Vol.:(0123456789)
Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12671-025-02518-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Mind ulness‑Based In e en ion oReduce Sensi i i y oAnxie y
inaSpanish P ima y Educa ion Se ing
Ru Ga cía‑Lo enzo1 · MiguelÁngelCa bone o‑Ma ín1 · Lo enaValdi ieso‑León1 · Ike Iza ‑de‑la‑Fuen e2
Accep ed: 14 Janua y 2025 / Published online: 7 Feb ua y 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac
Objec i es Mind ulness in ol es he abili y o pay ull and conscious a en ion o wha is happening in he p esen momen .
Scien i ic e idence suppo s i s bene i s in he educa ional ield, con ibu ing o he de elopmen o s a egies ha help
s uden s cope academically, socially and emo ionally. Me a-analyses on mind ulness in he Spanish educa ional con ex
epo ed signi ican imp o emen s along he same lines. The aim o his s udy was o de e mine whe he a mind ulness-based
in e en ion o p ima y school s uden s imp o ed hei sensi i i y o anxie y.
Me hod A o al o 352 s uden s (170 boys, 182 gi ls) aged 6 o 12yea s pa icipa ed in Spain. A quasi-expe imen al p e-
es -pos - es design was used, wi h expe imen al g oup (266 s uden s) and con ol g oup (86 s uden s). Anxie y sensi i i y
was measu ed wi h he Anxie y Sensi i i y Index o Child en. The in e en ion ollowed a sequen ial lea ning o de based
on he Mind ulness-Based S ess Reduc ion (MBSR) p og amme.
Resul s A signi ican dec ease in anxie y sensi i i y was obse ed in he pos -in e en ion measu e. Addi ionally, compa i-
sons o p e- es and pos es sco es in he con ol g oup e ealed signi ican di e ences. In e ms o e ec size, he di e ence
be ween p e- and pos -in e en ion sco es was close o medium (Cohen'sd = 0.43).
Conclusions The e icacy o he p og amme was con i med, and i was shown ha he mind ulness in e en ion was ben-
e icial; in he expe imen al g oup, anxie y sensi i i y dec eased signi ican ly compa ed o ha in he con ol g oup a e
pa icipa ion in he p og amme.
Keywo ds Anxie y sensi i i y; In e en ion· Mind ulness· P ima y Educa ion
Mind ulness has oo s in Eas e n Buddhism, da ing back
mo e han 2500yea s, and in ol es keeping awa eness ali e,
as well as an a en i e and e lec i e p esence o wha is hap-
pening in he p esen momen (Díez & Cas ellanos, 2022;
Ruiz, 2023).I is de ined as “ he awa eness ha eme ges
h ough paying a en ion on pu pose, in he p esen momen ,
andnonjudgmen ally o he un olding o expe ience momen
by momen ” (Kaba -Zinn, 2003, p. 145).
The i s mind ulness-based in e en ion on eco d was
he Mind ulness-Based S ess Reduc ion (MBSR) p o-
g amme designed by Kaba -Zinn (1982, 1990) o he Uni-
e si y o Massachuse s. I was implemen ed in he USA
wi h he aim o ea ing pain and s ess gene a ed by a i-
ous ch onic pa hologies. I was based on ipassana medi a-
ion and was amed wi hin beha iou al medicine (A enilla,
2023).
Mind ulness-based in e en ions (MBIs) ha e gene a ed
g ea in e es , and a la ge numbe o s udies—bo h basic and
applied—ha e p o en use ul in he ea men o bo h physi-
cal and psychological p oblems, wi h a high a e o e icacy
in pa ien s wi h symp oms o s ess, anxie y o dep ession
(Gallego e al., 2016; He ás e al., 2016; So iano e al.,
2020). The concep o anxie y, al hough no synonymous,
was ela ed o he concep o anxie y sensi i i y. Anxie y
* Lo ena Valdi ieso-León
lo ena. [email p o ec ed]
Ru Ga cía-Lo enzo
u .ga cia@u a.es
Miguel Ángel Ca bone o-Ma ín
miguelangel.ca bone [email p o ec ed]
Ike Iza -de-la-Fuen e
ike [email p o ec ed]
1 Depa amen o de Psicología, Uni e sidad de Valladolid, C/
Paseo de Belén, 1, C.P.47011Valladolid, Spain
2 Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de la Educación,
Uni e sidad del País Vasco, Donos ia-DenaSebas ian,
Spain
438 Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
sensi i i y had been p oposed as a p edisposing ac o o he
de elopmen o anxie y diso de s (Reiss, 1991) and dep es-
sion (Xie e al., 2023), and was conside ed o be a ai -like
cogni i e ulne abili y dis inc om ai anxie y, which
could ha e ampli ied p e-exis ing anxie y le els (Ola unji &
Woli zky-Taylo , 2009). Anxie y sensi i i y was conside ed
a cen al aspec o he expec ancy heo y o anxie y (Reiss&
McNally, 1985). T ai Anxie y and AS we e di e en bu
ela ed cons uc s as hey bo h e e ed o he p opensi y o
expe ience anxie y o ea (Fe nández-Valdés, 2015), imply-
ing ha ea o anxie y symp oms causes anxie y and i s
sensa ions o be ega ded as dange ous.
The p ac ice o mind ulness in adolescence imp o ed
well-being and educed symp oms o pe cei ed s ess and
nega i e hough s (Díaz-González e al., 2018). I had e en
been es ablished as a sui able ea men o educing anxie y,
as i p omo ed a educ ion in he symp oms o his pa hology
in adul popula ions (Dzido, 2020).
Mind ulness had p o en e ec i e as a componen o psy-
chological ea men s o di e se popula ions (Cebollae al.,
2017). Mind ulness in e en ion p og ammes had shown
signi ican e ec s on symp om educ ion, imp o emen
o execu i e unc ions and a posi i e impac on emo ional
skills, bo h in child en and in adolescen s (Po e e al.,
2022). In addi ion, hey imp o ed he abili y o ocus a en-
ion and psychological unc ioning by educing men al wan-
de ing (Le inson e al., 2014).
Al hough he ini ial ocus o mind ulness esea ch had
been on i s clinical applica ions, di e en Mind ulness Based
In e en ion p og ammes (MBI) also had been consolida ed
in he educa ional con ex . Mind ulness had been shown o
imp o e men al heal h in adul popula ions, and was inc eas-
ingly being implemen ed in schools (Kuyken e al., 2022).
One o he mos impo an school in e en ion p o-
g ammes is My Resilience In ADolescen (MYRIAD),
which demons a ed he e ec i eness o Mind ulness in
B i ish schools (Kuykene al., 2022). The e is also he
Compassiona e Mind ulness T aining (CMT) p og amme,
which sough o p omo e pe sonal well-being in schools and
imp o e p osocial beha iou s (Ma a os e al., 2024).
In addi ion, he s udies suppo ed he bene i s o hese
in e en ions in child en, and hese indings co obo a ed
he impo ance o in oducing mind ulness p ac ices in he
school en i onmen (González-Mesa & Amigo-Vázquez,
2018), showing ha mind ulness p ac ices could ha e had a
posi i e impac on me acogni ion, sel - egula ion and global
execu i e con ol (Kaise , 2013). Recen me a-analyses o
hese s udies in he Spanish educa ional con ex had e ealed
signi ican imp o emen s in dimensions such as mind ulness
and emo ional and beha iou al adjus men (A enilla e al.,
2022). The implemen a ion o MBI om in ancy enabled
child en o li e mo e consciously, and o g ow up ee , mo e
esponsible and happie (Sánchez-Gómez e al., 2020). On
he o he hand, and linked o he school con ex , esea che s
such as Mischenko e al. (2024) had e iewed he aining o
eache s who p o ide aining o s uden s in schools wi hin
he Flou ish cu iculum: he Compassiona e Schools P o-
jec unde he concep ual amewo k o Mind ully Teaching
Mind ulness-Elemen a y (MTM-E), al hough s udies such
as S ohmaie and Bailey (2023) poin ed ou ha he e was
no con incing e idence ha mind ulness p og ammes in
schools we e e ec i e, especially i s uden s did no con inue
he p ac ice ou side he school.
The p ac ice o mind ulness has become widesp ead in
add essing child en’s men al heal h p oblems and is applied
in he school con ex wi h he aim o p o iding s uden s
wi h ce ain skills ha allow hem o be e manage s ess,
educe anxie y, imp o e esilience, and imp o e hei soci-
oemo ional, cogni i e and beha iou al skills (Fel e e al.,
2016; Ma a os e al., 2024; Odge s e al., 2020; Zenne e al.,
2014). In addi ion, González-Co ez and Ma ín (2022)
s a ed ha i allowed o be e adap a ions o s uden s in
ela ion o he demands o he class oom and imp o ed s u-
den s’ a en ion. On he o he hand, s udies in educa ion sug-
ges ed ha child en who ecei e MBI imp o ed a en ion
and social skills, educed es anxie y and we e be e able
o emain calm (Baena-Ex eme a e al., 2021; Ruiz e al.,
2014).
The aim o he s udy was o explo e he e ec i eness
o his p og amme in he Spanish educa ional con ex and
con ibu e o unde s anding how medi a ion p oduced i s
e ec s (Loizzo, 2014; Sedlmeie e al., 2012). Conside ing
ha anxie y sensi i i y is a ai ha p edic s he e en uali y
o u u e anxie y- ela ed pa hologies (Sandin e al., 2002), a
s udy was ca ied ou wi h he aim o de e mining whe he
an in e en ion based on mind ulness in p ima y school s u-
den s imp o ed hei anxie y sensi i i y. Recognising ha
his imp o emen would ha e had a posi i e impac on he
con ol o anxie y, he aim was o examine he esul s o
he a iable “Anxie ySensi i i y” and o de e mine whe he
he e we e signi ican changes be o e and a e he in e -
g oup and in ag oup in e en ions.
Me hod
Pa icipan s
The sample ini ially consis ed o 438 pa icipan s om
he Au onomous Communi y o Cas illa-León, Spain.
Fou pa icipan s we e excluded as hey comple ed only
he pos - es and did no pa icipa e in he p e- es because
hey we e sick, and 15 pa icipan s we e excluded because
hey comple ed only he p e- es and did no comple e he
ins umen in he pos - es phase, because he pa en s and
u o s wi hd ew hei pe mission. Six y-se en addi ional
439Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
subjec s we e excluded om he da abase because hey
did no comple e all he i ems o he ins umen (mo e
han 25% o he i ems we e unanswe ed) because he
measu emen ins umen was answe ed on pape (Fig.1),
and inally, 352 pa icipan s (170 boys; 182 gi ls), aged
be ween 6 and 12yea s (M = 8.75; SD = 1.86), p ima y
school s uden s who we e s udying be ween i s and six h
g ade (15.63% o i s ; 17.61% o second; 16.76% o hi d;
19.03% o ou h; 10.51% o i h and 20.45% o six h).
The c i e ia o inclusion in he sample we e ha s u-
den s we e om i s o six h g ade o P ima y Educa ion
and ha hey had su icien o al and w i en comp ehen-
sion in Spanish o answe he ins umen s and ca y ou he
ac i i ies designed o he mind ulness-based in e en ion.
The exclusion c i e ia consis ed only o ailu e o mee he
inclusion equi emen s.
P ocedu e
A quasi-expe imen al p e- es -pos - es design was used,
wi h expe imen al g oup (266 s uden s; 46.6% boys and
53.4% gi ls; M = 8.82; SD = 1.89) and con ol g oup (86 s u-
den s; 53.5% boys and 46.5% gi ls; M = 8.56; SD = 1.75).
Bo h g oups a e equi alen in e ms o age as he e a e
no signi ican di e ences be ween hem (expe imen al:
M = 8.73, SD = 1.85; con ol: M = 8.42, SD = 1.65; p > 0.05).
Mo eo e , as shown by a chi-squa e es o independence,
bo h g oups a e equi alen wi h espec o gende χ2 (1,
n = 352) = 1.22, p = 0.268.
The class g oups we e andomly assigned o expe imen al
and con ol g oups. One class was assigned o he con ol
g oup o each g ade, and he es o he s uden s o he same
age we e assigned o he expe imen al g oup.
The s udy was planned in compliance wi h e hical and
da a p o ec ion egula ions and wi h he au ho isa ion o
ALLOCATION
FOLLOW UP
ANALYSIS
Assessed o eligibili y
(n = 438)
Alloca ed o es g oup (n = 330)
Recei ed alloca ed in e en ion (n = 327)
Did no ecei e alloca ed in e en ion (n = 3)
-They we e sick in he p e- es
Analysed (n = 266)
Excluded om analysis (n = 50)
-No esponse o > 25% o he i ems
Con inued he in e en ion (n = 316)
Discon inued he in e en ion (n = 11)
-They wi hd ew hei pe mission
Alloca ed o con ol g oup (n = 108)
Recei edalloca ed in e en ion (n = 107)
Did no ecei e alloca ed in e en ion (n = 1)
-They we e sick in he p e- es
Con inued he in e en ion (n = 103)
Discon inued he in e en ion (n = 4)
-They wi hd ew hei pe mission
Analysed (n = 86)
Excluded om analysis (n = 17)
-No esponse o > 25% o he i ems
Randomized
(n = 438)
ENROLLMENT
Fig. 1 Conso diag am illus a ing pa icipan low
440 Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
he Cas ile and Leon Regional Minis y o Educa ion. Pe -
mission was hen ob ained om he managemen eam and
eaching s a , and a e hei accep ance, in o med consen
was ob ained om he pa en s o legal gua dians o he
pupils, who in o med hem o he olun a y na u e o hei
child en’s pa icipa ion, he objec i es o he s udy, he p o-
cedu e, and he con iden iali y and anonymi y o he da a,
which we e used exclusi ely o he pu pose o he esea ch.
Once in o med consen was collec ed, he in e en ion
p og amme was implemen ed by he eache s, who we e p e-
iously ained by an ex e nal mind ulness ins uc o wi h
expe ience in he p ac ical applica ion o mind ulness wi h
child en.
The p og amme was p esen ed o he s uden s, wi h an
adap ed language, as a jou ney in o hei own mind. The s u-
den s had he possibili y o ecei ing explana ions o hose
i ems o e ms ha we e di icul o unde s and, as hey we e
accompanied by he eaching and esea ch s a o his wo k.
In each session, he aim was o s uden s o lea n esou ces
and s a egies ela ed o di e en hemes (lea ning abou
he p ac ice o medi a ion, lea ning abou cogni i e man-
agemen , lea ning abou emo ional managemen , lea ning
abou he p op iocep ion o bodily sensa ions, lea ning abou
he p ac ice o compassion and lea ning abou mind ulness).
The in e en ion consis ed o six sessions whe e he six
hemes we e wo ked on a weekly basis, las ing 60min du -
ing school classes, wi h an a e age o 25 s uden s pe session
(see Desc ip ion o a ypical session in he Appendix). They
we e designed ollowing a sequen ial lea ning o de based
on he MBSR p og amme o he educ ion o s ess and
anxie y, which has obus scien i ic e idence ega ding i s
e icacy (Ga cía, 2023).
Each s uden ca ied ou he weekly session in he class-
oom and a daily p ac ice a home on wha was lea ned
du ing he session on he emaining days o each week.
A “ a el no ebook” was designed o he s uden s, which
g ouped he wo kshee s wi h he ac i i ies o be pe o med
a home.
To ecei e eedback om he s uden s on he di e en
ac i i ies and o imp o e/op imise he ac i i ies and aining
sessions, a se o ca ds was designed o his pu pose, con-
sis ing o di e en ques ions such as: Do I eel my b ea h-
ing? Do I eel calm? Do I concen a e on my medi a ion
p ac ice? The answe s we e eco ded on a 4-poin Like -
ype quan i a i e scale (1= no a all; 2= a li le; 3= qui e
a lo ; and 4= a lo ).
The sessions we e held in a speci ic class oom a he
cen e designed speci ically o he ac i i y. The oom was
equipped wi h ma s, lamps wi h dimmed ligh ing, sound
equipmen and a ious elemen s necessa y o he di e -
en p ac ices: cushions, wool, shee s o pape and pens, ain
s icks, la a lamps, e c.
The p e- es e alua ion was conduc ed 1week be o e he
s a o he in e en ion, and he pos - es e alua ion was
conduc ed 1week a e he end o he in e en ion.
The phases o he in e en ion p og amme a e p esen ed
as ollows:
In he i s phase, an in e iew was held wi h he school’s
managemen eam and eaching s a o explain he objec-
i es o he in e en ion p og amme, seeking hei in ol e-
men and pa icipa ion. They we e in o med ha he p o-
g amme is pa o a esea ch p ojec o he Depa men o
Psychology o he Uni e si y o Valladolid wi hin he PhD in
T ansdisciplina y Resea ch in Educa ion. In o med consen
was subsequen ly ob ained om he amilies o he s uden s
pa icipa ing in he p og amme. Finally, he s uden s o each
class g oup we e andomly assigned o he con ol o expe i-
men al g oup. The eache s/ u o s in cha ge o ca ying ou
he in e en ion p og amme in each g oup we e assigned,
and a ollow-up was ca ied ou h ough aining semina s
on he mind ulness in e en ion p og amme wi h he u o s
o he expe imen al g oup ( h ee semina s o 2-h du a ion).
They consis ed, in he i s place, in he heo e ical expla-
na ion o he concep s o be wo ked on, ela ed o anxie y
sensi i i y, ma king de elopmen al di e ences be ween he
di e en ages o he s uden s and he possible e ec s o he
anxie y sensi i i y on school pe o mance. In addi ion, i was
explained how o adminis e he ins umen , how o esol e
doub s and no o in luence he answe s, and clea and con-
cise ins uc ions we e p o ided on how o ca y ou each o
he asks e lec ed in he wo kshee s, bo h in e ms o e bal
ins uc ions and he ime o be de o ed o each one o hem.
The second phase consis ed o he implemen a ion o
he mind ulness p og amme—whose s udy p o ocol was
no egis e ed. In he i s week, he measu emen ins u-
men was dis ibu ed o eache s in he con ol and expe i-
men al g oups be o e he in e en ion (p e- es ), and s u-
den s comple ed he ques ionnai e du ing school hou s.
Be ween he second and se en h week, he implemen a ion
o he mind ulness in e en ion p og amme began wi h
a mee ing wi h he school managemen eam, who we e
esponsible o collec ing and dis ibu ing he documen-
a ion among he eaching s a . They we e gi en weekly
wo k guides o he u o s o he expe imen al g oup, in
pape and digi al o ma , as well as wo wo kshee s o he
s uden s, and he in e en ion sessions began. Each week,
eedback om he p e ious session was collec ed, doub s
we e esol ed, and he ac i i y was adap ed acco ding o
he speci ic needs o he pa icipan s. Du ing he eigh h
week, he measu emen ins umen was dis ibu ed again
o ca y ou he pos - es da a collec ion in he expe imen-
al and con ol g oups. In he nin h, mind ulness aining
semina s we e held wi h he eache s in he con ol g oup.
Be ween he en h and he six een h, o e hical easons,
441Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
he in e en ion p og amme was applied o pa icipan s in
he con ol g oup. Finally, he hi d phase included docu-
men a ion collec ion and da a analysis.
Measu es
Fo he measu emen o he a iable “anxie y sensi i -
i y”, he Anxie y Sensi i i y Index o Child en (ASIC)
o Lau en e al. (1998), which is a modi ica ion ha Lau-
en ini ia ed in 1989 o he Anxie y Sensi i i y Index
(ASI) o adul s (Reiss e al., 1986), was used. The Span-
ish adap a ion is p o ided in Fe nández-Valdés (2015).
Among he modi ica ions p oposed, i is educed om 16
o 12 i ems, imp o ing i s psychome ic p ope ies. I has
a hie a chical s uc u e wi h a highe -o de ac o , sen-
si i i y o anxie y and wo p ima y ac o s, psychologi-
cal awa eness and men al wo y. The scale consis s o 12
i ems (Table1) wi h a 4-poin Like scale esponse o -
ma : almos ne e ue (0); some imes ue (1); o en ue
(2); and almos always ue (3). I has simple ins uc ions
ha in i e esponden s o espond hones ly o he p oposed
s a emen s and o selec he answe s hey conside mos
app op ia e. The ins umen has good in e nal consis ency
(be ween α = 0.85 and α = 0.90).
Deacon e al. (2002) concluded ha he ASIC can be
conside ed a psychome ically sound and alid measu e o
anxie y sensi i i y. They examined he psychome ic p op-
e ies o he ASIC (12 i ems) o he hie a chical s uc u e
p oposed by Lau en (1998) and concluded ha he ac o
loadings o he ASIC we e simila o hose ob ained by Lau-
en e al. (1998), showing a supe io and a seconda y wo-
ac o s uc u e. The in e nal consis ency ob ained by C on-
bach’s alpha was α = 0.84. Fe nández-Valdés e al. (2017)
epo ed ha he ins umen has high in e nal consis ency
and es – e es eliabili y.
In he p esen s udy, he scale ob ained a alue o 0.81 o
C onbach’s alpha, as well as a McDonald’s omega o 0.95.
Da a Analyses
The s a is ical package SPSS .28 was used o s a is ical
analysis. Fi s ly, missing alues (0.87%) we e impu ed using
he linea end es ima ion a he poin me hod, ha ing p e-
iously e i ied h ough Li le’s es ha he da a me he
MCAR assump ion (p = 0.29).
Uni a ia e analysis o no mali y was pe o med on he
basis o he Q-Q plo s and he Kolmogo o –Smi no coe -
icien (p < 0.05); in bo h cases, alues e y close o wha is
conside ed no mal we e ob ained. Likewise, a isual inspec-
ion o he his og ams o he a iables unde s udy was ca -
ied ou o e i y hei simila i y o he Gaussian bell, which
is ypical o a no mal dis ibu ion, in addi ion o an analysis
o skewness (p e- es = 0.37; pos - es = 0.33) and ku osis
(p e- es = − 0.37; pos - es = − 0.96). The his og ams we e
ound o be ema kably symme ical, and he skewness and
ku osis showed con ained alues, so his e idence is aken
as ano he p oo o no mali y.
The e o e, aking in o conside a ion he obus ness o pa -
ame ic es s o a nonse e e iola ion o no mali y assump-
ions in mean compa isons (Edgell & Noon, 1984; Mon illa
& K om ey, 2010; Schmide e al., 2010), he decision is
made o make use o hem. To de e mine he e ec i eness
o he mind ulness in e en ion in e ms o i s in luence on
s uden anxie y sensi i i y, di e en means we e compa ed
using S uden ’s - es .
Fi s , he p e- es sco es o he expe imen al g oup we e
compa ed wi h hose o he con ol g oup o de e mine
whe he hey we e equi alen ; ha is, be o e any ype o
in e en ion, bo h g oups s a ed om he same le el o
anxie y sensi i i y. To ca y ou his p e- es in e g oup
compa ison, he - es o independen samples was used,
Table 1 ASIC ins umen i ems
(Lau en e al., 1998)I ems
1. When I canno keep my mind on wha I’m doing I wo y ha I migh be going c azy
2. I sca es me when I eel ‘‘shaky’’ ( embling)
3. I sca es me when I eel like I’m going o ain
4. I sca es me when my hea bea s apidly
5. I sca es me when I am sick o my s omach
6. When I no ice ha my hea is bea ing as , I wo y ha some hing eally bad is going o happen o me
7. I sca es me when I can’ ca ch my b ea h
8. When my s omach is upse , I wo y ha I migh be se iously ill
9. I sca es me when I am unable o keep my mind on wha I’m doing
10. When my body eels s ange i sca es me
11. When I am ne ous I wo y ha I migh be c azy
12. I sca es me when I am ne ous
442 Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
aking in o accoun Le ene’s es o equali y o a iances
when in e p e ing he esul s.
Second, he di e ences in he sco es be o e he in e en-
ion (p e- es ) and a e he in e en ion (pos - es ) we e cal-
cula ed o he expe imen al g oup. The same p ocedu e was
ollowed o he con ol g oup, al hough hey did no ecei e
he in e en ion, and hei means ob ained a he p e- es and
pos - es ime poin s we e compa ed. Fo hese in ag oup
compa isons, - es s o ela ed samples we e pe o med.
Thi d, in e g oup compa isons we e again pe o med,
compa ing he pos - es sco es o he expe imen al g oup
and he con ol g oup by means o a - es o independen
samples using Le ene’s es . This analysis complemen s he
p e- es in e g oup compa ison pe o med i s , as i allows
o a compa ison o sco es wi h he g oup ha did no pa -
icipa e in he in e en ion, which may be help ul in de e -
mining whe he he change in sco es o he expe imen al
g oup may ha e been a ec ed by o he ex e nal ac o s.
In addi ion, oge he wi h he le el o signi icance
ob ained in he di e ences, i is necessa y o know he mag-
ni ude o he di e ences o be able o assess hei impo -
ance. Consequen ly, o he S uden ’s - es s, and Cohen’s d
c i e ion (Cohen, 1988) was used.
Finally, a wo-way mixed ANOVA was pe o med o
e alua e whe he ime (p e- es and pos - es ), g oups
(expe imen al g oup and con ol g oup) and ime wi hin each
g oup in e ac ions (Time × In e en ion) exis ed o anxie y
sensi i i y. The in e en ion (expe imen al o con ol) was
ega ded as be ween-subjec ac o , while ime (p e- es o
pos - es ) as wi hin-subjec ac o . S a is ical signi icance
was es ablished a p < 0.05 and he e ec size was calcula ed
wi h he E a-Squa ed (η2).
Resul s
To acqui e e idence abou he equi alence be ween he p e-
es sco es o he expe imen al and con ol g oups wi h espec
o he anxie y sensi i i y, independen mean con as s we e
pe o med using S uden ’s - es a he 95% con idence le el.
The da a ela ing o hese mean di e ences a e p esen ed in
Table2. Fi s , Le ene’s es o homogenei y o a iances was
pe o med and e ealed ha i is no possible o assume equal-
i y o a iances. Howe e , gi en he e idence o he obus -
ness o pa ame ic analyses such as he - es agains iola-
ions o s a is ical assump ions (Mon illa & K om ey, 2010;
Schmide e al., 2010), he esul s om he - es s we e s ill
conside ed.The subsequen mean compa ison e ealed no sig-
ni ican di e ences in p e- es anxie y sensi i i y be ween he
con ol and expe imen al g oups ( = − 0.80, p > 0.05).
Thus, he da a show ha be o e he in e en ion, he con ol
g oup and he expe imen al g oup s a ed wi h an equi alen
le el o sensi i i y o anxie y. To con as possible di e ences
be ween he p e- es and pos - es sco es in bo h he expe i-
men al and con ol g oups, a - es o ela ed samples was
used. The esul s o bo h in ag oup compa isons a e shown
in Table3.
Again, Le ene’s es indica es ha i is no possible o
assume homogenei y o a iances in ei he g oup. The con-
as o means in he expe imen al g oup e ealed a signi ican
dec ease in pos - es anxie y sensi i i y compa ed o p e- es
sco es ( = 11.25, p < 0.001). Tha is, he e was a signi ican
dec ease in he anxie y sensi i i y in he pos -in e en ion
measu e. Fu he mo e, he e ec size (Cohen'sd= 0.80) sug-
ges s a la ge e ec .
The esul s ob ained when compa ing he p e- es and
pos - es sco es o he con ol g oup also showed signi ican
di e ences ( = − 12.25, p < 0.001). In his case, on he con-
a y, he e is an inc ease in he le els ob ained in he pos - es
sco es. Tha is, wi hou any in e en ion, he anxie y sensi i -
i y inc eased signi ican ly in he con ol g oup. In e ms o
e ec size, he di e ence be ween p e- and pos -in e en ion
sco es was close o mode a e (d = 0.43).
In addi ion, in e g oup analyses we e pe o med be ween
he expe imen al and con ol g oups wi h espec o he pos -
es using an independen -samples - es o complemen he
i s p e- es in e g oup analysis. The e idence ob ained is
shown in Table4.
A e e i ying ha he assump ion o homogenei y o a i-
ances was no me by means o Le ene’s es , we p oceeded o
compa e he in e g oup means. The da a indica ed a signi ican
di e ence, wi h he expe imen al g oup showing lowe anxi-
e y sensi i i y han he con ol g oup ( = − 25.49, p < 0.001),
which indica es ha , unlike he esul s o he i s es , in he
second es , he g oup ha pa icipa ed in he in e en ion
Table 2 P e- es in e g oup analysis o anxie y sensi i i y
Va iable G oup M SD ( ) p
Anxie y sensi i i y Expe imen al 1.30 0.65 (− 0.80) 0.21
Con ol 1.36 0.56
Table 3 In ag oup p e- es and
pos - es analyses o anxie y
sensi i i y in he expe imen al
and con ol g oups
Expe imen al g oup Con ol g oup
Va iable Tes MDT ( ) p Cohen’s d M SD ( ) p Cohen’s d
Anxie y sensi i i y P e 1.30 0.65 (11.25)
< 0.001
0.79 1.36 0.56 (− 12.25)
< 0.001
0.43
Pos 0.76 0.53 1.92 0.30
443Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
shows a signi ican ly lowe alue o sensi i i y o anxie y. In
e ms o e ec size, his di e ence be ween g oups was mode -
a e e ec size (d = 0.48).
La e , a wo-way mixed ANOVA was pe o med o e alu-
a e he impac o he a iables ime (p e- es and pos - es )
and in e en ion (expe imen al g oup and con ol g oup) on
anxie y sensi i i y.
As shown in Table5, he e is no signi ican e ec o ime
on anxie y sensi i i y (F = 0.06, p = 0.81). Tha is, wi hou
conside ing he es o he a iables, he e a e no signi i-
can di e ences in anxie y sensi i i y be ween he p e- es
(M = 1.33, SD = 0.04) and pos - es (M = 1.34, SD = 0.03)
momen s. On he con a y, he e is a signi ican e ec o he
in e en ion on anxie y sensi i i y (F = 130.80, p < 0.001,
η2 = 0.27), explaining 27% o he a iance (η2 = 0.27). I
hese s a is ically signi ican di e ences a e analysed, i
can be obse ed ha hey a e in a ou o he expe imen al
g oup (M = 1.03, SD = 0.026) compa ed o he con ol g oup
(M = 1.64, SD = 0.046). A signi ican in e ac ion be ween
ime and in e en ion was ound (F = 155.30, p < 0.001,
η2 = 0.31), explaining 31% o he a iance.
Finally, s a is ical analyses e ealed no signi ican gende
di e ences among he pa icipan s.
Discussion
An in e en ion using mind ulness was ca ied ou in a o -
mal educa ional con ex wi h p ima y school s uden s o
educe anxie y sensi i i y and each coping s a egies. The
esul s o his esea ch p o ide e idence in a ou o he
e ec i eness o he in e en ion, in acco dance wi h Díaz-
González e al. (2018), Dzido (2020), Gallego e al. (2016),
He ás e al. (2016), Ma a os e al. (2024), So iano e al.
(2020), and Zhou e al. (2020), who no ed he high a e o
e ec i eness o mind ulness in pa ien s wi h symp oms o
s ess, anxie y o dep ession, gi en ha i imp o es emo-
ional well-being and educes symp oms o pe cei ed s ess
and e en hei anxie y. In addi ion, anxie y sensi i i y is a
use ul cons uc in explaining anxie y diso de s and h ough
he e iew by Ma ínez-Esc ibano e al. (2017) i can be con-
cluded ha mind ulness-based in e en ions can be e ec i e
in child en and adolescen s wi h anxie y symp oms. Speci i-
cally, in he esea ch by Yagüe e al. (2016), he subjec s in
he expe imen al g oup ob ained a signi ican educ ion in
anxie y sensi i i y measu es in he pos - es phase, which
was no ound in he con ol g oup. This is consis en wi h
he s udies conduc ed by Siegel (2017), psychia is and
codi ec o o he Mind ul Awa eness Resea ch Cen e , who
showed ha pu ing mind ulness p ac ices in o ac ion ac i-
a es ce ain neu al ci cui s in he b ain ha allow a g ea e
connec ion wi h onesel , p omo ing an inc ease in physical,
psychological and social well-being (Ga cía & Rod íguez-
Vega, 2019).
S a is ical analyses suppo ed he in luence o he p o-
g am and, he e o e, con i med he ini ial hypo hesis. Fu -
he mo e, i was shown ha he mind ulness in e en ion
p og amme was bene icial, gi en ha he anxie y sensi i -
i y sco es o he expe imen al g oup dec eased signi ican ly
wi h espec o hose o he con ol g oup. These esul s a e
ela ed wi h he s udy o Yagüe e al. (2016) and he ecen
A enilla’s (2023) me a-analysis on he e ec i eness o mind-
ulness in e en ion p og ammes in Spanish schools. Anxi-
e y sensi i i y is a p edisposing ac o o he de elopmen
o anxie y diso de s (Reiss, 1991), and he me a-analysis
Bo quis -Conlon e al. (2019) assessed he posi i e e ec s
o mind ulness-based in e en ions (MBI) on cogni ion and
men al heal h in child en and adolescen s, likewise ha MBI
a e e ec i e in young people wi h anxie y diso de s.
The esul s we e cong uen wi h he heo e ical basis
o he s udy, in acco dance wi h p e ious li e a u e on he
posi i e e ec s o hese in e en ions in he school se ing
(A enilla e al., 2022). Resea ch e ealed ha he implemen-
a ion o mind ulness-based in e en ions in schools could
ha e bene i ed s uden s in e ms o hei s ess le el (Yañez-
Sepúl eda e al., 2022), p e en he eme gence o po en-
ial men al di icul ies among hei s uden s (McKee ing &
Hwang, 2019) and ha e posi i e e ec s on s uden anxie y
(Bazzano e al., 2018; S ohmaie & Bailey, 2023), academic
pe o mance and he de elopmen o a good class oom cli-
ma e (Bell e -Pé ez & Menesca di, 2022). This esea ch
showed how a mind ulness-based in e en ion conduc ed in
Table 4 In e g oup analysis o
anxie y sensi i i y a pos - es Va iable G oup M SD ( ) p Cohen’s d
Anxie y sensi i i y Expe imen al 0.76 0.53 (− 25.49) < 0.001 0.48
Con ol 1.92 0.30
Table 5 Two-way mixed ANOVA esul s o anxie y sensi i i y
d F p n2
Be ween-subjec e ec s
In e en ion 1 130.80 0.001 0.27
E o (in e en ion) 350
Wi hin-subjec e ec s
Time 1 0.058 0.810 0.00
Time × in e en ion 1 155.30 0.001 0.31
E o ( ime) 350
444 Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
he educa ional con ex , be ween he age o 6–12yea s, and
ex ended o he amily con ex , migh esul in he educ ion
in anxie y sensi i i y sco e, con a y o S ohmaie and Bai-
ley (2023) who s a ed ha he e was no con incing e idence
ha mind ulness p og ammes in schools we e e ec i e, as
hey did no p ac ice o implemen wha hey lea n in schools
ou side he class oom.
In conclusion, his s udy con i med ha mind ulness-
based in e en ions wi h p ima y school s uden s, o he
Au onomous Communi y o Cas illa-León in Spain, had an
impac on he imp o emen o hei anxie y sensi i i y sco e.
This s udy suppo s he idea ha mind ulness p og ammes
in schools can enhance socioemo ional skills and p omo e
emo ional adjus men .
Howe e , al hough mind ulness in e en ion p og ammes
had been shown o ha e a posi i e e ec on beha iou al
egula ion (Dunning e al., 2019; Klingbeil e al., 2017),
emo ional in elligence (Mayna d e al., 2017), execu i e
unc ions and academic pe o mance (Dunning e al., 2019;
Klingbeil e al., 2017; Mayna d e al., 2017), e iews o
hese p og ammes poin ed o a high isk o publica ion bias.
This bias could be explained by he widesp ead endency o
publish s udies wi h signi ican esul s (Tho n on & Lee,
2000). In addi ion, e alua ion biases had been ound, which
migh ha e been due o he di e si y o ins umen s used
(A enilla e al., 2022).
Limi a ions andFu u e Di ec ions
In u u e s udies, in acco dance wi h he imp essions o
A enilla e al. (2022), i is necessa y o inc ease he num-
be o mind ulness in e en ion p og ammes using simila
in e en ion designs (minimum numbe o sessions, du a ion
o he in e en ion, app op ia e spaces o i s de elopmen ,
e c.), which will allow he esul s o be compa ed and epli-
ca ed. I may be possible o design mind ulness p og ammes
o child en using i ual eali y in he school con ex , as
i has been p o en use ul in he adul popula ion (Gen ile
& Kim, 2024). In addi ion, i is necessa y o inc ease he
numbe o pa icipan s in di e en ypes o schools in u al
and u ban a eas, seeking o ind signi ican and conc e e di -
e ences in he impac o educing anxie y sensi i i y in he
school con ex . Fu u e s udies should conside he po en ial
in luence o unexamined school- ela ed a iables. In addi-
ion, assessmen o he mind ulness a iable should be inco -
po a ed in o u u e wo ks. Finally, eading comp ehension
di icul ies in younge pa icipan s (e.g., 6-yea -olds) should
be add essed by complemen ing pape -and-pencil es s wi h
o he assessmen s, such as eache o pa en epo s (e.g. a
es ha could be answe ed by eache s o pa en s, such as an
ex e nal in o man ). I is also necessa y o con i m whe he
he imp o emen s ob ained in he expe imen al g oup a e
main ained o e ime.
Appendix
Desc ip ion o aTypical Session
The eache ’s session guide includes he ollowing: i s o
all, an in oduc ion ha is a space in which he opic o he
day is desc ibed o he s uden s. La e , o mal mind ulness
p ac ice ha consis s o a medi a i e ype o ac i i y, si -
ing o lying down, in which a speci ic and p ede e mined
ime is dedica ed o ocusing a en ion on a speci ic ancho
poin , such as he b ea h, body o senses, while obse ing
and le ing go o any men al phenomena ha could lead o
dis ac ion, such as hough s o emo ions. Subsequen ly,
class e lec ion wo kshee s we e handed o guide he s u-
den s. I is hen ca ied ou ; in o mal mind ulness p ac ice
consis s o medi a ion ha is pe o med wi hou adop -
ing a speci ic medi a ion pos u e o dedica ing a speci ic
amoun o ime o i . I consis s o being awa e o wha
you a e doing momen by momen , di ec ing you a en-
ion owa ds some daily ac i i y such as walking o ge ing
d essed (Campayo, 2022). In addi ion, eache s ha e a
hei disposal a e lec ion wo kshee who collec in o ma-
ion abou he answe s gi en by he s uden s du ing he
e lec ion spaces a e he p ac icals, as well as a space o
obse a ions. Finally, he s uden s ecei e home p ac ice
ins uc ions de ailing he objec i e o he week, based on
he heme o he session, wi h a desc ip ion o he ac i i y
o be ca ied ou a home (coinciding wi h he in o mal
p ac ice p e iously ca ied ou du ing he class session).
I is accompanied by a wo kshee o ca ying ou his
p ac ice a home.
Acknowledgemen s The au ho s hank he Recognized Resea ch
G oup in Educa ional Psychology (GIR-179) o he Uni e si y o
Valladolid.
Au ho Con ibu ion RG-L, MAC-M, andLV-L: concep ualisa ion;
RG-L, II-F, MAC-M, andLVL: me hodology; II-F,RG-L, MAC-M,
and LV-L: o mal analysis and supe ision; RG-L, LV-L, MAC-M and
II-F: in es iga ion, esou ces, and w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion;
RG-L and II-F: da a cu a ion. RG-L, LV-L, MAC-M, and II-F: w i -
ing— e iew and edi ing. RG-L, LV-L, and MAC-M: isualisa ion. All
au ho s con ibu ed o he a icle and app o ed he submi ed e sion.
Funding Open Access unding p o ided hanks o he CRUE-CSIC
ag eemen wi h Sp inge Na u e.
Da a A ailabili y The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a i-
cle will be made a ailable by he au ho s wi hou undue ese a ion.
Decla a ions
E hics S a emen This s udy in ol ing a human popula ionwas au ho -
ized by he Depa men o Educa ion o Cas illa y León. This esea ch
has well as he app o al o he managemen o he schools ha pa -
icipa ed in he s udy. The s udies we e conduc ed in acco dance wi h
local legisla ion and ins i u ional equi emen .
445Mind ulness (2025) 16:437–447
In o med Consen This esea ch has in o med consen o each am-
ily o each o he pa icipan s in ol ed and he in o med consen was
ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Con lic o In e es The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
A i icial In elligence AI was no used.
Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A i-
bu ion 4.0 In e na ional License, which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a-
ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long
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