o
Exce p 3:
S 3: Which is he p o ession o he people who li e in An a c ica? Zein da An a ikan bizi di en biz anleen lanbidea?
[S 3 eads he ques ion in Basque]
[skimming]
S 4: ‘Cienciak’? (Spa)
[skimming]
S 4: S udy he wea he , clima e and land.
S 3: bai? Ho i? [Really? Tha one?]
[S 4 w i es he esponse]
S 4: Wha do hey in es iga e? Ze ike zen du e? [They ead he ques ion in Basque]
[Skimming]
S 3: hau dago xa o, hau da, (.) ez da hemen? [This is w ong, his is no he e] [He ealizes ha he fi s esponse
ma ches Q2; S 4 e ases he answe om Q1]
S 4: da ‘scien is ’. Ja zen dugu? [i ’s‘scien is ’. Do we pu i ?] [S 4 changes he esponse o Q1]
Li e acy Volume Numbe xxxx 2024 9
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
WOLL, N. (2018) In es iga ing dimensions o me alinguis ic awa e-
ness: wha hink-aloud p o ocols e ealed abou he cogni i e p o-
cesses in ol ed in posi i e ans e om L2 o L3. Language Awa e-
ness, 27.1, pp. 67–85.
ZIMMERMAN, B. J. (1986) Becoming a sel - egula ed lea ne : which
a e he key subp ocesses? Con empo a y Educa ional Psychology,11,
pp. 307–313.
CONTACT THE AUTHORS
Oihana Leone , Depa men o Educa ional
Sciences, Facul y o Educa ion, Philosophy and
An h opology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
(UPV/EHU), Tolosa Hi ibidea 70, 20018
Donos ia, Spain.
email: [email p o ec ed]
Elizabe A ocena, Depa men o Didac ics o
Language and Li e a u e, Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Donos ia, Spain
Eide Sa ague a, Depa men o Educa ional
Sciences, Facul y o Educa ion, Philosophy and
An h opology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
(UPV/EHU), Donos ia, Spain
16 Young bilingual s uden s’use o me acogni i e s a egies o o e come comp ehension di ficul ies when eading in he o eign language
© UKLA.
17414369, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/li .12383 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [21/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
