Ti le: Ideal body image o he opposi e sex and i s associa ion wi h Body Mass Index 1
Ma ía Eugenia Ibáñez-Zamaconaa, Alai z Po edab, Es he Reba oa 2
a Depa men o Gene ics, Physical An h opology and Animal Physiology, Facul y o Science and 3
Technology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Spain 4
b Depa men o Clinical Sciences, Lund Uni e si y (LU), Sweden 5
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Co esponding au ho : D . Ma ía Eugenia Ibáñez-Zamacona. 7
Depa men o Gene ics, Physical An h opology and Animal Physiology, Facul y o Science and 8
Technology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), PO Box. 644, 48080 Bilbao (Spain). 9
Tel.: +34 94 601 5405. E-mail add ess: ma iaeugenia.i[email p o ec ed] 10
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Key wo ds: Body image; Age; Sex; Nu i ional s a us. 12
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Ibáñez-Zamacona ME, Po eda A, Reba o E. Ideal body image o he opposi e sex and i s associa ion wi h body mass index.
Jou nal o Biosocial Science. 2023;55(1):190-198. This a icle has been published in a e ised o m in Jou nal o Biosocial Science
h p://doi.o g/10.1017/S0021932021000705. This e sion is published unde a C ea i e Commons CC BY-NC-ND licence. No
comme cial e-dis ibu ion o e-use allowed. De i a i e wo ks canno be dis ibu ed. © 2021 The Au ho (s). Published by
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess .
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Abs ac
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This esea ch s udied he p e e ences epo ed by women and men abou hei ideal body image o
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he opposi e sex (IBIOS), and i s associa ion wi h Body Mass Index (BMI). I also analyses he
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p e e ences o each sex o a woman ideal body image (W-IBI) o a man ideal body image (M-IBI).
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450 pa icipan s (18-70 yea s) wi h di e en weigh s we e s udied. IBIOS was assessed using
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s anda d igu al s imuli. The sample was di ided in ou g oups by sex and age (<45 yea s; ≥45
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yea s). Sex and age di e ences o IBIOS as well as sex di e ences in he p e e ences o a woman
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ideal body image (W-IBI) and a man ideal body image (M-IBI) we e es ed using a non-pa ame ic
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Mann-Whi ney U es . The associa ion be ween IBIOS and BMI was analysed using Spea man
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co ela ion. In all g oups, he mos chosen silhoue e as IBIOS was numbe 4. In he unde 45 yea s
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g oup, women chose bigge silhoue es o he opposi e sex han men did (p<0.05). In his age g oup
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women chose as ideal smalle silhoue es o he emale body han men did (p<0.01). In addi ion,
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women and men in he younge age g oup and wi h no mal weigh chose smalle silhoue es, while
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hose wi h o e weigh o obesi y selec ed la ge silhoue es (p<0.001). Age was a ele an ac o in
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IBIOS p e e ences, and in he associa ion be ween his a iable (IBIOS) and nu i ional s a us (BMI),
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which was only obse ed in he younge age g oup.
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In oduc ion
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The image we ha e o ou own body (and o he body o o he s) is in luenced by in insic ac o s (age,
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sex, weigh , e hnici y, pe sonali y, e c.) as well as by ex insic ones (cul u al no ms, amily, pee s,
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bo h adi ional and new media exposu e, e c.). Body image is a complex and dynamic concep ha
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includes belie s abou appea ance, eelings abou he body size and shape, and pe cep ion o he body
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(Cash & P uzinsky, 2004). Roy and Paye e (2012) conside body image as “a physiological en i y bu
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also as a psychosocial cons uc , o med by ou dimensions ha combine in mul iple ways:
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a i udinal/emo ional, pe cep ual, beha iou al and cogni i e”.
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In con empo a y socie ies, body image conce ns ha e inc eased ema kably due o hei ela ionship
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wi h bo h ea ing (i.e. ano exia and bulimia) and weigh diso de s (i.e. obesi y), anxie y and dep ession.
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The e is a p o use li e a u e on body image, mos ly ocused on adolescence (e.g. Cohelo e al., 2016;
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Solomon-K akus e al., 2017), a pe iod o ema kable biological and psychological changes, and
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social ulne abili y. Howe e , in e es and conce n o body image a e no exclusi e o you h, and
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ex end h oughou adul hood and la e yea s (Bake & G inga , 2009; Mello e al., 2010). Some
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s udies show ha many adul s and olde people a e e y conce ned abou hei body image (see
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Ma iano da Rocha & Te a, 2013), especially women (Sabik, 2015, 2017; Smi h Kilpela e al., 2015).
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Adul hood is conside ed a ai ly s able pe iod in psychosocial e ms, al hough he e a e many physical
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and men al changes ela ed o ageing as age ad ances. A physiological le el, changes occu in he
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amoun and dis ibu ion o body a , which modi y body mo phology and weigh s a us; his can be
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oubling especially o women a e menopause. Acco ding o Ch isle and Ghiz (1993) “body
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changes linked o menopause can change he way a woman hinks and eels abou he body”. In men,
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biological changes a e mo e p og essi e and body image seems less a ec ed han in women, al hough
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he e is no consensus on he ma e (see Tiggemann, 2004; Da ison & McCabe, 2005; Pea e al.,
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2008).
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Th ough he use o alida ed silhoue es and o he me hodologies (measu ing scales, ques ionnai es,
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e c.), many au ho s ha e s udied body image, including ideal body image (IBI) ac oss a ious age
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g oups, especially in child en and adolescen s (Voelke e al., 2015; Ne es e al., 2017) bu also in
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young, middle and olde adul s (e.g. Rand & W igh , 2000; Bibiloni e al., 2017; Ibáñez-Zamacona e
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al., 2020; S agi e al., 2021). Ideal body image p e e ences o he opposi e sex (IBIOS) ha e also
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been s udied, al hough he e is less li e a u e on his subjec (e.g. Fallon & Rozin, 1985; Glea es e al.,
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2000; Jones e al., 2007; Ma u e al., 2012). Rega ding ideal body image (IBI), gi ls and women
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om Wes e n coun ies gene ally desi e smalle bodies o hemsel es han boys and men, who p e e
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la ge /mesomo phic ones (Tiggemann, 2004; Thompson & Ca i, 2007; Blashill & Wilhelm, 2014).
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Disc epancies be ween pe cei ed and ideal body image can lead o body image dissa is ac ion and
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low sel -es eem in bo h sexes. In ela ion o his, i is impo an o poin ou ha “…e alua ions
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indi iduals make o hei bodies a e ela ed o he e alua ions ha hey expec o he s may make”
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(Da ison & McCabe, 2005), which aises he in e es on knowing he ideal body image ha each sex
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has o he opposi e sex. In his con ex , Jones e al. (2007), in a s udy o e hnically di e se u al
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adolescen s, ha e shown ha bo h A ican Ame ican and Caucasian men selec ed la ge emale
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igu es as ideal han he emale igu es selec ed by women; while women epo ed ideal male igu es
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a ing simila han he ones epo ed by males o hemsel es. Howe e , Glea es e al. (2000) ha e
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ound ha Ame ican and Spanish women p e e la ge bodies as IBIOS han he bodies ha men
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hough women would choose; his endency is he opposi e o ha obse ed by Fallon and Rozin
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(1985). The wo abo e-men ioned au ho s ha e poin ed ou ha he di e ences be ween women and
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men wi h espec o IBIOS we e associa ed o e hnici y and socio-economic le el, ha is, he choice
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was cul u ally based.
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Body weigh is associa ed wi h heal h s a us, physical ac i i y, body image, and sel -e alua ion
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(Olms ed & McFa lane, 2004), and hei impac on body image is especially ele an in o e weigh
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and obese people (Schwa z & B ownell, 2004), whose image di e s om he cul u al ideals in many
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socie ies. Fo example, Sa we e al. (2005) ha e obse ed ha middle-aged women, wi h o e weigh
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o obesi y, show g ea conce n because hei body image is no ideal o Wes e n popula ions. In
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addi ion o physical p oblems s emming om weigh s a us, his conce n linked o he “pe cei ed
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body image” can in luence in e pe sonal ela ionships and quali y o li e. Howe e , i is no
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uncommon o obse e a ce ain deg ee o dissa is ac ion wi h body size among indi iduals o no mal
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weigh , especially among young women (Rodin e al., 1984), bu also in men; his is conside ed a
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“cul u al s e eo ype” in bo h sexes (Tan le -Dunn e al., 2011). I is o in e es o ake in o accoun
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his biological a iable (i.e., weigh s a us) in body image s udies because o hei implica ion on body
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image dis u bances (S agi e al., 2021). The au ho s o his pape aim o inc ease he knowledge on
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his ield in he Basque Coun y a ea (Spain), and hypo hesize ha Body Mass Index (BMI), a
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measu e o indica ing nu i ional s a us in adul s, may in luence IBIOS selec ion. The e o e, he
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objec i es o his esea ch we e: i) o s udy di e ences be ween sexes and age g oup in IBIOS
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p e e ences, ii) o examine men and women p e e ences o he same sex body image and iii) o
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analyse he possible associa ion be ween IBIOS and nu i ional s a us (BMI).
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Me hods
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Sample
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227 women and 178 men esiden in he Basque Coun y (Spain), aged be ween 18 and 70 yea s, we e
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s udied. Thei nu i ional s a us anged om no mal weigh o mo bid obesi y. A mo e exhaus i e
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desc ip ion o he sample is a ailable on a p e ious esea ch ca ied ou by Ibáñez-Zamacona e al.
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(2020). The s udy has been accomplished in acco dance wi h Helsinki Decla a ion; a w i en in o med
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consen was ob ained om all pa icipan s, and he s udy p o ocols we e app o ed by he E hics
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Commi ee o Human Resea ch o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU).
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An h opome y
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An h opome ic measu emen s (heigh in cm, and body weigh in kg) we e aken ollowing s anda d
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an h opome ic echniques (Lohman e al., 1988) by he same in es iga o (M.E.I-Z) in o de o a oid
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in e -obse e a iabili y. Nu i ional s a us was es ima ed using BMI, calcula ed as weigh in
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kilog ams di ided by he squa e o he heigh in me e s (kg/m2). The conside ed cu o poin s we e he
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es ablished by he WHO: unde weigh : BMI<18.5 kg/m2; no mal weigh : BMI=18.5-24.9 kg/m2;
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o e weigh : BMI=25-29.9 kg/m2; obesi y: BMI≥30-39.9 kg/m2 (WHO, 2000).
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Body image
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The mos a ac i e body image o he opposi e sex (IBIOS) was assessed using he igu al scale
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de eloped by S unka d e al. (1983). This alida ed scale consis s o nine silhoue es o each sex ha
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ange om e y hin bodies (silhoue e 1) o e y la ge ones (silhoue e 9), ep esen ing inc emen s in
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he weigh pe cen age. The co espondence be ween hese silhoue es, BMI and weigh was
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es ablished by Bulik e al. (2001) in a la ge Caucasian popula ion sample. This ins umen allows he
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measu emen o he body image in a eliable and simple way and is e ec i e in classi ying indi iduals
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as a e age/unde , o e weigh , and obese in popula ions wi h di e en e hnici y, socioeconomic s a us,
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sex and age (see Maupin & H uschka, 2014; López Sánchez e al., 2018).
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IBIOS was ob ained by asking indi iduals o iden i y he igu e ha bes ep esen s hei body image
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p e e ences (“ he ideal body image” o IBI) o he opposi e sex. Women and men p e e ences o he
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same sex body image (woman ideal body image (W-IBI) o man ideal body image (M-IBI)) we e also
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analysed.
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Da a analysis
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The sample was di ided in ou g oups by sex and age (<45 yea s, young adul hood; ≥45 yea s,
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middle/old adul hood). The cu -o poin (45 yea s) was based on he onse o menopause in women
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in de eloped coun ies ( he median age o na u al menopause in Spain was es ima ed a ound 51.7
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yea s, see Reynolds & Makhlou Obe meye , 2005), which when i occu s be ween 45-55 yea s is
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conside ed na u al and is a no mal pa o aging.
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Sex and age di e ences in IBIOS we e es ed using a non-pa ame ic Mann-Whi ney U es o
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o dinal da a. In addi ion, using he ideal body image (IBI) p e iously s udied in Ibáñez-Zamacona e
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al. (2020), compa isons be ween women and men p e e ences o bo h woman and man images (W-
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IBI and M-IBI, espec i ely) we e made using he same es . The associa ions be ween IBIOS and
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BMI we e es ed using Spea man co ela ion analysis. Silhoue es wi h equencies unde 10% we e
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excluded om he associa ion analyses because o hei low ep esen a ion. All analyses we e
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pe o med in SPSS 23.0 s a is ical package (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). S a is ical signi icance was
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conside ed a p<0.05.
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Resul s
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As shown in Figu e 1, nea hal o he sample in each sex and age g oup conside s silhoue e numbe
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4 o be he mos a ac i e o ideal o he opposi e sex (women: 56.3% in he g oup unde 45 yea s,
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and 46% in he olde age g oup; men: 67.4% and 57.5% in he younge and olde g oup, espec i ely).
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Di e ences by age a e no signi ican . The nex silhoue e mo e equen ly chosen as IBIOS by
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women is silhoue e numbe 5 and by men, numbe 3. No woman chooses la ge silhoue es han
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numbe 5 as he mos a ac i e o men, and no man chooses silhoue es highe han numbe 6 o
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women. Signi ican di e ences in IBIOS a e de ec ed by sex in young adul s (p=0.014), bu no in
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middle and old adul s.
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The compa isons o women and men p e e ences o he same sex body image (woman ideal body
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image (W-IBI) o man ideal body image (M-IBI)) only show di e ences o W-IBI in he younge
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g oup (p=0.004) (Figu e 2). Women choose as ideal igu es smalle silhoue es o a woman body
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han men do.
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Nu i ional s a us (BMI) and IBIOS a e signi ican ly associa ed in women and men unde 45 yea s o
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age (p=9.6E-5 and p=6.7E-5, espec i ely) bu no signi ican associa ions a e ound in he olde age
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g oup; olde pa icipan s choose IBIOS ega dless o hei own BMI (Figu e 3).
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Discussion
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The choices o “o he s” abou ou body a e ele an no only a young ages, bu also in he adul hood;
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hey can cause dissa is ac ion and a loss o sel -es eem, and lead o physical and psychological
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al e a ions, and social isola ion, e en a olde ages (Bake & G inga , 2009; Sle ec & Tiggemann,
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2011). The p esen esea ch conside s he p e e ences epo ed by a sample o adul women and men
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li ing in he Basque Coun y (Spain) abou hei body image p e e ences o he opposi e sex (IBIOS),
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and i s ela ion wi h weigh /nu i ional s a us (BMI). As well as i conside s he p e e ences o he
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same sex ideal body image (W-IBI and M-IBI).
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The mo phological changes ha occu du ing ageing, oge he wi h he modi ica ion o oles and
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social posi ion ha akes place du ing his p ocess, could lead us o hink ha adul s o di e en ages
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ha e di e en pe cep ions and p e e ences abou he opposi e sex and, consequen ly, will choose
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di e en images as IBIOS. Howe e , in ou sample IBIOS was essen ially he same in young and in
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olde adul s. Wes e n cul u es alue he ideal o eminine hinness, bu also ha o you h, pu ing bo h
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on he same le el (Smi h Kilpela e al., 2015). Thus, i is possible ha simila IBIOS was chosen
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ega dless o age. On he o he hand, IBIOS showed a di e en endency acco ding o sex: women
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p e e ed sligh ly la ge body sizes o men han wha men p e e ed o women. Women o bo h age
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g oups p e e ed silhoue es 4 and 5 as he ideal body image o a man. Acco ding o Bulick e al.
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(2001), silhoue e 4 is in he uppe ange o no mal weigh (app ox. BMI=23.3 kg/m2, younge g oup;
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app ox. BMI=23.9 kg/m2, olde g oup), and silhoue e 5 is in he lowe ange o o e weigh (app ox.
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BMI=25.5 kg/m2, younge g oup; app ox. BMI=25.7 kg/m2, olde g oup). These obse a ions could
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poin o a p e e ence o “muscula bodies” a he han an inc ease in body a ; howe e , al hough he
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silhoue es used a e ela ed o a p og essi e inc ease in weigh and BMI, hey do no allow us o
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dis inguish be ween a and lean mass om he o al weigh . No wi hs anding his, he ecen s udy
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pe o med by S agi e al. (2021) in a sample o young, middle-aged and elde ly adul s, using speci ic
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bioelec ical impedance ec o analysis (BIVAsp) and Williamson silhoue es (Williamson e al.,
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2020), has shown ha he silhoue es used o assess cu en body size pe cep ion a e s ongly ela ed
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o body a , so he in e p e a ion o body p e e ences (i.e., a la ge size in he sense o muscula i y o
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a ness, o e en bo h) emains un esol ed.
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The ideal body images ha men p e e o a woman a e mos ly silhoue es 4 and 3 in bo h age g oups,
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co esponding o a no mal weigh ( o silhoue e 3: app ox. BMI=20.5 kg/m2, younge g oup; app ox.
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BMI=21.2 kg/m2, olde g oup; o silhoue e 4: app ox. BMI=22.6 kg/m2, younge g oup; app ox.
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BMI=23.2 kg/m2, olde g oup). This endency exis s in bo h age g oups, al hough i was s a is ically
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signi ican only in pa icipan s unde 45 yea s, possibly due o a elaxa ion o social p essu e a olde
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ages (Tunaley e al., 1999). E en hough he ages and e hnici y we e no s ic ly compa able, ou
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esul s we e qui e simila o obse ed by Ma u e al. (2012) in Nige ian women and men, whe e he
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majo i y o indi iduals conside ed no mal weigh as ideal o he opposi e sex. In ag eemen wi h he
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s udy o Laus e al. (2015) in B azilian women and men o e 18 yea s, in ou sample he mos chosen
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silhoue es as IBIOS by women we e also he mos chosen silhoue es as IBI by men and ice e sa
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( esul s ega ding IBI shown in Ibáñez-Zamacona e al., 2020). This means ha bo h women and men
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p e e smalle body images o a woman body and ela i ely la ge body images o a man body. This
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pa e n is common in many popula ions (Ba e & Hu man, 2011; Zaccagni e al., 2014), acco ding
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o he socially p esc ibed appea ance o each sex (see Caloge o & Thompsom, 2010) and linked in
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pa o socio-cul u al p essu e, such as social ne wo ks (Anixiadis e al., 2019) o TV (Jucke e al.,
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2017). Thinness is usually linked o he ideal o beau y in women (Le ine & Pi an, 2004) whe eas in
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men la ge images a e linked o he ideal o muscula u e (Pope e al., 2000; Blashill & Wilhelm,
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2014). Howe e , signi ican sex di e ences we e obse ed o W-IBI in he younge g oup, women
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chose as ideal smalle silhoue es o emale bodies han men do.
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Acco ding o he “ heo y o social compa ison”, indi iduals compa e hei opinions wi h hose o
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o he indi iduals (Fes inge , 1954). In his amewo k, wha a pe son belie es he opposi e sex would
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choose as he mos a ac i e body in luences he choice o he ideal sel -image, especially in he
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ep oduc i e ages (in ou sample indi iduals unde he age o 45), when indi iduals s a o se iously
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conside hei possible pa ne s. In ac , as s a ed by Li le and Pe e (2002), many o ou cu en
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p e e ences o a pa icula appea ance may e lec e olu iona y adap a ions ela ed o ma e choice.
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Some au ho s ha e poin ed ou ha women hink men a e a ac ed o smalle , hinne women, which
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does no gene ally coincide wi h male p e e ences (Be gs om e al., 2004; G ossba d e al., 2011).
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This “mispe cep ion” in he p e e ences o he opposi e sex could suppo ou esul s in he younge
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g oup o W-IBI. Howe e , in his age g oup, he e was no a sexual di e ence o M-IBI, bu a
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endency owa d bigge bodies p e e ed by men can be app ecia ed. Acco ding o Hildeb and and
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Walke (2006), men accu a ely iden i ied he men’s body image mos a ac i e o women bu hey
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also ound ha men p e e ed a mo e leane and muscula body han wha hey belie e women do.
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Al hough he a o emen ioned s udy pe o med by S agi e al. (2001) shows a posi i e associa ion
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be ween silhoue es and a mass, he inadequacy o silhoue es o dis inguish be ween a and lean
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mass (Coelho e al., 2015) can in luence he ound esul s. Besides ha , in he middle/old adul s g oup
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he e was a g ea conco dance be ween wha each sex conside ed W-IBI, and wha hey conside ed
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M-IBI. Some au ho s ha e ound ha he mispe cep ion in ela ion o wha he o he sex conside
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a ac i e is g ea e in young indi iduals (<30 yea s) han in olde ones (Dema es & Allen, 2000),
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which may explain ou esul s.
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Obesi y is a global nu i ion p oblem in de eloped coun ies, whe e i s ci izens li e in con adic ion
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be ween he desi e o be hin and he g owing “ a ening” o popula ions, o en imme sed in
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“obesogenic en i onmen s” (Swinbu n e al., 1999). This si ua ion can cause mul iple p oblems
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ela ed o body image such as body dissa is ac ion o ea ing p oblems. Unde s anding he ela ionship
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be ween body image (body size pe cep ions and p e e ences) and weigh s a us could imp o e bo h,
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obesi y p e en ion p og ams and body image sa is ac ion. The pa icipan s in he p esen s udy sha e
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he same o igin and socio-economic le el and, in a gene al way, hey a e equally exposed o he
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ex insic ac o s ha usually in luence ideal body image (media, ashion…). Howe e , some s udied
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g oups did no sha e he p e e ences o IBIOS. As ini ially hypo hesized, in he younge g oups (<45
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yea s) he e was a posi i e ela ion be ween BMI and he choice o IBIOS. Thus, women and men
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wi h highe BMIs chose as IBIOS silhoue es indica i e o a la ge size while pa icipan s wi h lowe
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BMIs chose silhoue es ep esen ing smalle body sizes. Al hough he me hodology used is no he
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same han in he p esen esea ch, Ma u e al. (2012) ha e also obse ed di e en IBIOS p e e ences
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in ela ion o weigh in a sample o Nige ian women and men, aged 21-29 yea s.
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In conclusion, age can be conside ed an impo an ac o in IBIOS p e e ences and in he associa ion
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be ween his a iable and nu i ional s a us (BMI). In women and men o all ages, he silhoue es
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chosen as IBIOS we e loca ed wi hin he no mal weigh , al hough some sexual di e ences we e
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ele an in younge indi iduals, whe e women chose ela i ely la ge silhoue es o men and men
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p e e ed smalle silhoue es o women. Besides, only in younge indi iduals women and men had
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di e en p e e ences o a woman body. I is also in his age g oup whe e he e we e signi ican and
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posi i e associa ions be ween IBIOS and weigh s a us (BMI). Pa icipan s wi h a lowe BMI chose
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smalle silhoue es, while hose who we e o e weigh o obese selec ed la ge silhoue es. Olde
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people chose IBIOS ega dless o hei own BMI.
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This explo a o y s udy has some limi a ions and s eng hs. Fi s ly, he sample size may in luence he
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powe o he s a is ical analyses bu he sample is highly homogeneous in e ms o o igin and social
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s a us. Secondly, he esul s a e speci ic o his sample, al hough hey a e ai ly consis en wi h
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obse a ions made in o he popula ions. An impo an s eng h o he esea ch is he inclusion o
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middle and olde adul s o bo h sexes, usually unde ep esen ed in wo ks conside ing IBIOS, as well
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as he good ep esen a ion o pa icipan s wi h di e en weigh s a us (BMI), especially wi h obesi y.
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E hical App o al. The au ho s asse ha all p ocedu es con ibu ing o his wo k comply wi h he
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e hical s anda ds o he ele an na ional and ins i u ional commi ees on human expe imen a ion and
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wi h he Helsinki Decla a ion o 1975, as e ised in 2008.
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Con lic s o In e es . The au ho s ha e no con lic s o in e es o decla e.
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Funding: This wo k was suppo ed by he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion (MICINN)
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unde he G an numbe GCL2010-15511, and by he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y by a p e-
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doc o al G an numbe PIF09049. The las au ho is membe o he UPV/EHU-Basque Sys em
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Resea ch G oup IT1380-19.
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