The de elopmen o s uden au onomy in Spain o e he
las 10 yea s: a e iew
Oma Ga cía Zabale a and Elizabe h Pé ez-Izagui e
Depa men o Social Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU),
Donos ia/San Sebas ián, Spain; bDepa men , o Didac ics and School O ganisa ion (DOE)
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Donos ia/San Sebas ián, Spain
This is an Accep ed Manusc ip o an a icle published by Taylo & F ancis in [EDUCATIONAL
REVIEW] on [24 Jan 2022.], a ailable a : h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00131911.2021.1987389.
To ci e his a icle: Oma Ga cía Zabale a & Elizabe h Pé ez-Izagui e (2022): The
de elopmen o s uden au onomy in Spain o e he las 10 yea s: a e iew, Educa ional
Re iew, DOI: 10.1080/00131911.2021.1987389
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00131911.2021.1987389
Ga cía Zabale a, O., & Pé ez-Izagui e, E. (2022). The de elopmen o s uden au onomy in Spain o e he las 10 yea s: a e iew.
Educa ional Re iew, 75(7), 1329–1348. This is an Accep ed Manusc ip o an a icle published by Taylo & F ancis in
Educa ional Re iew on 24 Jan 2022, a ailable a : h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00131911.2021.1987389
The de elopmen o s uden au onomy in Spain o e he las 10 yea s: a
e iew
This pape is based on a e iew o s udies ocusing on s uden au onomy in ea ly
childhood, p ima y, and seconda y educa ion in Spain published in he las 10 yea s.
Au onomy is de ined as he capaci y o indi iduals o ac in a sel -de e mined way.
Educa ional ins i u ions play a key ole in he de elopmen o au onomy h ough
expe ience, and s uden s demons a e mo e au onomy in lea ning when hey a e olde .
The me hod used in his pape consis s o an o e iew o empi ical s udies om
di e en da abases and he applica ion o h ee p e-de ined il e s. A o al o 41 s udies
is analysed and c i ically assessed in ela ion o (1) he a ea o knowledge and le el o
schooling, (2) he de ini ion o au onomy, (3) he me hod used, and (4) he elemen s
in luencing s uden au onomy. Resul s indica e ha (1) physical educa ion in seconda y
educa ion is he mos esea ched a ea, (2) mos s udies ha e de ined au onomy and used
sel -de e mina ion heo y as a amewo k o measu ing s uden au onomy, (3) he
majo i y o s udies ha e used quan i a i e me hods and a s uden sample, and (4)
au onomy suppo p o ided by eache s posi i ely in luences s uden au onomy. In
addi ion, he esul s show ha in insic elemen s, such as he de elopmen o s able
indi idual iden i y and psychological esou ces, enhance s uden au onomy. The pape
concludes ha u u e esea ch should be aimed a a mo e speci ic concep ualisa ion o
s uden au onomy o be assessed, measu ed, and p omo ed in di e en in e na ional
educa ional en i onmen s and a eas o knowledge.
Keywo ds: s uden au onomy, Spain, e iew, sel -de e mina ion heo y (SDT),
au onomy suppo .
In oduc ion
Since he second hal o he wen ie h cen u y, many in luen ial heo is s o pedagogy ha e
highligh ed au onomy as one o he main objec i es in educa ion. Fo ins ance, Pe e s (1979)
poin ed ou ha a ional au onomy is he capaci y o eely de ine one’s own belie s and alues,
which is an essen ial human p ope y ha should be add essed in educa ion. Following Pe e s
(1979), Ca (1996) speci ied ha a ional au onomy and eedom a e he cen al aims o
educa ion om a p og essi e iewpoin . In a simila ein, Habe mas (1972) conside ed ha
educa ion led by an emancipa o y in e es should be di ec ed o p omo ing a ional au onomy.
Following his idea, F ei e (1970, 1997) de ended he need o con e educa ion in o a esou ce
o awa eness and c i ical au onomy o bo h s uden s and eache s in o de o enable social
ans o ma ion.
In gene al e ms, au onomy can be de ined as he p ocess in which an indi idual ac s in
a sel -de e mined way, whe e he sou ce o such ac ion is in ha indi idual him- o he sel
(Deci & Ryan, 2002; Yu dakul, 2017). Indeed, au onomy is essen ial o lea ning as sel -
de e mina ion is closely linked o expe ience, and indi idual expe ience is key o lea ning.
Wha an indi idual eels makes hem awa e o hei own expe ience, and as such acili a es
hei lea ning (Nas i e al., 2017; Viei a, 2019).
Howe e , s uden au onomy is no an uni ocal concep and could be ega ded as a
mul i- ace ed e m (A nold, 2006), as i conside s a ious aspec s in he p ocess o lea ning,
including he a o emen ioned expe iences. Pa adoxically, i is also highly speci ic as i e e s
o he ac o lea ning – and he mul iple expe iences he ein – including he in luence o li e-
con ex s, people, and ci cums ances, and e lec ion on he ac ion o lea ning i sel . Bo h he
mul i- ace ed and speci ic na u e o he e m a e pa o he concep ual p ocess o e inemen .
Hence, au onomy should be dis inguished om o he concep s ha s ess di e en aspec s
ela ed o he idea o sel -de e mina ion. Fo ins ance, we do no conside synonymous e ms
o au onomy sel - eliance o independence, which s ess indi iduali y in decision-making; o
empowe men , which ocuses on powe ela ions.
Au onomy is speci ic o each indi idual, as no all s uden s lea n in he same way.
Al hough analysing he ypes o lea ning au onomy is ou side o he scope o his pa icula
s udy, i is impo an o men ion ha no all s uden s demons a e he same le el o au onomy.
Mo eo e , some school subjec s p omo e a speci ic kind o au onomy. Fo ins ance, philosophy
encou ages mo al au onomy, while language s udies os e language lea ning au onomy. The
le el o s uden au onomy is also dependen on age – s uden s usually ac wi h g ea e
au onomy when hey a e olde (Deci & Ryan, 2005), so au onomy can also be ela ed o
ma u i y. In p inciple, he highe he s age o de elopmen o an indi idual, he highe hei
au onomy. In his pape we ocus on s uden au onomy in compulso y and seconda y educa ion,
as his age ange is sui ed o analysis o he s ages o de elopmen ha p ecede adul hood.
Speci ically, we ocus on ea ly childhood, p ima y, and seconda y educa ion in Spain. This
educa ional cycle is comple ed a he age o 18, which is conside ed legal age in he coun y.
Howe e , i should be no ed ha compulso y educa ion is Spain is comple ed a he age o 16,
hence, seconda y educa ion comp ises wo ex a yea s. The e o e, we exclude s udies ha ocus
on highe educa ion.
Au onomy is also con ex -speci ic. In o he wo ds, he le el o au onomy shown by an
indi idual is subjec o he socio-cul u al con ex in which hey a e embedded. The p esen
s udy ocuses on he au onomy demons a ed by Spanish s uden s. Spain was chosen as he
coun y con ex o his s udy as i has a sho his o y o democ acy: he democ a ic sys em in
Spain was es ablished only in 1978. Fu he mo e, du ing hese 42 yea s o democ acy, six
di e en educa ion laws ha e been passed. The e ha e been a numbe o changes in educa ion
policies, including hose ela ed o s uden au onomy, which ha e en ailed a signi ican amoun
o a iance and a ce ain deg ee o unce ain y o s akeholde s in he ield o educa ion.
In 2004, he Spanish Socialis Wo ke s’ Pa y (Pa ido Socialis a Ob e o Español
[PSOE]) p oposed he O ganic Law o Educa ion (Ley O gánica de Educación [LOE])
educa ion law and in 2013 he Popula Pa y (Pa ido Popula [PP]) p oposed he e o m o he
LOE by means o he O ganic Law o he Imp o emen Quali y in Educa ion (Ley O gánica
de la Calidad Educa i a [LOMCE]). Mo e p ecisely, in 2006, LOE was app o ed; wi hin his
law he e m au onomy, as e e ing o s uden au onomy o au onomous beha iou , was
men ioned 12 imes. By con as , in 2013 he LOMCE was app o ed, and he e m au onomy
(again as e e ing o s uden au onomy o au onomous beha iou ) was only men ioned i e
imes. Based on a p elimina y analysis o hese uses o au onomy, in he LOE, au onomy e e s
o mo al, economic, pe sonal o psychological, and physical au onomy, while LOMCE e e s
o mo al, economic, and physical au onomy. The concep ualisa ion used in bo h is simila and
qui e ague, al hough mo e a en ion is de o ed o he concep in he LOE, as shown by he
numbe o imes men ioned. This is ema kable, as one would expec au onomy o ecei e
g ea e emphasis in a democ a ic and pa icipa i e socie y. I is unsu p ising, hus, ha he
app o al o he LOMCE s imula ed p o es s om high school and uni e si y s uden s and
eache s (Ramí ez, 2016; Subi a s, 2014). Based on he abo e, he p esen e iew co e s a 10-
yea imeline, aking in o accoun he las yea s o he LOE and he beginning and de elopmen
o he LOMCE.
I should also be conside ed ha Spain is e y di e se in e ms o egional speci ici ies
ega ding cul u e, socie y, and educa ion. Indeed, while cu icula di e si y o childhood,
p ima y, and seconda y educa ion exceeds he objec i es o his pape , i is wo h
acknowledging ha such egional a ie y exis s.I should be no ed ha childhood, p ima y, and
seconda y educa ion cu icula in Spain a y ac oss egions. Spain is di ided in o 17
au onomous communi ies and wo au onomous ci ies, all o which sha e he same cu en
educa ion law (LOMCE), al hough he e a e excep ions in ce ain au onomous communi ies
(O icial Gaze e o Spain, 2013, a .2bis.2). Hence, he e is no single educa ion cu iculum
and some au onomous communi ies ha e poli ical compe ence o es ablish hei own, based on
he LOMCE. Fo ins ance, in he Basque Au onomous Communi y dec ee 236/2015 es ablishes
he cu iculum o basic educa ion (O icial Gaze e o he Basque Coun y, 2016). By con as ,
in Andalusia he cu iculum o p ima y educa ion is es ablished by dec ee 97/2015 (O icial
Gaze e o Andalusia, 2015) and seconda y educa ion by dec ee 111/2016 (O icial Gaze e o
Andalusia, 2016). The la e has been modi ied by he Ex ao dina y Bulle in n.7 18/01/2021
(O icial Gaze e o Andalusia, 2021).
Au onomy is ime-speci ic. Fo ins ance, du ing he F anco dic a o ship in Spain, he
le el o au onomy o s uden s was e y low because he educa ion sys em did no encou age
ac ing in a sel -de e mined way. An example o his can be ound in he s eams o he educa ion
sys em: males and emales we e conside ed o be undamen ally di e en , especially om
adolescence onwa ds; hence, physical educa ion was augh di e en ly o each o he sexes
(Man ique A ibas e al., 2009). Again, al hough de ailing he a ious ac i i ies o each sex is
ou side o he scope o he p esen wo k, i is impo an o no e ha he alues oo ed in his
decision we e ing ained in he F anco o ali a ian and ascis egime (1936-1975), which was
based on a Spanish na ionalis ideology, Ca holic eligion and adi ions (Laudo & Vilanou,
2015; Viñao, 2015).
In his s udy we e iew p e ious esea ch ha has analysed s uden au onomy in Spain
in he las 10 yea s. Recen ly, a ious sys ema ic e iews ha e been conduc ed on he concep
o sel -de e mina ion heo y in physical educa ion (Juwono & Szabo, 2020; Saugy e al., 2020;
Vasconcellos e al., 2020) and eache au onomy suppo (i.e., Raabe, Schmid , & Höne , 2019;
Pé ez-González e al., 2019). The la e e e s o he c ea ion and p omo ion o en i onmen s
and oppo uni ies o s uden au onomy (Ryan & Deci, 2017, 2019). To da e, e iew s udies
ocusing on s uden au onomy in speci ic loca ions ha e no been conduc ed – he p esen
esea ch aims o add ess his gap in he con ex o Spain.
Aim and esea ch ques ions
The aim o he p esen pape is o analyse empi ical s udies published o e he las 10 yea s
ha ha e ocused on s uden au onomy in Spain. In o de o conduc he e iew, i is impo an
o conside (1) he age, le el o schooling, and subjec esea ched in each o he s udies; (2) he
concep o au onomy s udied; (3) he ools and me hodological app oach used o collec
in o ma ion abou s uden au onomy; and (4) he elemen s ha enhance s uden au onomy. In
line wi h hese elemen s, he p oposed esea ch ques ions (RQs) a e de ined as ollows:
RQ1: In which a ea o knowledge/subjec and le el o schooling a e ex an s udies on au onomy
embedded?
RQ2: How has he concep o au onomy been de ined and used in ex an s udies? Does he
concep ’s applica ion change acco ding o he le el o schooling?
RQ3: Which ools and me hodologies ha e been used o measu ing s uden au onomy?
RQ4: Wha elemen s in luence s uden au onomy?
Me hod
This s udy is based on a li e a u e e iew conduc ed in Feb ua y 2020, and conside s empi ical
s udies published o e he las 10 yea s (i.e., 2010–2020). To iden i y and colla e ele an
li e a u e, a da e il e was applied in o de o ob ain pape s published be ween 2010 and 2020.
The li e a u e e iew was conduc ed by means o ou da abases: Web o Science (WoS),
Scien i ic Elec onic Lib a y Online (SciELO), Dialne , and Educa ional Resou ces
In o ma ion Cen e (ERIC). The e ms used o he sea ch we e “au onomy”, “lea ne ”,
“s uden ”, and “Spain”. I is impo an o no e ha use o hese keywo ds yielded a wide
spec um o s udies. Mo e speci ic keywo ds, such as “ea ly childhood educa ion”, “elemen a y
educa ion”, “p ima y educa ion”, o “seconda y educa ion”, could ha e been used ins ead o
“lea ne ” o “s uden ”; howe e , a sea ch using such e ms would ha e elimina ed a icles ha
include o he keywo ds ela ed o s uden age, such as hose dealing wi h adolescen s uden s
in non- o mal educa ion. In addi ion, seconda y educa ion in Spain is di ided in o wo s ages:
compulso y seconda y educa ion (Educación Secunda ia Obliga o ia [ESO]), and
baccalau ea e (Bachille ). In o de o a oid excluding ele an pape s, we decided o use he
mo e gene al e ms p esen ed abo e. Al hough he e ms “lea ne ” and “s uden ” can be applied
o bo h p e-uni e si y and highe educa ion, he use o a ious il e s enabled us o dis inguish
be ween s udies ocusing on hese wo educa ional le els.
In o de o mee he sea ch c i e ia acco ding o he objec i es o he s udy, h ee il e s
we e applied; hese a e summa ised in Table 1.
Table 1 a ound he e
Fi s sea ch
The i s sea ch was conduc ed using he selec ed keywo ds in all o he da abases. This sea ch
ook in o accoun he esul s yielded om all da abases, which equa ed o 134 s udies om
WoS, 20 s udies om ERIC, 8 s udies om SciELO, and 23 s udies om Dialne . The o al
numbe o s udies iden i ied was 192.
Second sea ch
The second il e was applied o he esul s o he p ima y sea ch based on he abs ac : all
s udies ha did no include he concep o au onomy o s uden s in Spain we e disca ded. Mos
o he disca ded s udies e e ed o he concep o poli ical au onomy in educa ion o he
au onomy o he educa ion cen es. In addi ion, some o he selec ed s udies we e duplica ed;
hese we e dele ed om he lis . The esul o his s ep was 111 s udies om WoS, 16 s udies
om ERIC, 4 s udies om SciELO, and 16 om Dialne , equa ing o 147 a icles in o al.
Thi d sea ch
Finally, he hi d il e was applied a e we had ead he a icles in ull. The il e enabled he
s udy o ocus on he esea ch objec – ha is, in line wi h he objec i e o he pape , empi ical
s udies ha included ea ly childhood, p ima y, and seconda y educa ion we e e ained, while
hose e e ing o highe educa ion we e disca ded. Thus, his il e excluded pape s ha did
no ocus on he selec ed educa ional s ages. The inal numbe o s udies o analysis was as
ollows: 40 om WoS, 1 om ERIC, 0 om SciELO, and 0 om Dialne . This equa ed o a
o al o 41 s udies deemed ele an o he esea ch opic.
C i ical analysis o he s udies
In o de o c i ically assess all o he collec ed s udies, hey we e classi ied acco ding o he
ollowing c i e ia: he le el o schooling, he sample used, he ype o empi ical s udy, he
de ini ion o au onomy applied, and he esul s ob ained. These i e ca ego ies we e o mula ed
in line wi h he esea ch ques ions.
Resul s
This sec ion p esen s he esul s o he analysis o he pape s acco ding o he RQs.
As Table 6 shows, he majo i y o s udies ound ha au onomy suppo posi i ely
in luences s uden au onomy. Mo e p ecisely, 15 s udies (36.59%) men ioned au onomy
suppo p o ided by eache s as a ac o ha posi i ely in luences s uden au onomy. Twel e
(29.27%) o hese s udies used a sample om seconda y educa ion, while only wo used a
sample om bo h p ima y and seconda y educa ion; in addi ion, one s udy ocused on p ima y
educa ion only. In line wi h he esul s p esen ed wi h espec o RQ1, his ac seems o indica e
ha he concep o au onomy suppo is mo e equen ly measu ed wi h e e ence o seconda y
educa ion han o o he s ages o schooling.
Almos a qua e o he s udies (n=10, 24.39%) analysed a speci ic pedagogical me hod
o inno a i e p og amme. In his case, i is wo h no ing ha i e o hese s udies (12.2%) used
a sample om p ima y educa ion, h ee ocused on seconda y educa ion, and one conside ed
bo h p ima y and seconda y educa ion. Finally, only one s udy included a sample om a ious
s ages o schooling. I is also impo an o men ion ha he na u e o hese pedagogical me hods
o inno a i e p og ammes di e ed. Fo ins ance, wi h espec o seconda y educa ion Méndez
Giménez and colleagues (2016) ocused on ac i i ies ha p omo e au onomy in physical
educa ion based on coope a i e lea ning. Likewise, Mu illo Pa do and colleagues (2016)
analysed an inno a i e p og amme called “Sigue la Huella” (“Follow he T ace”) o es s uden
au onomy in physical educa ion, and Sánchez Díaz and Di Fuccia (2016) s udied he impac o
an educa ional p og amme called “Chemie im Kon ex ” (“Chemis y in Con ex ”) o analyse
lea ne iden i y in chemis y.
Again in he con ex o p ima y educa ion, González Cas año and colleagues (2014)
analysed he impac o p ojec -based lea ning. Fe nández Río and Suá ez (2016) s udied he
e ec o he use o Pa kou 2 in physical educa ion sessions, and i s impac on s uden au onomy.
2 Pa kou is a physical ac i i y ha consis s o o e coming obs acles in o de o ad ance in a s aigh line in an
u ban space.
Méndez-Giménez and colleagues (2017) ocused on he impac o coope a i e lea ning in
physical educa ion sessions. Méndez-Giménez and Pallasa-Man eca (2018) conside ed he
e ec o using he esou ces om physical educa ion classes du ing ecess; hey designa ed
his “ac i e ecess”, and ound ha i had a posi i e impac on s uden au onomy. Simila ly,
Na a o-Pa ón and colleagues (2017) s udied he impac o coope a i e games in s uden
au onomy. Using a sample om bo h p ima y and seconda y educa ion, Hinojo (2019) ound
ha lipped lea ning3 had a posi i e impac on s uden au onomy in physical educa ion sessions.
Finally, in ea ly educa ion, Ti ado Mo ue a and colleagues (2020) ound ha he key o
cul i a ing lea ne au onomy is o use adequa e pedagogical me hods o ensu e engagemen .
Only wo s udies ocused on he impac o using a speci ic ICT ool o pla o m o
measu e s uden au onomy; hese s udies analysed a ious s ages o schooling. Se en s udies
(17.07%) concluded ha in insic elemen s, such as a well-es ablished indi idual iden i y o
psychological esou ces, posi i ely in luence s uden au onomy. Six o hese s udies (14.63%)
used a sample om seconda y educa ion, while ano he s udy compa ed samples om p ima y
and seconda y educa ion. These indings suppo he belie ha in insic psychological
elemen s a e mo e de eloped in highe schooling s ages.
Only h ee s udies ocused on a a ie y o elemen s ha in luence s uden au onomy.
Amado and colleagues (2016) analysed how dance classes ha employ a a ie y o eaching
me hods in physical educa ion sessions in luenced s uden au onomy. The au ho s concluded
ha gende , and in insic and ex insic elemen s, in luenced he pe cep ion o mo i a ion and
au onomy. Menéndez San u io (2017) ela ed s uden au onomy o in insic elemen s and
in e pe sonal ela ions be ween pee s. Caldei o Ped ei a and colleagues (2018) measu ed
3 Flipped lea ning usually makes e e ence o an inno a i e s uden -cen ed pe spec i e in which “ he ac i i ies
adi ionally comple ed ou side o class as homewo k a e now comple ed in class du ing ins uc ion ime. And,
he ac i i ies adi ionally comple ed in class a e now comple ed on s uden s’ own ime be o e class” (Honeyca
& Ga e , 2014).
au onomy in media use in ea ly childhood and seconda y educa ion; while hey expec ed o
ind highe media au onomy esul s om seconda y educa ion s uden s, he indings in ac
demons a ed low le els in hese indi iduals.
Discussion
The abo e e iew analysed ex an empi ical s udies published in he las 10 yea s in Spain ha
ha e ocused on s uden au onomy. Acco ding o he esul s, mos s udies ha e ocused on
s uden au onomy in seconda y educa ion. The mos equen ly conside ed subjec o a ea is
physical educa ion, and mos s udies ha e used an SDT amewo k. In s udies ha ha e used
his amewo k, au onomy has been concep ualised as eedom in he o igin o ac ion, whe e
he sou ce o ac ion is in he indi idual him- o he sel (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Yu dakul, 2017).
In mos o he s udies analysed in his pape , au onomy has been conside ed as sel -
de e mina ion.
SDT was de eloped by Edwa d L. Deci and Richa d Ryan in he 1980s. I claims ha
human beings ha e h ee undamen al inna e needs ha a e de eloped h oughou li e:
compe ence, ela edness, and au onomy. The de elopmen o hese needs has a cen al impac
on he con igu a ion o pe sonali y and is also s ongly ela ed o mo i a ion. Acco ding o
SDT, when hese psychological needs a e sa is ied, mo i a ion and men al heal h a e enhanced
(Ryan and Deci, 2000). Mo e p ecisely, Ryan and Deci (2004, p. 449) s a ed ha :
[SDT] is an empi ical app oach o mo i a ion, de elopmen , and pe sonali y ha is deeply
conce ned wi h he dynamics o au onomy, wi h egula ion by he sel . Ou in e es no only
has been in unde s anding he na u e and consequences o au onomy; i has also been in
de ailing how au onomy can be ei he diminished o acili a ed by speci ic biological,
de elopmen al, and social condi ions.
The as majo i y o e iewed a icles embedded in his heo y also appea o ha e
analysed he ela ion be ween au onomy and mo i a ion in an educa ional con ex . As
au onomy is he ocus o he p esen e iew, i is ele an o highligh ce ain aspec s o SDT
in o de o cla i y how au onomy is concep ualised in his amewo k.
I should be no ed ha in SDT, au onomy does no equa e o independence. Au onomy
is de eloped in he ela ionships one has wi h o he s, and he e o e hose o he s ha e an
impo an ole in he eme gence o au onomy. In addi ion o biological o de elopmen al
ac o s, speci ic social condi ions a e c ucial o enhancing o diminishing au onomy. This was
clea ly explained by Ryan and Deci (2004, p. 450), who pos ula ed ha “au onomy is a c i ical
o m o human unc ioning ha , no su p isingly, like all human unc ioning, equi es a b ain
and a body and, mo eo e , a con ex o in luences and oppo uni ies o ac ion”.
Ano he impo an esul pe ains o physical educa ion. This subjec was he mos
equen ly conside ed in ex an s udies, and expe ience was highligh ed as key o lea ning.
Physical educa ion enables a physical and o en pe o ma i e expe ience o li e. Educa ional
ins i u ions, as he p ima y places o socialisa ion o young membe s o socie y, p o ide an
adequa e en i onmen o s uden lea ning. S uden au onomy in his case can also be
unde s ood as he symbolic place in which he expe ience o onesel can be con olled by
eache s. This is closely ela ed o au onomy suppo , o he c ea ion and p omo ion o
en i onmen s and oppo uni ies o s uden au onomy (Ryan & Deci, 2017, 2019).
Mos o he ex an s udies iden i ied he e en ailed quan i a i e analysis. The majo i y
also used speci ic scales o design ques ionnai es and measu e s uden au onomy. This is
pa icula ly ue wi h espec o s udies ha ha e used he SDT amewo k, and indica es ha
he main sou ce o analysing s uden au onomy is quan i iable and s anda dised. In addi ion,
mos s udies ha e used a s uden sample, which indica es ha sel - epo s o au onomy p o ide
a iable means o measu emen . This is in line wi h he a gumen ha he expe ience o he sel
is key o de eloping au onomy, which has been ex ensi ely measu ed in s udies conduc ed in
he con ex o Spain.
I is also impo an o men ion ha , acco ding o he s udies analysed, au onomy suppo
posi i ely in luences s uden au onomy, pa icula ly in seconda y educa ion. Speci ic p ojec s
ha e also been analysed in ex an s udies, bu hese p ojec s ocused on a p ima y educa ion
s uden sample. This indica es ha s uden s in p ima y educa ion show g ea e au onomy when
i comes o speci ic p ojec s, while s uden au onomy in seconda y educa ion can be measu ed
indi idually, especially du ing physical ac i i y.
The s udies also e eal ha in insic elemen s a e key o s uden au onomy, which goes
in line wi h he idea ha au onomy is based on indi idual ac ion, o he ac ion igge ed by a
sel -de e mined ac . The s udies e eal ha he in insic elemen s ha igge s uden au onomy
a e psychological esou ces such as mo i a ion, e ec i eness, e icacy, o indi idual iden i y
de elopmen .
To summa ise, he esul s wi h ega d o RQ1 e eal ha physical educa ion in
seconda y educa ion is he mos equen ly esea ched a ea. In ela ion o RQ2, SDT is he
amewo k mos o en applied, as his p o ides a speci ic concep o au onomy ha ela es o
s uden mo i a ion and he oppo uni ies ha indi iduals ha e o ac ion (Ryan and Deci,
2004). Wi h ega d o RQ3, quan i a i e me hods a e mos equen ly used and he majo i y o
s udies e alua e au onomy om s uden s’ pe spec i es. Finally, in esponse o RQ4, he
implemen a ion o au onomy suppo , pedagogical me hods, ICT, and in insic elemen s
examined by he s udies appea o be posi i ely ela ed o he p omo ion o au onomy.
Howe e , i should also be no ed ha no all s udies aim o measu e he impac o he abo e
elemen s on he enhancemen o au onomy.
Conclusion
This wo k has analysed empi ical pape s ha ha e ocused on s uden au onomy in Spain in
he las 10 yea s. E en hough au onomy is a undamen al goal o educa ion, he s udy e eals
ha he concep has no ecei ed signi ican a en ion. Fu he mo e, he use o s uden
au onomy is di e se in many s udies, excep hose using an SDT-based pe spec i e.
Pa adoxically, in spi e o his concep ual di e si y, many s udies do no de ail he concep o
au onomy hey a e using.
The abundan use o SDT may be due o ce ain ea u es ha acili a e i s adap a ion o
educa ional en i onmen s, since, by de ini ion, schools p obably comp ise he main space o
pe sonal de elopmen . The human ela ionships ha a e o med in his en i onmen ha e a
conside able in luence on he de elopmen o au onomy. Au onomy, unde s ood in his
manne , is impo an in his con ex o wo main easons: (1) highe deg ees o au onomy
enhance mo i a ion, and (2) he ela ionships o med in his con ex in luence he de elopmen
o au onomy.
Among hose ela ionships, people who a e in posi ions o au ho i y a e especially
ele an , acco ding o SDT (Ryan and Deci, 2017, 2019). In educa ional con ex s, eache s
ha e au ho i y o e s uden s, which allows eache s o p o ide oppo uni ies o de eloping
s uden au onomy. This c ea ion and p omo ion o en i onmen s and oppo uni ies o de elop
au onomy by people in posi ions o au ho i y is known as au onomy suppo in SDT. Many o
he pape s e iewed in he p esen s udy ha e conside ed he in luence ha au onomy-
suppo i e eache s ha e wi h espec o s uden s’ mo i a ion.
In gene al, i seems ha au onomy-suppo i e educa ional me hods ha e posi i e
e ec s on s uden au onomy; howe e , his concep has been p ima ily de eloped o physical
educa ion. Fo his eason, i is ecommended ha u u e s udies seek o analyse s uden
au onomy in o he subjec a eas. This is impo an , as au onomy is a key de elopmen al
miles one in human de elopmen , especially in p e-adul ages (Gae e, 2015). The p esen s udy
also e eals ha s uden au onomy has been p ima ily measu ed quan i a i ely. Howe e ,
quali a i e me hods can p o ide b oade amewo ks o he concep o au onomy. Fo
ins ance, e hnog aphic me hods including in e iews and obse a ion could compa e how
au onomy is p omo ed in di e en subjec s in a pa icula se ing. I is also impo an o men ion
ha o esea ch pu poses, measu ing s uden au onomy migh be con enien in physical
educa ion, as s uden au onomy is easily pe cei ed by esea che s, eache s, and e en s uden s
hemsel es. Howe e , o he subjec s ha p omo e au onomy in hinking, which can also be
designa ed as c i ical hinking, could indeed be ele an o he heo y o s uden au onomy and
SDT amewo ks.
All o he abo emen ioned poin s should be con empla ed in he social, poli ical, and
educa ional scena io in Spain. Ongoing changes o educa ion laws and he cu icula
pa icula i ies o di e en egions c ea e a complex eali y o educa ion esea che s and
s akeholde s. In addi ion, as he concep o s uden au onomy is mul i- ace ed, i s delimi a ion,
execu ion, suppo , and measu emen a e e en mo e challenging.
O e all, al hough au onomy is conside ed one o he main educa ional goals by
educa ional heo is s (Ca , 1996; F ei e, 1970, 1979; Habe mas, 1972; Pe e s, 1979), his s udy
shows ha i s concep ualisa ion has no been su icien ly de eloped. Ins ead, many
concep ualisa ions o au onomy ha e been de eloped in o he a eas o knowledge. Riche and
mo e p o ound educa ion-cen ed concep s o s uden au onomy could be help ul o bo h i s
suppo and assessmen .
A limi a ion o his s udy is ha he analysis o s uden au onomy was conduc ed based
on s udies published o e he las 10 yea s in ea ly childhood, p ima y, and seconda y educa ion
in Spain. Tha is, s uden au onomy was analysed using o he s udies as a basis. As he esul s
show, he e a e clus e s o s udies in physical educa ion, whe eas o he a eas ha e been subjec
o li le esea ch. Hence, he p esen s udy is based on ex an wo k and he esul s ob ained a e
indeb ed o hem. Fu u e esea ch, as men ioned abo e, is ecommended o conside o he
subjec s o a eas o knowledge. Fu u e s udies could also ocus on he concep ual di e ence
and compa ison be ween s uden au onomy and o he simila – bu no synonymous – e ms in
o he a eas o knowledge, such as empowe men , sel - eliance o independence. Ano he line
o esea ch could be di ec ed o con i ming whe he ICT, au onomy suppo , pedagogical
me hods, o in insic elemen s such as mo i a ion p omo e o hampe s uden au onomy.
The lack o esea ch in di e en subjec s o a eas o knowledge could also be due o
he low le els o au onomy in s uden lea ning in hose a eas, due o he sho adi ion o
democ acy in Spain. Ano he explana ion o his lack o analysis o s uden au onomy in o he
subjec s o a eas o knowledge could be ha hey ha e no been o in e es o esea che s, o
ha hey a e a he di icul o measu e, as p e iously men ioned. Fu u e esea ch should ocus
on add essing his gap.
O e all, his wo k desc ibes he s uden au onomy esea ch pano ama in he con ex o
Spain, and con ibu es o he heo y o s uden au onomy by highligh ing i s concep ual
di e si y and complexi y. A mo e educa ion-speci ic concep o s uden au onomy could help
implemen measu es o i s de elopmen . Such concep o s uden au onomy could ha e
di e en e minological and con ex ual implica ions ha which would enable i s measu e and
p omo ion in di e en in e na ional educa ional en i onmen s. This s udy also e eals ha
iden i ying s uden s’ age and s age o schooling a e c ucial o unde s anding how au onomy
is p omo ed and pe cei ed by he s uden s hemsel es.
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Tables
Table 1: Fil e s used in he s udy
WoS ERIC SciELO Dialne n
Fil e 1 134 20 8 23 192
Fil e 2 111 16 4 16 147
Fil e 3 40 1 0 0 41
Table 2: Classi ica ion o iden i ied s udies ela ed o s uden au onomy in Spain
A ea o
Knowledge/Subjec
S age o
Schooling
n S udies
Physical educa ion Seconda y 17 Aiba e al., 2015; Gómez-López e al.,
2015; González Cu e e al., 2014;
G ane o Gallegos e al., 2014; Mo eno
Mu cia e al., 2014; Mo eno Mu cia &
Huésca He nández, 2013; Sánchez
Oli a e al., 2014; Amado e al., 2016;
Baena Ex eme a e al., 2018; Hein e
al., 2018; Manzano-Sánchez e al.,
2019; Méndez-Giménez e al., 2016;
Mu illo Pa do e al., 2016; Sánchez-
Alca áz e al., 2017; Se il Se ano e
al., 2018; Se il Se ano e al., 2016;
T igue os e al., 2019
P ima y 2 Fe nández Río & Suá ez, 2016;
Méndez-Giménez e al., 2017
P ima y and
seconda y
5 Ga cía Ma ínez, 2016; Ga cía
Rome o e al., 2020; Hinojo e al.,
2019; Mon e o-Ca e e o e al., 2019;
Mon e o-Ca e e o & Ce elló., 2020
Language lea ning Seconda y 2 Canga, 2011; Juan-Ga au & Jacob,
2015
P ima y 1 Roman & Ab il So iano, 2015
Chemis y Seconda y 1 Sánchez Díaz & Di Fuccia, 2016
Va ious
Seconda y 7 Be nal-Gue e o, 2014; Ballue ka e
al., 2016; López e al., 2016;
Menéndez San u io, 2017; Mumb ado-
Adam e al., 2018a, 2018b, 2018c
P ima y 3 González Cas año e al., 2014;
Méndez-Giménez & Pallasa-Man eca,
2018; Na a o-Pa ón e al., 2017
Ea ly
childhood
1 Ti ado Mo ue a e al., 2020
Va ious Ea ly
childhood and
seconda y
1 Caldei o-Ped ei a e al., 2018
Va ious Ea ly
childhood and
special
educa ion
1 Fe nández López e al., 2013
Table 3: De ini ion o au onomy in s udies ha did no use SDT-based concep ions
S udy S age o
Schooling
De ini ion
Ballue ka e al.,
2016
Seconda y “emo ional and cogni i e au onomy” (p. 2). This de ini ion
is implici , ia e e ence, suppo ed on he wo k o Allen,
e al. (1994)
Be nal-
Gue e o, 2014
Seconda y Au onomy is “ he abili y o ac wi hin a gene al amewo k,
abili y o make and ca y ou li e plans and pe sonal
p ojec s, and abili y o asse igh s, in e es s, limi s and
needs” (n.p.).
Caldei o-
Ped ei a e al.,
2018
Elemen a y
and
seconda y
Media au onomy is “ he capaci y [...].. o unc ion acco ding
o hei own c i e ia” in he ield o media communica ion
(p. 280; de ini ion by González and Aguaded, 2012, p. 13)
Canga, 2011 Seconda y Lea ne au onomy is concep ualized “as e lec ion, sel -
awa eness and con ol o e one’s own lea ning” (p. 140).
Fe nández-
López e al.,
2013
Special
and
elemen a y
Au onomy is he abili y o “independen ly pe o m day-
oday ac i i ies” (p. 78).
Ga cía-
Ma ínez, 2016
P ima y
and
seconda y
Wo king au onomy is he “abili y o pe o m wo k on
[one’s] own, wi hou he help o o he olde people” (p.
242).
Juan-Ga au and
Jacob, 2015
Seconda y Lea ne au onomy in he con ex o “plu ilingualism, and
in e cul u al awa eness and compe ence” (p. 65). This
de ini ion is implici , ia e e ence, suppo ed he wo k o
COE (2009).
López e al.,
2016
Seconda y Lea ning au onomy is he abili y o “de elop [one’s] own
‘ egula ing s a egies o lea ning’” (p. 1091).
Manzano-
Sánchez e al.,
2019
Seconda y Pe sonal au onomy is he “capaci y o adjus [one’s] own
beha io and make decisions” (p. 4).
Roman & Ab il-
So iano, 2015
P ima y Lea ne au onomy e e s o “ aising he lea ne ’s awa eness
o his o he p esen s a e o knowledge; sel -se ing o
easible and wo hwhile objec i es; selec ion o ma e ials;
sel -assessmen ” (p. 38).
Table 4: Applica ion o he concep o au onomy in ex an s udies
De ini ion
o
Au onomy
Le el o
Schooling
n S udies
SDT-based Elemen a y 1 Ti ado Mo ue a e al., 2020
P ima y 3 Méndez-Giménez e al., 2017; Méndez-Giménez &
Pallasa-Man eca, 2018; Na a o-Pa ón e al., 2017
P ima y and
seconda y
3 Ga cía Rome o e al., 2020; Mon e o-Ca e e o e al.,
2019; Mon e o-Ca e e o & Ce elló, 2020
Seconda y 20
Aiba e al., 2015; González Cu e e al., 2014; Gómez-
López e al., 2015; G ane o-Gallegos e al., 2014;
Mo eno-Mu cia e al., 2014; Mo eno-Mu cia &
Huesca -He nández, 2013; Sánchez-Oli a e al., 2014;
Amado e al., 2016; Baena-Ex eme a e al., 2018; Hein
e al., 2018; Menéndez San u io, 2017; Méndez-
Giménez e al., 2016; Mumba dó-Adam e al., 2018a;
Mumba dó-Adam e al., 2018b; Mumba dó-Adam e al.,
2018c; Mu illo Pa do e al., 2016; Sánchez-Alca áz e
al., 2017; Se il Se ano e al., 2018; Se il Se ano e al.,
2016; T igue os e al., 2019
Non-SDT-
based
Special and
elemen a y
1 Fe nández López e al., 2013
Elemen a y
and
seconda y
1 Caldei o-Ped ei a e al., 2018
P ima y 1 Roman & Ab il-So iano, 2015
P ima y and
seconda y
1 Ga cía-Ma ínez, 2016
Seconda y 6 Be nal-Gue e o, 2014; Canga, 2011;Juan-Ga au and
Jacob, 2015; Ballue ka e al., 2016; López e al., 2016;
Manzano-Sánchez e al., 2019
No de ined P ima y 2 Gonzalez Cas año e al., 2014; Fe nández Río & Sua ez,
2016
P ima y and
seconda y
1 Hinojo e al., 2019
Seconda y 1 Sánchez-Díaz & Di Fuccia, 2016
Table 5. Me hodologies used o measu ing s uden au onomy
Me hodology n S udies
Quan i a i e 31 Aiba e al., 2015; Fe nández-López e al., 2013;
Gómez-López e al., 2015; González Cu e e al.,
2014; G ane o Gallegos e al., 2014; Mo eno
Mu cia e al., 2014; Mo eno Mu cia & Huesca
He nández, 2013; Sánchez Oli a e al., 2014;
Baena Ex eme a e al., 2018; Ballue ka e al.,
2016; Caldei o-Ped ei a e al., 2016; Ga cía
Ma ínez, 2016; Ga cía Rome o e al., 2020;
Hein e al., 2018; Hinojo e al., 2019; Manzano
Sánchez e al., 2019; Menéndez San u io, 2017;
Méndez-Giménez e al., 2016; Méndez-Giménez
and Pallasa-Man eca, 2018; Mon e o-Ca e e o
e al., 2019; Mon e o-Ca e e o & Ce elló,
2020; Mumba do-Adam e al., 2018c;
Mumba do-Adam e al., 2018a; T igue os e al.,
2019; Mu illo Pa do e al., 2016; Na a o-Pa ón
e al., 2017; Sánchez Alca az e al., 2017; Se il
Se ano e al., 2018; Se il Se ano e al., 2016;
Ti ado Mo ue a e al., 2020; Mumba do-Adam e
al., 2018b
Quali a i e 2 Amado e al., 2016; Fe nández-Río & Suá ez,
2016
Quan i a i e and
quali a i e
8 Sánchez Díaz & Di Fuccia, 2016; Be nal-
Gue e o, 2014; Canga, 2011; González Cas año
e al., 2014; Juan-Ga au and Jacob, 2015; Roman
& Ab il So iano, 2015
López e al., 2016; Méndez-Giménez e al., 2017
Table 6: Classi ica ion o elemen s ha in luence s uden au onomy
Elemen s ha
In luence S uden
Au onomy
S age o
Schooling
n S udies
Au onomy
suppo
Seconda y 12 Aiba e al., 2015; Canga, 2011;
Gómez-López e al., 2015; González
Cu e e al., 2014; Hein e al., 2018;
Mo eno Mu cia & Huésca He nández,
2013; Sánchez Oli a e al., 2014;
López e al., 2016; Manzano-Sánchez
e al., 2019; Sánchez-Alca áz e al.,
2017; Se il Se ano e al., 2016;
T igue os e al., 2019
P ima y 1 Roman & Ab il So iano, 2015
P ima y and
seconda y
2 Mon e o-Ca e e o e al., 2019;
Mon e o-Ca e e o & Ce elló, 2020
Pedagogic me hod
o inno a i e
p og amme
Seconda y 3 Méndez-Giménez e al., 2016; Mu illo
Pa do e al., 2016; Sánchez Díaz & Di
Fuccia, 2016
