Multi-isotopic study of the earliest mediaeval inhabitants of Santiago de Compostela (Galicia, Spain)

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h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12520-022-01678-0
RESEARCH
Mul i‑iso opic s udy o  heea lies mediae al inhabi an s o San iago
de Compos ela (Galicia, Spain)
Pa xiPé ez‑Ramallo1,2,3· Au o aG andal‑d´Anglade4· EliaO ganis a5,6· ElenaSan os7· Da idChi all8·
Rica doRod íguez‑Va ela9,10· Ande sGö he s öm9,10· F anciscoE xebe ia3· JanaIlgne 1,2·
Rica doFe nandes2,11,12· JuanLuisA suaga13· Pe usLeRoux14· TomHigham15· JuliaBeaumon 16·
HannahKoon16· Pa ickRobe s1,2,17
Recei ed: 6 June 2022 / Accep ed: 28 Sep embe 2022
© The Au ho (s) 2022
Abs ac
San iago de Compos ela is, oge he wi h Rome and Je usalem, one o he h ee main pilg image and eligious cen es o
Ca holicism. The belie ha he emains o S James he G ea , one o he wel e apos les o Jesus Ch is , is bu ied he e
has s imula ed, since hei epo ed disco e y in he 9 hcen u y AD, a signi ican low o people om ac oss he Eu opean
con inen and beyond. Li le is known abou he p ac ical expe iences o people li ing wi hin he ci y du ing i s ise o
p ominence, howe e . He e, o he i s ime, we combine mul i-iso ope analysis (δ13C, δ15N, δ18Oap, δ13Cap and 87S /86S )
and adioca bon da ing (14C) o human emains disco e ed a he c yp o he Ca hed al o San iago o di ec ly s udy changes
in die and mobili y du ing he i s h ee cen u ies o San iago’s eme gence as an u ban cen e (9 h–12 h cen u ies AD).
Toge he wi h assessmen o he exis ing a chaeological da a, ou adioca bon ch onology b oadly con i ms his o ical a-
di ion ega ding he i s occupa ion o he si e. Iso opic analyses e eal ha he ounda ion o he eligious si e a ac ed
mig an s om he wide egion o he no hwes co ne o he Ibe ian Peninsula, and possibly om u he a ield. S able
iso ope analysis o collagen, oge he wi h in o ma ion on omb ypology and loca ion, indica es ha he inhabi an s o he
ci y expe ienced inc easing socioeconomic di e si y as i became weal hie as he hub o a wide ne wo k o pilg image. Ou
esea ch ep esen s he po en ial o mul idisciplina y analyses o e eal insigh s in o he o igins and impac s o he eme gence
o ea ly pilg image cen es on he die s and s a us o communi ies wi hin Ch is ian mediae al Eu ope and beyond.
Keywo ds Paleodie · Mobili y· Camino de San iago· Pilg image· San iago de Compos ela· Middle Ages
In oduc ion
Pilg images o si es o spi i ual signi icance emain one o
he mos impo an aspec s o o ganised eligion in he 21s
cen u y, a ac ing millions o people each yea who o en
unde ake jou neys o housands o kilome es (Collins-
K eine 2010). The seasonal in lux o pilg ims o pa icula
si es can p o ide a majo inancial boos o local economies
and bols e he poli ical and cul u al signi icance o ce ain
key cen es and na ions (Collins-K eine 2010; Vijayanand
2012; Abuhjeeleh 2019). Pilg images can cons i u e an
essen ial aspec o ce ain eligions (Collins-K eine 2010)
o ep esen an es ablished cus om which is no pa o co e
eligious ene s (Kim e al. 2016) and ha e a deep his o y
in a ious pa s o he wo ld. Ch is ian pilg image p ac ices
begin ea ly, a ound he 4 h cen u y AD, wi h isi s o si es
in he Nea Eas associa ed wi h he li e and ma y dom o
Jesus o Naza e h such as he Chu ch o he Holy Sepulch e
o he Moun o Oli es (F eeman 2011). These con inue o
be isi ed oday by Ch is ians en mass (Collins-K eine and
Klio 2000). In o he ea ly i s millennium AD, howe e ,
pilg im si es expanded widely ac oss he Nea Eas and in o
Eu ope wi h objec s and body pa s associa ed wi h Jesus o
Naza e h, his disciples and a ious sain s o ma y s ac ing
as a ac ions o de o ees seeking a ou s and edemp ion
(F eeman 2011).
By he 9 h cen u y AD, h ough he in luence o Cha le-
magne and he expansion o Ch is iani y, much o wes e n
* Pa xi Pé ez-Ramallo
[email p o ec ed]
* Pa ick Robe s
[email p o ec ed]
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
/ Published online: 12 Oc obe 2022
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
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Eu ope became i mly g ipped by a desi e o a ain and isi
elics and unde ake pilg images (F eeman 2011). One o he
p ima y cen es o pan-Eu opean pilg images was, oge he
wi h Rome and Je usalem, San iago de Compos ela (Gali-
cia, Spain) (Fig.1). Du ing he i s hi d o he 9 hcen u y
AD, a pu po ed e ela ion o a local bishop, Theodomi
o I ia, led o he disco e y o he sepulch e o he apos le
Sain James he G ea (López Alsina 2015). In Ch is ian
ex s, S James was documen ed as being one o he mos
p ominen apos les o Jesus o Naza e h, ma y ed by He od
o Ag ippa in Je usalem some ime be ween 41 and 44 AD
(Sulai Capponi 2006). He became an Ibe ian Ch is ian sym-
bol o he igh agains he ‘in idel’, boos ed by di e en leg-
ends epo ing ba le appa i ions du ing he wa s agains he
Islamic Calipha es (Ramí ez Pascual 2004). The supposed
disco e y o he bu ial place o Sain James he G ea in i s
Ca hed al hus made he ci y o San iago de Compos ela
he des ina ion o housands C is ian pilg ims. Whils he
si e also became an impo an place o bu ial, wi h a chae-
ological in es iga ion e ealing a se ies o di e en omb
ypes anging om he i s emple on he si e h ough o he
peak o San iago as a cen e o pilg image (Gue a Campos
1982), he ch onological and a chi ec u al de elopmen o
he Ca hed al a ea has emained ela i ely uns udied since
he mid-20 h cen u y (Pé ez Ramallo 2021).
Fu he mo e, al hough documen a y and a chaeological
sou ces p o ide aluable in o ma ion abou he i s inhabi -
an s o San iago de Compos ela, as well as he ypes o oods
ha we e a ailable and how hey we e p obably p epa ed
o consump ion, hey canno ell us, wi h ce ain y, om
whe e he i s inhabi an s o he si e and la e pilg ims came
om, he ypes o oods hey a e and wha a e he di e ences
exis ed be ween he indi iduals inhumed in he di e en
a eas o San iago de Compos ela. S able iso ope analysis o
ca bon (δ13C) and ni ogen (δ15N) has been egula ly used
in a chaeological con ex s o documen die a y a ia ion
amongs human and animals (F oehle e al. 2012; Maka-
ewicz and Sealy 2015; Webb e al. 2014) and, speci ically,
he e is now a signi ican li e a u e o s able iso ope s udies
ocused on die a y a ia ion ac oss he mediae al Ibe ian
Peninsula (i.e. Alexande e al. 2015; Jiménez-B obeil e al.
2016; Mundee 2010; Pé ez-Ramallo e al. 2022; Salaza -
Ga cía e al. 2014). The me hod is based on he p emise ha
he δ13C and δ15N alues o human and o he animal issues
a e di ec ly ela ed o hei die (Amb ose and No 1993;
Yode 2012). Meanwhile, combina ion o s able oxygen
iso ope (δ18Oap) and s on ium iso ope analysis (87S /86S )
o oo h enamel p o ides a mean o in es iga e pas human
and animal mobili y be ween geologically and hyd ologi-
cally di e en egions (Maka ewicz and Sealy 2015) and
has also been applied in mediae al Ibe ian con ex s (López-
Cos as e al. 2021; Pé ez Ramallo 2021).
δ13C a iabili y in e es ial ecosys ems is mainly d i en
by di e en ial iso opic disc imina ion agains 13C du ing
CO2 abso p ion by plan s ollowing he wo dominan pho-
osyn he ic pa hways, C3 (e.g. whea , ba ley, ees, sh ubs
and mos empe a e g asses) and C4 (e.g. mille and mos
opical g asses) (Smi h and Eps ein 1971). Whils bone
and den ine collagen δ13C p ima ily e lec s p o ein con-
ibu ions o he die (Amb ose and No 1993; Howland
e al. 2003; Jim e al. 2004), oo h enamel δ13C p o ides a
‘whole die ’ signa u e du ing he pe iod o enamel o ma ion
Fig. 1 Map o he Ibe ian Pen-
insula showing he loca ion o
San iago de Compos ela and he
o he si es men ioned in he ex
214 Page 2 o 28
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
(including ca bohyd a es, p o eins and lipids) (Amb ose and
No 1993), hough he pe iods o li e co e ed by each issue
will a y depending on he exac elemen sampled (G e-
go icka e al. 2017). δ15N a ies wi h ophic le el, wi h
changes o + 2 o + 6‰ be ween plan s and he bi o es and
he bi o es and hei consume s being well-documen ed
in bo h aqua ic and e es ial sys ems (Tieszen and Fag e
1993; DeNi o and Eps ein 1981; Sealy e al. 1987). The long
leng h o ma ine ood chains leads o dis inc i ely high δ15N
in ma ine oods and consume s compa ed o hei e es ial
coun e pa s. Ma ine esou ces also ha e highe δ13C al-
ues han e es ial C3 ecosys ems ha mimic hose o C4
plan s, due o a di e en sou ce o CO2 o p ima y p oduc-
e s (Schoeninge and DeNi o 1984). F eshwa e o ganisms
also end o ha e high δ15N, hough hei δ13C is highly a i-
able (Du ou e al. 1999). Whils hese dis inc ions p o ide
a i m basis o palaeodie a y explo a ion, i is impo an o
no e ha ex e nal en i onmen al condi ions such as em-
pe a u e, a idi y, ain all o c op g owing condi ions (e.g.
he applica ion o manu e) can also in luence he δ13C and
δ15N alues (Amundson e al. 2003; Bogaa d e al. 2007).
Thus, he analysis o associa ed animals o plan s emains
impo an (Casey and Pos 2011).
δ18Oap is di ec ly ela ed o ha o d inking wa e , which,
in u n, is known o a y p edic ably geog aphically (Lon-
ginelli 1984; Lécolle 1985). This a ia ion is d i en by
changes in he δ18O o p ecipi a ion and g oundwa e (Maka-
ewicz and Sealy 2015; Webb and Whi e 2014). Equa ions
such as hose p esen ed by Longinelli (1984) o Le inson
e al. (1987) a e o en used o con e oo h enamel ca bon-
a e o phospha e δ18O in o a d inking wa e δ18O, ye signi i-
can e o s and unce ain ies a e associa ed (Ligh oo and
O’Connell 2016). Fu he mo e, changes in clima e h ough
ime can a ec local d inking wa e δ18O. As a esul , when
in e p e ing whe he pas human δ18O co ela es o ha o
‘local’ alues, i is be e o compa e hem o a local baseline
o associa ed animal δ18O. E en hen, in a-popula ion a i-
abili y is known o be signi ican (Ligh oo and O’Connell
2016). S on ium iso ope (87S /86S ) app oaches o pas
human mobili y es on he p emise ha ocks o di e en
ages and li hologies ha e di e en 87S /86S alues, which do
no al e as s on ium is passed om he sou ce ocks in o he
biosphe e wi hou iso opic ac iona ion (E ans e al., 2006).
Al hough he e is no mass-dependen ac iona ion om he
bed ock in o a gi en ood chain, bed ock 87S /86S does no
always co ela e di ec ly wi h bioa ailable 87S /86S . Di e -
en ial wea he ing o ocks wi h di e en 87S /86S a ios, as
well as he geog aphic a iabili y o hyd ology and aeolian
anspo , leads o a ia ions in he 87S /86S o soils and
plan s o e lying a gi en dis ibu ion o ocks (G aus ein
1989). F om plan s, S 2+ ac i ely eplaces Ca2+ in consume
issues as pa o he p ocess o nu ien up ake and exc e ion
(G aus ein 1989), wi h he amoun o s on ium inco po a ed
in o he skele on belie ed o be di ec ly e lec i e o ha
a ailable om he local en i onmen (Mon gome y 2010).
A obus bioa ailable baseline is essen ial as he 87S /86S
o an indi idual will be he combined consequence o all
ood consumed and all wa e imbibed, as well as he ex en
o he ange o e which an indi idual ob ains ood and d ink
(Mon gome y 2010).
A mul i-iso ope app oach has huge po en ial o p o ide
di ec insigh s in o he o igins and die s o indi iduals li ing
a San iago de Compos ela du ing i s ounda ion and expan-
sion as a majo mediae al eligious cen e. Ne e heless,
o da e, he e has been no ex ensi e bioa chaeological and
ch onological s udy o he o igin and de elopmen o he
Ca hed al and i s nec opolis a he hea o his Ch is ian
cen e du ing he la e i s and ea ly second millennium AD.
He e, we aim o in es iga e he li eways, s a us and o igin o
i s i s inhabi an s du ing he bi h and o ma ion o San-
iago de Compos ela using δ13C and δ15N analysis o bone
and den ine collagen and δ18Oap, δ13Cap and 87S /86S analy-
sis o oo h enamel. Alongside new ch onological in o ma-
ion ob ained using 14C analysis o some o he same human
emains, we examine he die a y and mobili y pa e ns o he
i s mediae al inhabi an s and pilg ims o San iago de Com-
pos ela and con as he ob ained esul s wi h he a ailable
his o ical sou ces and p e ious a chaeological esea ch o
explo e he wide economic, die a y and geog aphical si u-
a ion o hese popula ions.
A chaeological, his o ical andgeog aphical
backg ound
A e he disco e y o he omb o S James by he bishop
Teodomi s, Al onso II, King o As u ias, became he i s
pilg im o isi San iago de Compos ela in 814 AD, es ab-
lishing he i s pilg image ou e, known as El Camino
P imi i o (The P imi i e Way) (López Alsina 2015), linking
his capi al in O iedo o San iago de Compos ela. Be ween
he 11 h and 14 h cen u ies AD, San iago de Compos ela
ecei ed hund eds o housands o pilg ims (Ma ínez
Ga cía 2004; Ge a d and Gu ié ez-González 2018) a i -
ing om ac oss he con inen ia a ious Caminos de San-
iago, pilg image ou es ha e en ually sp awled ac oss
Spain, Po ugal, F ance, Ge many and o he pa s o Eu ope.
The new, g owing poli ical and cul u al s a us o San iago de
Compos ela saw i s local popula ion expand, likely a ac -
ing people om a ound he egion h ough i s no el socio-
economic oppo uni ies. The Black Dea h and he di ision o
he Ch is ian chu ches esul ed in a decline in he numbe o
pilg ims in he 15 h cen u y and numbe s emained limi ed
h ough o he 20 h cen u y (Mi anda Ga cía 2002). Today,
he ci y and i s Caminos a e UNESCO Wo ld He i age si es,
and 300,000 pilg ims isi San iago de Compos ela e e y
Page 3 o 28 214
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
yea on spi i ual jou neys popula ised in li e a u e and ilm
(Millán Vásquez de la To e e al. 2010; González 2018;
Ál a ez-Sousa 2015).
Nowadays, San iago de Compos ela is he capi al o he
egion o Galicia (Spain) in he no hwes o he Ibe ian Pen-
insula (Fig.1). The si e has, ollowing he Köppen classi ica-
ion, a empe a e oceanic clima e (C b), wi h mild o wa m
and mode a ely d y summe s and mild, we win e s (Agencia
Es a al de Me e eología). A combina ion o winds om he
A lan ic and he su ounding moun ains p o ides San iago
de Compos ela wi h one o he highes ain alls in Spain
a 1787mm pe yea (Agencia Es a al de Me e eología).
Geologically, he e a e wo pa s o he ci y. The No h and
Eas o he ci y lie abo e a Complejo de Ó denes ( he O des
Complex), o med by me amo phosed ul abasic ocks. By
con as , he wes si s abo e g ani e in usions, composed
mainly o leucog ani es o wo micas and migma i es g ani-
oid (Ma ínez Ca alán e al. 1984). The O de Complex con-
sis s mainly o me asedimen s, along wi h some ma e ials
ha come om he oceanic ock bo om i sel , and some
wi h olcanic o igin: o hogenesis, amphiboli e and gabb o
in usions (Ma ínez Ca alán e al. 1984). These sedimen-
a y ma e ials de i e mainly om Final P ecamb ian and
Lowe Palaeozoic ma e ials, and hei egional me amo -
phism occu ed du ing he He cynian o ogeny in he Uppe
Palaeozoic (Fig.2).
Based on p e ious a chaeological wo k, h ee di e en
phases o occupa ion ha e been dis inguished o San iago
de Compos ela: High Middle Ages (9 h-12 h cen u ies AD),
Ge manic o Ea ly Middle Ages (5 h-7 h cen u ies AD) and
Roman Ages (1s -5 h cen u ies cen u y AD) (Chamoso
Lamas 1957; López Alsina 2015; Gue a Campos 1982).
Be ween a leas he 8 h cen u y AD, un il he disco e y o
he apos olic omb, he place was uninhabi ed, wi h small
u al popula ions in i s su oundings (López Alsina 2015).
These phases o occupa ion a San iago de Compos ela we e
es ablished ia he a chaeological exca a ions conduc ed
unde he cu en Ca hed al o San iago de Compos ela a
he end o he 19 h cen u y and be ween 1946 and 1959
(Chamoso Lamas 1957; Gue a Campos 1982). Du ing he
la e a chaeological wo ks o he mid-20 h cen u y, he
emains o he wo p e ious emples, he i s ci y wall and
a mediae al nec opolis wi h a Roman o igin we e iden i-
ied (Gue a Campos 1982) (Fig.3 and S1). This mediae al
nec opolis (9 h-12 h cen u ies AD) co esponds o he cem-
e e y ha su ounded he emple c ea ed by o de o Al onso
II a e he disco e y o S James’s omb (820/830–872 AD)
(Chamoso Lamas 1957; López Alsina 2015; Gue a Cam-
pos 1982) and he one aised 40yea s la e o e he i s
chu ch, he basilica o Al onso III (872–1075 AD) (López
Alsina 2015). Du ing hese h ee cen u ies, he mediae al
nec opolis sp ead signi ican ly, esul ing in an o e lap o
ombs caused by he emple’s delimi ed loca ion on op o
a hill (Fig.S1). Du ing he a chaeological exca a ions con-
duc ed in mid-20 h cen u y, a emp ing o ind he oldes
pa o he nec opolis, he a chaeologis s des oyed a signi i-
can numbe o ombs (Gue a Campos 1982). Fo una ely,
he emaining g a es and hei indi iduals (n = 33) we e
espec ed wi hou al e a ions. F om hose, 5 indi iduals (4
adul s and 1 ju enile) we e pa ly analysed ia os eological
echniques in 1972 and 1982 (Ped ei a Ba os 1972; Ca o
O e o and Va ela Ogando 1982). Since hen, he nec opo-
lis o he Ca hed al o San iago de Compos ela had lacked
any new a chaeological wo k, including he applica ion o
mul idisciplina y app oaches, wi h he excep ion o in e p e-
i e e isions o he exis ing da a by Chamoso Lamas (e.g.
Suá ez O e o 2015).
In 2015, a pilo os eological s udy, combined wi h s able
ca bon (δ13C), ni ogen (δ15N) and oxygen (δ18O) iso ope
analysis, was ca ied ou on eigh indi iduals exca a ed insi u
om he mediae al nec opolis o he Ca hed al o San iago
de Compos ela and analysed a he S able Iso ope Labo a o y,
Uni e si y o B ad o d (B ad o d, he UK) (Pé ez Ramallo
2015), along wi h a small sample o con empo aneous au-
nal emains. The measu emen o human enamel ca bona e
demons a ed ha 6 o he 8 indi iduals had childhood δ18O
alues sugges ing a non-local o igin (Müldne e al. 2009)—
o a summa y o he me hod, see B i on (2020). In addi ion,
inc emen al den ine collagen δ13C and δ15N p oduced using
Beaumon e al. (2013) me hod, and wi h age assigned using
Beaumon and Mon gome y (2015), demons a ed changes
in he die o hese indi iduals h ough he yea s o oo h o -
ma ion and o ib bone collagen δ13C and δ15N in adul hood
(Tab. S1). These da a showed signi ican a ia ions p obably
because o geog aphic mobili y (NCS003) (Fig.S2;Tab. S1)
and/o change o social s a us, as well as po en ial sho - e m
die a y pa e ns consis en wi h C4 consump ion du ing pe i-
ods o amine (NCS006 and NCS007) (Fig.S2;Tab. S1).
Ne e heless, he sample size emained oo small o de ini-
i e conclusions, and he ch onology o he bu ials equi ed
con i ma ion.
The si e o San iago de Compos ela
and hehuman emains ound ini
Following he pilo wo k in 2015, we sough o con inue he
in es iga ion o he emaining indi iduals bu ied insi u a
he mediae al Nec opolis o San iago de Compos ela, wi h
he objec i e o be e unde s and he li eways, s a us and
o igin o i s i s inhabi an s du ing he o igins and o ma ion
o San iago de Compos ela as a eligious hub. In 2017, we
conduc ed new ieldwo k examining he emains o indi idu-
als eco e ed du ing he mid-20 h cen u y (Fig.3 and S1),
inc easing he numbe o indi iduals analysed and analy ical
me hods applied. We di ided he nec opolis in o 3 zones in
214 Page 4 o 28
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
ela ion o hei posi ion ela i e o he Basilica o Al onso
III (Fig.3). The i s wo zones (1 and 2) co espond o p i i-
leged a eas a ound he en ances o he basilica, which we e
he loca ions closes o he elics, and in he case o zone 2
whe e di e en eli e pe sonages and bishops we e bu ied
(e.g. Teodomi s) (Gue a Campos 1982). Meanwhile, zone
0 is he b oades , mos in ensely occupied and mos dis an
om Al onso III’s emple (Fig.3 and S1).
Os eological analysis is a non-des uc i e echnique ha
is ocused on human skele on eco e y and in e p e a ion.
We pe o med mac oscopic obse a ions using he naked
eye and a magni ying lens. Sex assessmen and age es i-
ma ions o he skele ons we e made using es ablished mo -
phological c i e ia o he skull, pel is, oo h wea and long
bones ollowing Buiks a and Ubelake (1994); B ooks and
Suchey (1990); B o hwell (1981); Klales e al. (2012); Mays
(2010); Meindl and Lo ejoy (1985); Lo ejoy e al. (1985);
Walke (2008) and Bass (2005). Howe e , he amoun o
bone elemen s eco e ed, he local subs a e ha accele -
a ed hei deg ada ion (López-Cos as and Müldne 2016;
Kaal e al. 2016), limi ed he os eological analysis. We we e
able o es ima e he sex o a o al o 9 emale, 11 male and
Fig. 2 Map illus a ing he
di e en geological a eas based
on bed ock, ollowing Ins i u o
Geológico y Mine o de España,
Magna 1:50.000 (2ª Se ie),
Hoja 94 (h ps:// mapas. igme. es/
gis/ es / se i ces/ Ca o g a ia_
Geolo gica/ IGME_ MAGNA_
50/ MapSe e ). A, San iago
de Compos ela. B, Rocha o e
Cas le. 1, Me abasic ocks; 2,
Ó denes schis s; 3, Schis s and
pa agneiss; 4, Bio i e o hog-
neises; 5, Shales wi h qua zi e
le els; 6, G ani e o wo micas;
7, Migma i ic g ani oid
Page 5 o 28 214

A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
13 inde e mina e. These we e di ided in o g oups o age
ollowing he c i e ia o Buiks a and Ubelake (1994) as
ollows: 2 child en, 7 young adul s, 7 middle adul s and 4 old
adul s. The emaining indi iduals (n = 14) we e classi ied
he e as inde e mina e adul s (Table1).
To es ablish he ch onology o he bu ied indi iduals, and
he phases o occupa ion, we employed adioca bon da ing.
We adioca bon-da ed 9 human bone samples in o de o
con i m he ch onology and unde s and he de elopmen o
he nec opolis o e ime alongside he Ca hed al complex
(Fig.4; Tab. S2). O hese, 7 samples we e analysed a he
Ox o d Radioca bon Accele a o Uni (ORAU), Ox o d, UK.
These ep esen ed human bone om he omb ypes ‘Sa -
cophagus’ (s one sa cophagus), ‘Cis s’ and ‘An h opomo -
phic’ ( ec angula , o al o an h opomo phic ombs exca a ed
in o he geological subs a e wi h s one walls o ec angula
slabs, co e ed wi h hick o hin slabs, espec i ely), dis-
ibu ed amongs he h ee a eas o he nec opolis (Figs.3,
5,and S1). Meanwhile, 2 samples o bone om zone ‘0’,
om ombs ype ‘Cis s’ and ‘Rec angula ’ ( ec angula omb
wi h i egula s one walls and co e , wi h a soil base), we e
sen o Be a Analy ic Inc. Radioca bon Labo a o y, Flo ida,
USA. The ull p o ocol and s anda ds used in each labo a-
o y a e epo ed in he supplemen a y in o ma ion ex S1.
Radioca bon de e mina ions we e calib a ed using OxCal
4.4 and he In Cal20 calib a ion cu e (Reime e al. 2020).
The adioca bon da ing esul s sugges ha he indi idu-
als analysed in his s udy da e o be ween he 9 h and 12 h
cen u ies AD (Fig.4; Tab. S2) and ha e con i med ha he
di e en omb ypes iden i ied du ing he i s exca a ions
du ing he mid-20 h cen u y exca a ions (Gue a Campos,
1982) ep esen a ch onological sequence o nec opolis use.
Based on ou da es, and exis ing con ex ual knowledge, he
so-called Doble Es ola sa cophagus (Gue a Campos, 1982),
he e classi ied as omb ype ‘Sa cophagus’ (Figs.4, 5,and
S1; Tab. S2), appea s o ep esen indi iduals bu ied du ing
he i s decades a e he disco e y o S James’ emains
in he 9 h cen u y AD. Al hough a signi ican numbe o
hese ombs we e eused, wi h emains o mo e han one
indi idual being disco e ed in some cases wi hin (NCS001,
NCS023, NCS024, NCS145 and NCS258), hey may e en
be ela ed o he i s emple aised on he si e by Al onso
Fig. 3 Zoomed in map o he main and be e conse ed a ea o he
mediae al nec opolis, zone “0”, and a zoomed-ou map o he Ca he-
d al o San iago de Compos ela indica ing he loca ion o he Basilica
o Al onso III (872–1075), and he posi ion o all h ee zones o he
mediae alnec opolis
214 Page 6 o 28
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
Table 1 δ13C, δ15N, δ18Oap, δ13Cap, δ18Odw and 87S /86S da a, sex, age and ch onology o human om he Nec opolis o he Ca hed al o San iago. * = He e we classi ied hese ombs in ou
ca ego ies: Sa cophagus = g ani e sa cophagi; Cis s = ombs wi h small s ones wall o cis s, and ec angula o o al-shaped co e ed wi h slabs; An h opomo phic = an h opomo phic ombs exca-
a ed in he ock and co e ed wi h slabs and Rec angula s = hose ha ha e a ec angula shape and made wi h i egula size s ones
Indi idual e e ence
and zone
Tomb ypology and ch o-
nology*
Sex and age
es ima ion
Radioca bon
yea s be o e
p esen (BP)
Calib a ed calenda
da e (95.4%)
Too h
δ15N and
δ13C (‰)
Bone
δ15N and
δ13C (‰)
Too h enamel
δ18Oap
and
δ13Cap
(‰)
Too h enamel
δ18Odw
Too h Enamel
87S /86S
± 2s in e nal
NCS001
Zone “0”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Male
Middle adul
- - - Rib
8.7
− 19.8
- - RI1/11
0.710287 ± 12
NCS002
Zone “0”
Cis s
10 h-11 h cen u iesAD
Male
Middle adul
- - LM2/37
12.2
−16.9
Rib
11.7
− 17.3
LM2/37
− 5.4
− 10.5
LM2/37
− 8.4
LM2/37
0.714043 ± 13
NCS003
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 h cen u iesAD
Female
Old adul
- - LM2/37
12.7
− 15.8
Rib
12.1
− 17.6
LM2/37
− 4.4
− 12.1
LM2/37
− 6.7
-
NCS005
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u iesAD
Female
Young adul
940 ± 30 1028–1172cal AD LM2/37
10.6
− 17.8
Rib
10.9
− 17.8
LM2/37
− 3.6
− 9.0
LM2/37
− 5.4
LM2/37
0.712123 ± 11
LC1/23
0.712119 ± 13
NCS006a
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u yAD
Female (?)
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - Rib
10.5
− 17.8
- - LC1/33
0.712953 ± 13
NCS006b
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u iesAD
Female
Middle adul
- - - Rib
10.6
− 17.4
- - RM1/16
0.712623 ± 12
NCS007
Zone “0”
An h opomo phic
11 hcen u yAD
Male
Middle adul
980 ± 30 995–1158cal AD LM2/27
10.6
−16.3
Rib
10.9
− 18.2
LM2/27
− 4.2
− 7.5
LM2/27
− 6.3
LM2/27
0.712975 ± 13
LM1/26
0.712688 ± 13
NCS008
Zone “0”
An h opomo phic
11 hcen u yAD
Male
Old adul
- - - Rib
11.6
− 18.2
- - -
NCS009
Zone “0”
An h opomo phic
11 hcen u yAD
Male
Middle adul
1014 ± 26 990–1150cal AD LM2/37
10.4
− 16.3
Rib
10.8
− 17.9
LM2/37
− 4.1
− 6.9
LM2/37
− 6.2
LM2/37
0.710995 ± 12
RM3/48
0.711278 ± 11
NCS010
Zone “0”
Cis s
10 h-11 hcen u iesAD
Female
Middle adul
- - RM2/17
10.6
− 15.9
Rib
10.3
− 17.5
RM2/17
− 4.2
− 11.2
RM2/17
− 6.3
RM2/17
0.713611 ± 14
NCS011
Zone “0”
An h opomo phic
10 h-11 hcen u iesAD
Male
Middle adul
- - - Rib
11.1
− 18.0
- - RI1/21
0.714523 ± 13
Page 7 o 28 214
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
Table 1 (con inued)
Indi idual e e ence
and zone
Tomb ypology and ch o-
nology*
Sex and age
es ima ion
Radioca bon
yea s be o e
p esen (BP)
Calib a ed calenda
da e (95.4%)
Too h
δ15N and
δ13C (‰)
Bone
δ15N and
δ13C (‰)
Too h enamel
δ18Oap
and
δ13Cap
(‰)
Too h enamel
δ18Odw
Too h Enamel
87S /86S
± 2s in e nal
NCS012
Zone “0”
An h opomo phic
10 h-11 hcen u iesAD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - Rib
10.3
− 17.0
- - -
NCS014
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u iesAD
Female
Young adul
- - - Rib
11.5
− 18.4
- - LM2/27
0.709236 ± 15
NCS016
Zone “0”
Cis s
11 hcen u yAD
Female (?)
Young adul
- - LM2/37
11.0
− 17.5
Rib
10.8
− 17.8
LM2/37
− 2.1
− 9.4
LM2/37
− 3.0
LM2/37
0.713785 ± 13
NCS022
Zone “0”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - - RM2/17
− 3.4
− 8.4
RM2/17
− 5.0
RM2/17
0.713249 ± 11
NCS023
Zone “0”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Female
Young Adul
1195 ± 26 710–943cal AD RM2/47
10.3
− 18.4
- RM2/47
− 2.9
− 12.8
RM2/47
− 4.3
RM2/47
0.711921 ± 11
NCS024a
Zone “0”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - - - - LC1/23
0.715053 ± 14
NCS024b
Zone “0”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - - P emola
− 4.0
− 11.5
P emola
− 6.0
P emola
0.711284 ± 15
NCS025
Zone “0”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Male
Inde e mina e
adul
- - LM2/37
10.3
− 20.0
- LM2/37
− 4.5
− 13.0
LM3/38
− 6.2
− 13.7
LM2/37
− 6.8
LM3/38
− 9.7
LM2/37
0.716632 ± 13
LM3/38
0.716363 ± 13
NCS026
Zone “0”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Male
Young Adul
- - - - LM1/26
0.715172 ± 14
NCS030
Zone “0”
Cis s
10 h-11 hcen u ies AD
Female
Old Adul
1036 ± 27 899–1040cal AD - Me a a sal
10.0
− 17.8
- - -
NCS032
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u ies AD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - LP2/25
11.1
− 16.9
Rib
10.3
− 17.7
LP2/25
− 6.5
− 9.2
LP2/25
− 10.2
LP2/25
0.713525 ± 13
NCS033
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u ies AD
Male
Young Adul
- - - Rib
10.9
− 16.0
- - LP1/24
0.715638 ± 14
214 Page 8 o 28
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
Table 1 (con inued)
Indi idual e e ence
and zone
Tomb ypology and ch o-
nology*
Sex and age
es ima ion
Radioca bon
yea s be o e
p esen (BP)
Calib a ed calenda
da e (95.4%)
Too h
δ15N and
δ13C (‰)
Bone
δ15N and
δ13C (‰)
Too h enamel
δ18Oap
and
δ13Cap
(‰)
Too h enamel
δ18Odw
Too h Enamel
87S /86S
± 2s in e nal
NCS034
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u ies AD
Inde e mina e
Sub-adul (child)
- - - - - - dlm2/75
0.712822 ± 14
NCS039
Zone “0”
Rec angula
11 h-12 hcen u ies AD
Female
Old Adul
- - RM2/17
12.0
− 15.5
Rib
10.7
− 16.6
RM2/17
− 3.0
− 6.4
RM2/17
− 4.4
RP1/15
0.713102 ± 11
RM2/17
0.712937 ± 13
NCS145a
Zone “1”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - -- LM2/37
− 4.2
− 14.2
LM2/37
− 6.3
LM1/36
0.713797 ± 14
LM2/37
0.711426 ± 10
NCS145b
Zone “1”
Sa cophagus
9 h-10 hcen u ies AD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - - LM3/38
− 3.4
− 10.8
LM3/38
− 5.1
LM3/38
0.715810 ± 14
NCS153
Zone “1”
Cis s
10 hcen u yAD
Inde e mina e
Sub-adul (child)
- - - - - - dm2/84
0.712397 ± 12.8
NCS154
Zone “1”
Cis s
10 hcen u y AD
Male
Inde e mina e
adul
1119 ± 24 886–992cal AD RP2/15
12.3
− 17.6
- RP2/15
− 3.0
− 11.3
RP2/15
− 4.4
RC1/13
0.712863 ± 16
RP2/15
0.712755 ± 13
NCS256
Zone “2”
An h opomo phic
11 hcen u yAD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - Pa ie al, skull
11.6
− 17.2
- - -
NCS258a
Zone “2”
An h opomo phic
11 h cen u yAD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - Pa ie al, skull
11.9
− 18.4
- - -
NCS258b
Zone “2”
An h opomo phic
11 hcen u yAD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
1008 ± 25 991–1150cal AD RM2/47
12.2
− 17.8
- RM2/47
− 4.7
− 8.7
RM2/47
− 7.3
RM2/47
0.713665 ± 13
RM3/48
0.712886 ± 9
NCS259
Zone “2”
An h opomo phic
11 hcen u yAD
Inde e mina e
Inde e mina e
adul
- - - Tempo al,
skull
11.4
− 17.2
- -
Page 9 o 28 214
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
elaphus (Mann–Whi ney pai wise es wi h Bon e oni co -
ec ion p- alue > 0.05) (Tab. S7 and S8).
The collagen alues om he e es ial auna exca a ed
om he Ca hed al o San iago i sel (n = 9) show a δ15N
ange om 3.9 o 5.6‰ (mean ± SD = 4.9 ± 0.5‰) and δ13C
ange om − 21.6 o − 21.2‰ (Mean ± SD: − 21.4 ± 0.1‰).
O e all, he e es ial auna exca a ed om he Ca he-
d al shows lowe δ15N alues (Mean ± SD = 4.9 ± 0.5‰)
when compa ed o ha om Rocha Fo e
(Mean ± SD = 6.8 ± 1.5‰), some hing also seen in Bos
au us and O is o ien alis a ies/Cap a aegag us hi cus
iden i ied a bo h loca ions (Table2 and S6). δ13C di e -
ences be ween he wo si es a e only obse ed in Bos au-
us, howe e . This is suppo ed by s a is ical es ing which
ound a signi ican di e ence o δ15N and δ13C be ween
he e es ial auna (Bos au us and o icap ids) be ween
si es (p < 0.05), and o Bos au us (Mann–Whi ney es wi h
Mon e-Ca lo pe mu a ion p- alue < 0.05) in pa icula (Tab.
S8).
Human δ15N andδ13C omcollagen andδ13Cap
The mean δ15N and δ13C (‰) o all indi iduals ha we
we e able o analyse (n = 25) ha e been ob ained om he
ib collagen (n = 17), oge he wi h he collagen o he
den ine (n = 5), and skull agmen s (n = 3) om hose
indi iduals ha we we e no able o analyse a ib (n = 8).
The human δ15N and δ13C da a (n = 25) (Table1 and S3;
Figs.6, 7, S4, andS5) anges om 8.7 o 12.3‰ o δ15N
(Mean ± SD = 10.9 ± 0.8‰), and om − 20.0 o − 16.0‰
o δ13C (Mean ± SD = − 17.8 ± 0.8‰). Indi iduals in
zone ‘0’, he la ges a ea o he nec opolis and u hes
om he en ances o he o iginal basilica o Al onso III
(Fig.3), ha e δ15N alues anging om 8.7 o 12.1‰
(Mean ± SD = 10.7 ± 0.7‰) and δ13C alues anging
om − 20.0 o − 16.0 (Mean ± SD = − 17.9 ± 0.9‰). By
con as , indi iduals om zones ‘1’ and’2’, a eas loca ed
a he en ances o he emple o Al onso III (Fig.3), wi h
a ea ‘2’ likely ese ed o membe s o he cle gy and o he
p i ileged indi iduals (López Alsina 2015; Gue a Campos
1982; Ca o O e o and Va ela Ogando 1982), ha e δ15N al-
ues anging om 11.4 o 12.3‰ (Mean ± SD = 11.9 ± 0.4‰)
and δ13C alues anging om − 18.4 o − 17.2‰
(Mean ± SD = − 17.6 ± 0.5‰) (Fig.6). Zones ‘1’ and ‘2’
had signi ican ly (Mann–Whi ney es wi h Mon e-Ca lo
pe mu a ion p- alue < 0.05) highe δ15N han zone ‘0’. No
signi ican di e ence was ound o δ13C be ween zone ‘0’
and zones ‘1’ and ‘2’ (Mann–Whi ney es wi h Mon e-Ca lo
pe mu a ion p- alue > 0.05) (Tab. S4). No s a is ically sig-
ni ican di e ences we e obse ed be ween indi iduals wi h
di e en omb ypologies (K uskal–Wallis es o equal
medians p- alue > 0.05) (Tab. S5). The δ13Cap alues o
human enamel (n = 17) (Table1; Fig.S5) anged om − 14.2
o − 6.4‰ (Mean ± SD = − 10.2 ± 2.2‰). δ13Cap o indi id-
uals om Zone ‘1’ and ‘2’ anged be ween − 14.2 and − 8.7
(Mean ± SD = − 11.3 ± 2.3‰) compa ed o − 13.7 o − 6.4
(Mean ± SD = − 10.1 ± 2.3‰) o Zone ‘0’. No s a is ically
signi ican di e ence was obse ed o δ13Cap (Mann–Whi -
ney es wi h Mon e-Ca lo pe mu a ion p- alue > 0.05) (Tab.
S4).
Fo nine indi iduals, oo h den ine and ib samples we e
aken om he same indi idual o δ15N and δ13C analy-
ses. The ee h showed δ15N alues anging om 10.4 o
12.7‰ (Mean ± SD = 11.2 ± 0.8‰) and δ13C be ween − 17.8
Fig. 7 δ18O and 87S /86S o
a chaeological auna and human
oo h enamel and mode n snail
shells analysed in he p esen
s udy. The o ange zone delimi s
he local s on ium alues (mod-
e n and a chaeologicalsnail
shells (wi h each da a poin
shown wi h an o ange line) om
he ci y’s di e en geog aphical
a eas). The blue a ea indica es
San iago de Compos ela’s δ18O
alues es ablished a e indi-
iduals iden i ied he e as locals
ia hei 87S /86S alues
214 Page 16 o 28

A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
and − 15.5‰ (Mean ± SD = − 16.5 ± 0.9‰). Meanwhile,
ibs showed δ15N alues be ween 10.3 and 12.1‰ (mean
and SD: 10.9 ± 0.6‰) and δ13C alues be ween − 18.2
and − 16.6‰ (Mean ± SD = − 17.6 ± 0.4‰). Compa i-
son o iso opic alues be ween collagen om di e en
elemen s can be challenging as a iable ac iona ion is
expec ed depending on he skele al elemen , wi h lowe
δ15N being iden i ied in issues wi h a high a e o bone
emodelling (e.g. ib o me aca pals) o example (Fahy
e al. 2017). Howe e , o e all compa ison o δ13C and δ15N
om ib collagen ( o med du ing las 10–15yea s o li e)
(Fahy e al. 2017) and den ine collagen ( o med du ing he
pe iod o oo h o ma ion) should p o ide b oad insigh s
in o die du ing di e en pe iods o li e (Beaumon e al.
2015). A compa ison be ween issues illus a ed ha he e
was a signi ican (Mann–Whi ney es wi h Mon e-Ca lo
pe mu a ion p- alue < 0.05) di e ence in δ13C be ween
he issues, al hough no s a is ically signi ican di e ences
we e ound o δ15N (Fig.S4 and S5; Tab. S4). We also
compa ed he δ15N and δ13C da a by he es ima ed sex o
he skele on. Female indi iduals (n = 10) ha e δ15N alues
o 10.0 o 12.1‰ (Mean ± SD = 10.7 ± 0.6‰) and δ13C
be ween − 18.4 and − 16.6‰ (Mean ± SD = − 17.7 ± 0.5‰).
Male indi iduals (n = 9) showed δ15N alues om
10.3 o 12.3‰ (Mean ± SD = 11.2 ± 0.6‰) and δ13C
be ween − 20 and − 16‰ (Mean ± SD = − 17.9 ± 1.1‰).
Female δ13Cap alues a e om − 12.8 o − 6.4‰
(Mean ± SD = − 10.2 ± 2.4‰) and male δ13Cap anges
be ween − 13.0 and − 6.9‰ (Mean ± SD = − 9.8 ± 2.6‰).
No s a is ically signi ican di e ences we e obse ed
be ween sexes o any o he iso opic p oxies (Tab. S4).
Fauna andhuman 87S /86S andδ18Oap da a
The mos app op ia e me hod o es ablishing a local bio-
a ailable S iso opic signa u e o a gi en pas si e is s ill he
subjec o an ongoing deba e ha has occu ed o e he las
ew decades wi hou clea consensus (La sson e al. 2020;
Sca idi e al. 2020; G ims ead e al. 2017). Un o una ely,
San iago de Compos ela’s unde lying bed ock geology is
highly a iable e en o e sho dis ances, and he geologi-
cal subs a e is he e ogeneous (Fig.2). Va ia ion in local
g owing condi ions and he unde lying geological a iabili y
o San iago de Compos ela would necessi a e a widesp ead
sampling s a egy o p oduce an app op ia e S baseline
(B i on e al. 2020). Many schola s ha e ecen ly a gued
ha he p e e ed me hod o de ine a local 87S /86S ange
is o analyse su ace wa e s, soils, plan s and a chaeologi-
cal auna in he locali y o a gi en si e (La sson e al. 2020;
G ims ead e al. 2017). Howe e , Hol e al. (2021) desc ibed
he use o plan s o mapping s on ium a ios as p oblema ic
because o he poin -bias, a consequence o he idiosync a-
sies o geological and en i onmen al p ocesses. The e o e, a
single plan may show a a io ha is no ep esen a i e o he
a ea whe e i g ows. This can only be sol ed by he analysis
o a la ge numbe o samples, some hing di icul as a esul
o he signi ican cos s in ol ed (Hol e al. 2021). Besides,
he 87S /86S a ios may a y be ween plan s based on he
ype and a ea o hei oo s (B i on e al. 2020; Ha man
and Richa ds 2014), local en i onmen al ac o s such as soil
ypes, p ecipi a ion egimes (Hol e al. 2021) and wind-
blown dus (Blank e al. 2018). Ano he me hod ha may no
e lec e es ial bioa ailable s on ium as closely as o he
a chi es is wa e (Ha man and Richa ds 2014; Hamil on
e al. 2019). This, oge he wi h o he app oaches as soil and
plan s, may be a ec ed by an h opogenic ac i i ies (Hol
e al. 2021). The use o e ilise s, nu ien s, plan s cul i a ed
elsewhe e (e.g. u ban pa ks) o indi ec al e a ions such as
con amina ion may lead o un ep esen a i e local bioa ail-
able S iso opic signa u es when compa ed o he pas (Hol
e al. 2021; Casado e al. 2019).
The Ca hed al o San iago de Compos ela is loca ed in
he mode n ci y cen e. Thus, he s udy a ea is oday ully
u banised. Mo eo e , he wa e in San iago de Compos ela
has e y se ious pollu ion p oblems (Suá ez e al. 2009;
Ale an… 2006) ha can impac he 87S /86S a ios (Casado
e al. 2019). The e o e, in o de o es ablish he bes baseline
a ailable possible, we i s sough o analyse he a chaeologi-
cally a ailable domes ic auna, om he Ca hed al i sel and
nea by Rocha Fo e Cas le, as be e in eg a o s o locally
a ailable bioa ailable s on ium sou ces o humans in he
pas (Hol e al. 2021; Adams e al. 2019). This p o ed di i-
cul as aunal ee h we e only a ailable om he Rocha Fo e
Cas le which is loca ed some dis ance om he Ca hed al
and da es o a la e ime pe iod when auna could be a i ing
om ou side o he local a ea gi en he posi ion o he cas le
which sa a he node o ade ou es du ing he 13 h and
15 h cen u ies AD (López-Cos as and Tei a B ión 2014).
Consequen ly, we also decided o es ablish ano he bioa ail-
able 87S /86S da ase using mode n and a chaeological wild
snails collec ed ac oss he ci y ollowing he a ia ion in i s
geological subs a e and hose disco e ed a he mediae al
nec opolis o San iago de Compos ela (9 h–12 h cen u ies
AD), espec i ely (Table2; Fig.2).
Snails, a e plan s, a e ecommended by many esea ch-
e s as ha ing 87S /86S alues ha b oadly co espond wi h
he li hological uni /soil alues o a ious squa e me es
o e a ew yea s and a e mo e likely o in eg a e a wide
geog aphical ange (Blank e al. 2018; B i on e al. 2020;
Hol e al. 2021). Howe e , some schola s ha e deba ed
he easibili y o using snail shells o de elop an isoscape.
Ha man and Richa ds (2014) sugges ed ha hei 87S /86S
a ios map shallow- oo ed plan s mo e closely, as opposed
o deep- oo ed plan s. Mo eo e , as wi h plan s o soil,
snail shells can yield 87S /86S a ios s ongly a ec ed by
ainwa e (E ans e al. 2010). Gi en he complexi y o he
Page 17 o 28 214
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
ask, o ensu e he iabili y o he me hod used, we also
compa ed he s on ium iso ope composi ion o ou mode n
local (n = 7) and a chaeological (n = 3) snail shells, which
ange be ween 0.709229 and 0.712958 (Table2; Fig.2).
This ange is expec ed based on he unde lying bed ock
om he close s si es analysed (Voe kelius e al. 2010; Bea
e al. 2003; James e al. 2022; Wa e man e al. 2014) wi h
he Lowe Palaeozoic ma e ials ha ing 87S /86S alues
close o ma ine alues (oceanic wa e analysis has 87S /86S
anging be ween 0.709 and 0711) (Voe kelius e al. 2010),
whils he He cynian g ani ic ocks om he Ibe ian Pen-
insula in e io a e expec ed o ha e mo e adioac i e al-
ues app oaching 0.713 (Bea e al. 2003; James e al. 2022;
Wa e man e al. 2014).
The 87S /86S a ios measu ed on human emains wi hin
he nec opolis o he Ca hed al (n = 26) span be ween
0.709236 and 0.716632 (Fig.7; Table1). Female indi idu-
als (n = 8) ha e 87S /86S alues om 0.709236 o 0.713785,
and male indi iduals (n = 9) ha e alues o 87S /86S ang-
ing be ween 0.710287 and 0.716632. A compa ison be ween
he mode n and a chaeological snail shells and he human
da a ob ained sugges s ha 14 o he 26 indi iduals o
which 87S /86S da a was a ailable could be iden i ied as
non-local (Fig.7; Table1). Al hough some auna om he
Rocha Fo e Cas le a e also consis en wi h he local San-
iago ange (0.709229 o 0.712958) based on ou analysis o
snails and p edic ed alues based on he unde lying bed ock,
he ange o aunal 87S /86S om his si e ( om 0.710225 o
0.718523 (Fig.7; Table2) sugges s ha some o he auna
we e non-local (e.g. RF(FAU)MO-69/7: 0.718523; RF(FAU)
MO-14/3: 0.717897 o RF(FAU)MO-44/6: 0.718105). In e -
es ingly, some o hese po en ial non-local aunas o e lap
wi h he ange o a ia ion seen amongs non-local humans.
Fo some human indi iduals, whe e we we e able o analyse
mo e han one oo h o compa e di e en momen s o hei
childhood (n = 9), we ound ha , in h ee cases (NCS039:
RP1/15 0.713102 and RM2/17 0.712937; NCS145a: LM1/36
0.713797 and LM2/37 0.711426 and NCS258b: RM2/47
0.713665 and RM3/48 0.712886), hei alues demons a ed
a ia ion ha is consis en wi h a non-local o igin ollowed
by ea ly immig a ion o San iago (Table1).
δ18Oap was used o complemen he in e p e a-
ion o he da a ob ained h ough s on ium iso ope
analysis. The δ18Oap alues o he auna analysed
om Rocha Fo e Cas le (n = 18) ange be ween − 6.0
and − 2.0‰ (Mean ± SD = − 4.4 ± 1.2‰) (Table 2),
wi hin he ange o a ia ion expec ed o a single
si e o locale (B i on e al. 2020). δ18Oap alues o
humans (n = 17) om he mediae al nec opolis anged
om − 6.5 o − 2.1‰ (Mean ± SD = − 4.0 ± 2.2‰)
(Table 1). Zone ‘0’ (n = 13) δ18Oap spans om − 6.5
o − 2.1‰ (Mean ± SD = − 4.0 ± 1.1‰) whils Zone
‘1–2’ (n = 4) δ18Oap anges be ween − 4.7 and − 3.0‰
(Mean ± SD = − 3.8 ± 0.8‰). Female indi iduals
(n = 6) ha e alues o δ18Oap anging − 4.4 o − 2.1‰
(Mean ± SD = − 3.4 ± 0.9‰), and male indi iduals (n = 5)
showed alues o δ18Oap anging om − 5.4 o − 3.0‰
(Mean ± SD = − 4.2 ± 0.9‰). The δ18Oap o indi iduals
iden i ied as ‘local’ based on 87S /86S (n = 8) is igh e ang-
ing om − 4.2 and − 2.9‰ (Mean ± SD = − 3.6 ± 0.6‰),
whils ‘non-locals’ (n = 9) ange om − 6.5 o − 2.1‰ (Mean
and SD: − 4.5 ± 1.4‰)(Tab. S4).
The con e sion o ou δ18Oap alues o δ18Odw and hei
compa ison wi h he mode n local wa e alues (− 5 ± 2‰)
(Voe kelius e al. 2010) (Fig.S3) allow us o iden i y 4
human indi iduals (NCS002: LM2/37 = − 5.4; NCS025:
LM3/38 = − 6.2; NCS032: LP2/25 = − 6.5 and NCS258b:
RM2/47 = − 4.7) ha po en ially come om ou side o he
egion. Howe e , using he ± 2 s anda d de ia ion (2SD)
om he mean and Take’s in e qua ile ange me hod (IQR)
app oaches, conside ing 1.5xIQR and 3xIQR (Ligh oo and
O’Connell, 2016), we we e only able o iden i y wo human
indi iduals (NCS032 and NCS025) as po en ially g owing
up elsewhe e. These a e he only wo indi iduals whe e bo h
me hods (δ18Oap and 87S /86S ) con e ge on iden i ying hem
as ‘non-locals’. No s a is ically signi ican di e ences we e
obse ed be ween zones o sex o δ18Oap (Mann–Whi ney
es wi h Mon e-Ca lo pe mu a ion p- alue > 0.05) (Tab.
S4). The e we e also no s a is ically signi ican di e ences
obse ed o local and non-local indi iduals, iden i ied on
he basis o 87S /86S , in e ms o δ18Oap (Mann–Whi ney es
wi h Mon e-Ca lo pe mu a ion p- alue > 0.05) (Tab. S4).
Discussion
F om helocus sanc us o heci i as
Ou esul s show a mo e in ense and complex use o he
space a he si e o he Ca hed al han was p e iously
de e mined h ough a chaeological in es iga ions in he
mid-20 h cen u y (Chamoso Lamas 1957; Gue a Campos
1982). O e all, he a chaeological con ex and he adio-
ca bon da ing esul s sugges ha he e was eu ilisa ion o ,
and changes in, he o iginal posi ion o mos o he ombs
ela ed o he i s emple (Sa cophagus ombs) (Fig.3, 4,
5, and S1). This could be a consequence o he con inuous
al e a ion o he bu ial layou s wi h he cons uc ion o suc-
cessi e emples and/o econs uc ion a e he a acks o
Almanzo (Chamoso Lamas 1957; Gue a Campos 1982;
López Alsina 1990). In addi ion, he expansion o he g a e-
ya d om he second hal o he 11 h cen u y AD des oyed
he i s domes ic buildings o he o iginal ci y cen e (Cha-
moso Lamas 1957; Gue a Campos 1982; López Alsina
1990) (Fig.3 and S1) and led o he supe posi ion o mo e
ecen ombs ( ombs ype ‘Rec angula ’), o e he p e ious
214 Page 18 o 28
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
ones (sa cophagus, cis s and an h opomo phic ombs) (e.g.
NCS014 and NCS034), wi h he appea ance o a second, and
e en a hi d, le el o g a es (Figs.3, 5, and S1).
A ci y made byimmig an s
Based on he snail shells analysed om San iago de Com-
pos ela’s di e en geog aphical subs a e zones, we en a-
i ely de e mined ha 87S /86S local bioa ailable alues
ange be ween 0.709229 and 0.712958 (Fig.7; Table2).
Based on hese pa ame e s, 14 o 26 human indi iduals
analysed can be classi ied as non-local o he San iago se -
lemen a ea (Tables1 and 2; Fig.7). This sugges s ha a
signi ican numbe o indi iduals we e mo ing in o San-
iago ollowing childhood. No ably, howe e , a numbe o
he auna sampled om Rocha Fo e Cas le also appea o
be ‘non-local’ using hese pa ame e s, wi h he excep ion
o wo o icap ines, one Equus e us caballus, and wo Bos
au us (Table2). This could indica e ha much o he ‘non-
locali y’ seen amongs he human indi iduals is a p oduc o
he consump ion o animal esou ces coming om elsewhe e
(NCS009 and NCS030) as pa o an u ban ne wo k. San-
iago de Compos ela o he 9 h cen u y AD was a collec ion
o buildings o a eligious na u e ha eme ged a ound he
apos olic omb (López Alsina, 2015). Thus, a high deg ee
o non-locali y (a leas away om he immedia e cen al
a ea) is expec ed o indi iduals bu ied a he si e du ing his
ime. Nine o 12 indi iduals ha ha e shown 87S /86S alues
de ined he e as ‘non-local’ we e bu ied in ombs ype ‘Sa -
cophagus’ (n = 5) and ‘Cis s’ (n = 4), which, acco ding o he
14C esul s, co espond o he i s se le s bu ied be ween he
9 h and 10 h cen u ies AD, and 10 h and 11 h AD, espec-
i ely (Figs.3,5, and S1; Table1 and S2).
The nucleus o San iago de Compos ela p og essi ely
acqui ed u ban cha ac e is ics, pa icula ly du ing he 11 h
cen u y AD (López Alsina 2015). F om a leas he ele -
en h cen u y AD onwa ds, San iago de Compos ela g ew as
a ade cen e (López Alsina 2015), in pa allel wi h u ban
de elopmen s ac oss no he n Ibe ia mo e gene ally a his
ime (Ma ínez Ga cía 2004; Passini 1993). I is only in he
second hal o he 11 h cen u y ha widesp ead exchange
in animals ac oss g ea dis ances is likely o ha e become
ou ine o indi iduals li ing in and a ound San iago de
Compos ela, wi h he po en ial ha ex e nal ood sou ces
could ha e pe haps become consis en enough o supply he
ci y and i s inhabi an s (López Alsina 2015). Rocha Fo e
Cas le’s auna is wi ness o his, highligh ing San iago de
Compos ela’s ele ance as a comme cial cen e a he end
o he Middle Ages. He e, δ15N and δ13C a ia ion wi hin
he Rocha Fo e Cas le auna i sel (δ15N 6.2 ± 1.6‰;
δ13C − 21.4 ± 0.9‰) con as s ha o he ea lie Ca hed al
auna om he 9 h–11 h cen u ies AD (δ15N 4.9 ± 0.5‰;
δ13C − 21.3 ± 0.1‰), sugges ing a g owing appea ance o
animals aised in egions wi h di e en soils, manu e inpu s,
clima es and la i udes o al i udes (D ucke 2008; Männel
e al. 2007). Indeed, wha seems mo e p obable is ha he
mobili y obse ed in he human popula ion a he ound-
ing o San iago was pa o an inc easingly solidi ied ne -
wo k o ade as ime wen on, wi h an exchange in animals
being buil upon ea lie mo emen s o people o his si e o
inc easing cul u al and poli ical impo ance.
The 87S /86S alues, be ween 0.714730 and 0.716632,
obse ed in se e al human indi iduals om San iago de
Compos ela (NCS002, NCS024a, NCS025, NCS026 o
NCS033) ha all ou side he immedia e ‘local’ ange we
de ined on he basis o mollusc shells a e ound ac oss
la ge a eas o he wes e n hal o he Ibe ian Peninsula,
including he no hwes e n egion su ounding San iago
de Compos ela, ollowing he models o Hoogewe e al.
(2019) and Ba aille e al. (2020) as well as hose p o ided
by Díaz-Zo i aBonilla e al. (2018) om La Pijo illa, Bada-
joz (0.714175–0.715382) (Fig.1; Tab. S9). Se e al o he
indi iduals wi h hese alues we e bu ied in g a es ype
‘Sa cophagus’ (NCS024a, NCS025 and NCS026), p ob-
ably he i s se le s o he new eligious cen e (NCS023:
769–891cal AD; NCS146: 772–954cal AD). Fu he mo e,
indi iduals NCS010, NCS016, NCS022, NCS032, NCS039,
NCS154a and NCS258b yielded 87S /86S alues be ween
0.713525 and 0.713785, i ing wi h hose om Bolo es,
Ex emadu a (Po ugal) (0.7090750–0.713280) (Wa e man
e al. 2014), o he Mad id Region (0.707 o 0.713) (Díaz-
del-Río, 2017) (Tab. S9). In e es ingly, as i has been no ed
his o ically (Ma ínez Díez 2011; Moléna 2019; Cenname
2016), be ween he 9 h and 10 h cen u ies AD, he no h-
e n peninsula a ea co esponds o he kingdom o As u ias
which became a e uge o Ch is ians, especially cle gymen,
who led om a eas domina ed by Islamic poli ical pow-
e s. This da a may highligh ha some o hese supposedly
‘non-local’ indi iduals om be ween he 9 h and 10 h cen-
u iesAD we e, in ac , a p oduc o popula ions coalesc-
ing a a g owing socio-economic cen e, a he han being
‘pilg ims’ om dis an a eas.
This is u he suppo ed by he obse able non-locali y
in mos δ18Oap human alues ob ained (excep o NCS032
and NCS025). The oxygen iso opic da a e eals ha he
po en ial ‘non-locals’ iden i ied by s on ium p e iously
li ed in a egion wi h simila en i onmen al condi ions o
hose seen in San iago o Compos ela, sugges ing po en-
ial p o enance om he wide Galicia egion and/o o he
pa s o he Kingdom o As u ias. Such an in e p e a ion is
complemen ed by his o ical sou ces ha sugges ha he
i s po ions o he San iago u ban popula ion came om
egional u al nuclei (López Alsina 2015). Howe e , as
was desc ibed abo e, his o ical sou ces also desc ibed he
po en ial p esence o indi iduals om ac oss he Ibe ian
Peninsula and e en u he : e e ences abou he p esence
Page 19 o 28 214
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
o ‘F anks’ in San iago de Compos ela a e om a leas
he i s hal o he 10 h cen u y AD (López Alsina 2015;
Palla es Méndez and Po ela Sil a 1975). Compa ison o
ou δ18Oap da a (Mean ± SD = − 4.0 ± 1.0‰; ange: − 6.5
o − 2.1‰) wi h he da a ob ained a he nea by Ca hed al o
Lugo (Mean ± SD = − 3.6 ± 1.1‰; ange: − 5.6 o − 2.2‰)
(López-Cos as e al. 2021) shows ha he alues ob ained
in San iago de Compos ela a e sligh ly lowe , bu also sug-
ges he p esence o indi iduals om ou side he egion.
López-Cos as e al. (2021) iden i ied an indi idual (CP-
704; δ18Oap = − 5.6‰) ha seems o ha e spen some o
his li e in he cen e o he Ibe ian Peninsula. In e es ingly,
his alue is close o hose obse ed in h ee indi iduals
iden i ied he e as po en ial non-locals (NCS002 = − 5.4‰;
NCS025 = − 6.2‰ and NCS032 = − 6.5‰). Pe haps, hese
h ee po en ial non-local indi iduals we e Ch is ian coming
om he wide kingdom o Al-Andalus. Al hough in igu-
ing, geog aphical pinpoin ing is challenging i no impossi-
ble wi h 87S /86S analysis and in e p e a ions should emain
cau ious in his ega d.
Some o he ombs analysed con ained he emains o
mo e han one indi idual, some hing unexpec ed gi en
known Chu ch p ohibi ions on his p ac ice (López Qui-
oga 2018). This p ac ice was especially in ensi e o omb
ype ‘Sa cophagus’, whe e 4 o 5 o hose sa cophaguses
had a minimum numbe o wo indi iduals. On he basis
o 87S /86S om hose indi iduals, 6 o 8 co esponded o
po en ial ‘non-locals’ (Table1). In e es ingly, 2 o hose
g a es ha e a ‘local’ and a ‘non-local’ indi idual inside
(Table1). The use o a omb by mo e han one indi idual
o e ime may occu because i was a amily g a e (membe s
o he same amily bu om di e en gene a ions), a bu ial
condi ion based on ma iage (whe e one indi idual was
om ou side San iago de Compos ela), o a g a e occupied
by non- ela ed indi iduals ha eused he omb because o
he lack o space (e.g. NCS001). Fu he DNA analysis is
needed o es be ween hese hypo heses. Amongs indi idu-
als in ype ‘Sa cophagus’ ombs, some o hem illus a e
an ea ly change o esidence. NCS145a could be a possible
‘non-local’ indi idual as sugges ed by he 87S /86S alues
ob ained om he i s mola (87S /86S = 0.713797 ± 0.00
00014)—c own enamel de elopmen be ween bi h and
2.5–3yea s (AlQah ani e al. 2010), mo ing o Compos ela
a an ea ly age on he basis o esul s om i s second mola
(87S /86S = 0.711426 ± 0.0000010)—c own enamel second
mola de elopmen be ween 2.5 and 7.5yea s (AlQah ani
e al. 2010) (Table1). Addi ionally, ano he wo indi idu-
als, NCS039 and NCS258b, also showed 87S /86S a ia-
ions be ween ee h, wi h ‘non-local’ alues du ing he ea ly
yea s o li e (NCS039: RP1/15 = 0.713102 ± 0.0000011—
c own enamel de eloped o he i s p emo-
la de eloping be ween 2.5 and 6.5 (AlQah ani
e  al. 2010), and RM2/17 = 0.712937 ± 0.0000013);
NCS258b: RM2/47 = 0.713665 ± 0.0000013, and
RM3/48 = 0.712886 ± 0.000009 (Table1), c own enamel
de eloped o he hi d mola de eloping be ween 8.5 and
12.5yea s (AlQah ani e al. 2010). Fu he analysis may
help o explo e he pa e ns o mobili y o he ci y as pa
o i s g owing ise o p ominence be ween he 9 h and 12 h
cen u ies AD.
Die andsocial s a us a  hecen e o pilg image
Mediae al his o ical eco ds p o ide b oad expec a ions
in e ms o a ia ion in die ypes and sou ces in Ibe ia as
well as hei ela ionship o social s a us and his o ical and
geog aphical con ex . The die s o he social and economic
eli es h oughou he Ibe ian Middle Ages we e p ima -
ily cha ac e ised by he signi ican consump ion o mea
(Jiménez-B obeil e al. 2016; Pé ez-Ramallo e al. 2022;
Pé ez Sampe 2019). Mea , oge he wi h dai y p oduc s,
was a ailable on a mo e limi ed basis o mos o he u al
popula ions (Pé ez-Ramallo e al. 2022; Pé ez Sampe 2019;
G au-Sologes oa 2017). Peasan s we e his o ically dis in-
guished by die s ocus on local ce eal c ops, which a y by
egion as well as be ween u al and u ban con ex s (Peña-
Choca o e al. 2019; Rosene 1992). Following his o ical
and a chaeological sou ces, ye was he mos cul i a ed
ce eal ac oss Ibe ia, wi h whea p e e ed as a ‘luxu y’ c op
by he social and economic eli es (And ade Ce nadas 2009).
By con as , indi iduals o lowe social s a us, in some pa s
o Ibe ia, could also eso o he C4 c op mille , pa icu-
la ly in yea s o poo ha es s o amine, which was usu-
ally ese ed o animal odde (Peña-Choca o e al. 2019;
G ume and Mue s 2010). The pa e n o die a y changes in
he inc emen al den ine δ15N and δ13C p o iles o NCS006
and NCS007 (Fig.S2) may e lec such sho - e m changes.
Howe e , eligious die a y es ic ions a ec ed all social s a-
us g oups. Ch is iani y o bade mea consump ion du ing
ce ain as ing da es, which could be as high as 150days
pe yea in ol ing he consump ion o al e na i e p o ein
sou ces (ma ine o eshwa e ish, legumes, nu s o ege a-
bles), a ying in quan i y and quali y be ween indi iduals
(Pé ez Sampe 2019; And ade Ce nadas 2009; Adamson
2004; G ume and Mue s 2010).
The local auna analysed om he Ca hed al o San iago
and he Rocha Fo e Cas le demons a ed die s domina ed
by C3 plan oods. Dis inc ions in δ15N we e ound be ween
pu e he bi o es (Bos au us and o icap ines) and omni o es
(Sus sc o a), as expec ed. Lowe δ15N and highe δ13C we e
no ed o auna exca a ed om he Ca hed al o San iago
when compa ed o Rocha Fo e cas le, pe haps explained
by ch onological o spa ial di e gences in en i onmen ,
ag icul u al changes o dis inc ions in ood p o isioning
be ween he occupan s o he cas le and he es o he ci y
as no ed abo e (Hamil on and Thomas 2012). The aunal
214 Page 20 o 28
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
da a p o ides a use ul baseline o in e p e ing he human
da a om he Ca hed al complex i sel . Human δ13C and
δ15N alues sugges die s mainly based on C3 oods, bu
wi h a ying inpu s o highe ophic le el oods, C4 plan s
(e.g. mille ) and/o ma ine o eshwa e p o eins depend-
ing on he indi idual sampled. Whe e δ13Cap enamel and
collagen δ13C and δ15N we e a ailable o he same indi-
idual, we can en a i ely dis inguish indi iduals wi h die s
ich in C4 plan s (NCS007, NCS009, NCS016, NCS022 and
NCS032) o hose wi h signi ican ma ine p o ein inpu s
(NCS002, NCS003, NCS145b and NCS154) (Table1;
Fig.6, S4, and S5).
Signi ican ly, a ia ion in die be ween indi iduals is co -
ela ed wi h omb loca ion. We ound a highe appa en con-
sump ion o animal and/o aqua ic p o ein in hose indi idu-
als (NCS154, NCS256, NCS258a, NCS258b and NCS259)
bu ied close o he en ances o Al onso III’s Basilica
(Zones ‘1’ and ‘2’ Mean and SD = δ15N 11.9 ± 0.4‰, and
δ13C − 17.8 ± 0.9‰) (Fig.3) ha a e expec ed o ep esen
indi iduals o highe socio-economic s a us gi en he loca-
ion o hei g a es and addi ional con ex ual in o ma ion
(López Alsina 2015, 1990; Gue a Campos 1982; López
Qui oga 2018). This i s wi h exis ing his o ical eco ds
ha documen ha he die o he social eli e h oughou
he Middle Ages was p ima ily cha ac e ised by he signi i-
can consump ion o mea and ish (Jiménez-B obeil e al.
2016; Pé ez-Ramallo e al. 2022). By con as , indi iduals
ound in zone ‘0’ (Mean and SD = δ15N 10.7 ± 0.7‰, and
δ13C − 17.8 ± 0.9‰), he a ea wi h he la ges numbe o
bu ials and loca ed a some dis ance om he en ances o
he Basilica o Al onso III, indica ed a lowe consump ion
o animal p o ein, a g ea e di e gence in hei alues and
inc eased p esence o C4 plan inpu s o he die (NCS007,
NCS009, NCS016, NCS022 and NCS032) (Fig.6, S4, and
S5). No ably, as i was desc ibed abo e, C4 c ops, such as
mille , we e gene ally seen as ‘ allback’ oods o poo e
communi ies du ing his pe iod in Ibe ia (And ade Ce nadas
2009; Peña-Choca o e al. 2019).
Compa ison be ween ee h and ibs om he same indi-
iduals (n = 9) wi hin zone ‘0’ e eals ha hei die s may
ha e changed o e he cou se o hei li es, wi h C4 plan s
and/o ma ine p o eins being eplaced by a g owing eliance
on C3 ood esou ces, pe haps as a consequence o mo -
ing o San iago de Compos ela (Fig.S4). We mus emain
cau ious as compa isons be ween di e en bone elemen s
can be in luenced by me abolic a ia ions in ou ing (Fahy
e al. 2017); howe e , clea obse ed changes can be seen
in indi iduals NCS003, NCS007, NCS009, NCS010 and
NCS032 (Fig.S4), and whe e a ailable in he inc emen-
al den ine δ15N and δ13C p o iles (Fig.S2). Indi iduals
NCS007, NCS009 and NCS010 ( om be ween he 10 h
and 11 h cen u ies AD) show alues ha sugges a shi
om C4 o C3 p o eins. By con as , indi iduals NCS003
and NCS032 illus a e alues ha indica e a subs i u ion o
ma ine p o eins o e es ial C3 inpu s. Bo h co espond
o he las phase o occupa ion o he nec opolis (11 h–12 h
cen u ies AD). In e es ingly, only wo indi iduals we e iden-
i ied he e as po en ial non-locals (NCS010 and NCS032)
(Table1). The die a y a ia ion in hese wo indi iduals may
he e o e be a esul o geog aphic mobili y. Howe e , indi-
iduals NCS007, NCS009 and NCS003 may ha e esponded
mo e o socio-economic changes linked o he possibili ies
o e ed in his i s mediae al Galician ci y. In addi ion, sho
geog aphical mobili y om nea by popula ions wi h simila
geog aphical o clima ic cha ac e is ics o hose obse ed
in San iago de Compos ela could also explain hese a ia-
ions obse ed in NCS007, NCS009 and NCS010. In case o
NCS007, his indi idual migh be also showing sho - e m
amine and mille consump ion (Tab. S1; Fig.S2). Ne e he-
less, we mus emain cau ious wi h his un il u he analyses
a e conduc ed because o he di icul ies and limi s o es ab-
lishing an adequa e isoscape and a local baseline.
Compa ison wi hpublished da a
Compa ison o ou new da ase wi h da a om o he medi-
ae al Ch is ian si es (8 h o 15 h cen u y AD) om no he n
Ibe ia a ailable in he li e a u e illus a es he economic and
die a y complexi y o he socie y ha eme ged in San iago
de Compos ela be ween 9 h and 12 h cen u ies AD (Fig.8;
Tab. S10). Whils di ec compa ison is di icul due o
en i onmen al, geog aphical and empo al di e ences ha
impac ood iso opic alues, he da ase s chosen o occu in
egions ha e simila ain all, soils and empe a u es oday
(MacKinnon e al. 2019; Lub i o e al. 2017; Guede e al.
2018). In his con ex , he e a e some di e ences be ween
human δ13C and δ15N om San iago and o he mediae al
Ch is ian communi ies such as Chao San Ma ín, San Ped o
de No as, San Sal ado de Valdedios, San Miguel de Lillo
(MacKinnon e al. 2019), Zaballa, Dulan zi, Ais a, Zo noz-
egi (Lub i o e al. 2017) and T e iño (Guede e al. 2018).
O e all, hese o he si es ha e mean δ15N and/o δ13C al-
ues ha a e gene ally lowe han hose measu ed a San iago
(Mean and SD = δ15N 10.9 ± 0.8‰, and δ13C − 17.8 ± 0.8‰),
sugges ing g ea e access o animal p o ein and/o ma ine
p o eins a he la e (Fig.8; Table1, and S10): San Sal-
ado de Valdedios (Mean and SD = δ15N 9.7 ± 0.8‰,
and δ13C − 19.0 ± 0.8‰); Zaballa (Mean and SD = δ15N
9.4 ± 1.3‰, and δ13C − 19.9 ± 0.9‰); Dulan zi (Mean and
SD = δ15N 9.1 ± 1.2‰, and δ13C − 18.8 ± 1.4‰); Ais a
(Mean and SD = δ15N 8.0 ± 1.1‰, and δ13C − 18.9 ± 1.0‰);
Zo noz egi (Mean and SD = δ15N 8.0 ± 0.6‰, and
δ13C − 18.2 ± 0.8‰) o Las Gobas (Mean and SD = δ15N
8.9 ± 0.9‰, and δ13C − 19.0 ± 0.6‰). Howe e , hese di e -
ences a e smalle o he owns closes o San iago de Com-
pos ela: Chao San Ma ín (Mean and SD = δ15N 10.1 ± 0.6‰,
Page 21 o 28 214

A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
and δ13C − 18.8 ± 0.5‰); San Ped o de No a (Mean and
SD = δ15N 10.3 ± 1‰, and δ13C − 18.3 ± 1.9‰) and San
Miguel de Lillo (Mean and SD = δ15N 10.4 ± 1.1‰, and
δ13C − 17.6 ± 2.5‰) (MacKinnon e al. 2019). These si es
wi h alues close o hose obse ed in San iago de Com-
pos ela lack o an absolu e ch onology ha makes i di i-
cul o de ine possible empo al di e ences. Howe e , i is
likely ha hese si es we e in luenced by he g owing socio-
economic sphe e o he San iago ia he expanding Camino
de San iago ne wo k, wi h hese owns po en ially gaining a
sha e in access o he esou ces being channelled owa ds his
new eligious cen e (MacKinnon e al. 2019).
Nea by u ban cen es geog aphically and/o empo a -
ily such as Pon e ed a (López-Cos as and Müldne 2018)
o Lisbon (Toso e al. 2019) e eal in e es ing di e ences
ha could be because o empo al o eligious a ia ions.
The adul Muslim indi iduals analysed om he São Jo ge
Cas le in Lisbon (Mean and SD = δ15N 9.9 ± 0.8‰, and
δ13C − 18.9 ± 0.3‰), e en hough hey could be membe s
wi h a high social s a us, show alues below hose o San i-
ago de Compos ela. Howe e , he indi iduals om San Ba -
olomé in Pon e ed a (Mean and SD = δ15N 11.7 ± 1.0‰,
and δ13C − 16.9 ± 1.0‰) show highe ni ogen and ca bon
iso ope alues, possibly he p oduc o a die wi h s ong
con ibu ions o ma ine p o ein gi en hei easy access o
he coas (López-Cos as and Müldne 2018). Compa ison
wi h known high-s a us indi iduals such as he King Ped o I
and his cou ( he analysed indi iduals li ed in he no h bu
we e bu ied in Se ille; 14 h cen u y AD) (Jiménez-B obeil
e al. 2016) o p ies s o high s a us a Capela do Pila , Lugo
(14 h–15 h cen u ies AD) (López-Cos as e al. 2021; Kaal
e al. 2016); San Sal ado Ca hed al, O iedo (10 h cen u y
AD) (MacKinnon e al. 2019), shows ha he San iago com-
muni y as a whole did no each hese le els o access o
high ophic oods, al hough in indi iduals om Zones ‘1’
and ‘2’, he di e ences a e smalle (Figs.6 and 8; Table1
and S10). Howe e , o e en i onmen al and geog aphical
dispa i ies, empo a y di e ences mus be conside ed as a
c ucial ac o . The human alues o zones 1 and 2 o he
Ca hed al o San iago (Mean and SD = δ15N 11.9 ± 0.4‰,
and δ13C − 17.8 ± 0.9‰) a e close o hose obse ed in he
Ca hed al o San Sal ado de O iedo (Mean and SD = δ15N
12.0 ± 1.2‰, and δ13C − 18.6 ± 0.2‰) (MacKinnon e al.,
2019). Howe e , we obse ed a dispa i y in δ15N when we
compa ed ou da a wi h hose ob ained wi h he King Ped o
I and his cou (Mean and SD = δ15N 13.3 ± 1.5‰, and
δ13C − 18.6 ± 0.5‰) (Jiménez-B obeil e al. 2016), o he
Ca hed al o San a Ma ía de Lugo (Mean and SD = δ15N
13.6 ± 1.3‰, and δ13C − 18.6 ± 0.5‰) (López-Cos as e al.
2021). This seems ul ima ely a e lec ion o signi ican
socio-economic di e ences because o he ad ancemen
and de elopmen o he peninsula Ch is ian kingdoms du -
ing he La e Middle Ages (14 h and 15 h cen u ies AD).
O e all, hen, i seems ha , by he 9 h–12 h cen u ies AD,
li ing in San iago may ha e b ough ce ain inc eased
access o mea and ma ine esou ces as pa o i s inc eas-
ing cen ali y wi hin a wide eligious ne wo k. The simi-
la i ies obse ed be ween he indi iduals in zones 1 and 2
o he Ca hed al o San iago, wi h hose o he Ca hed al
o San Sal ado de O iedo, co obo a e he in e p e a ion
ha hese zones we e places ese ed o indi iduals wi h
ce ain eligious, poli ical and/o economic impo ance o
he socie y o San iago de Compos ela be ween he 9 h and
12 h cen u ies AD.
Fig. 8 δ13C and δ.15N o auna
and humans analysed in he
p esen s udy compa ed o
compiled li e a u e da a (see
TableS9)
214 Page 22 o 28
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2022) 14:214
1 3
Conclusions
Ou esea ch o e s new insigh s in o he beginning and
de elopmen o San iago de Compos ela ollowing he
alleged disco e y o he omb o S James he G ea in he
9 h cen u y AD and du ing he ollowing h ee cen u ies.
Radioca bon da ing has solidi ied he ch onology o he
nec opolis and i s ombs, showing a mo e complex use o
space han was ini ially in e p e ed (Gue a Campos 1982).
On he basis o measu ed 87S /86S da a, abo e 50% o he
indi iduals analysed illus a ed alues po en ially indica i e
o ‘non-local’ childhoods, pa icula ly o indi iduals asso-
cia ed wi h he oldes omb ypes ( ype ‘Sa cophagus’ and
‘Cis s’). The combina ion o s on ium and oxygen iso opic
da a e eals ha hese ‘non-locals’ we e p ima ily om a
egion wi h en i onmen al condi ions simila o hose o
San iago o Compos ela. Compa ison o ou da a wi h his-
o ical sou ces sugges s ha ea ly San iago may ha e been
popula ed by indi iduals om he su ounding u al se -
lemen s, he bishop’s headqua e s o I ia-Fla ia (e.g. he
bishop Theodomi ) and pe haps he wide he Kingdom o
As u ias. Wide mobili y documen ed om h ee indi idu-
als may also indica e he possibili y o indi iduals a i -
ing om Al-Andalus—especially p ies s and bishops who
we e documen ed as leeing Muslim ule du ing he 9 h and
10 h cen u ies AD. Fu he analysis is equi ed o e ine ou
unde s anding o scales o mobili y wi hin he icini y o
San iago de Compos ela in he u u e.
The δ15N and δ13C esul s, and he a chaeological con-
ex , e eal a popula ion wi h in e nal socioeconomic di i-
sions ha p o e he exis ence o hie a chical socie y which
may ha e had g ea e access o ce ain esou ces ela i e o
o he cen es in he same egion hanks o i s g owing eli-
gious, poli ical and social s a us. Ou wo k p o ides di ec
in o ma ion abou he o igin and de elopmen o wha was
o become one o he bigges mediae al pilg image cen es
in Eu ope, allowing us o con as his o ical sou ces wi h
di ec insigh s in o die and mobili y om he a chaeologi-
cal emains hemsel es. Al hough ou human sample size
is limi ed as a esul o he des uc ion o many ombs du -
ing p e ious a chaeological exca a ions, meaning cau ion
should be aken when ex apola ing ou indings, we belie e
ha ou me hodological app oach holds much p omise o
u u e in es iga ions o he eme gence o San iago de Com-
pos ela as a Eu opean mediae al eligious cen e and i s
impac s on he die s, mobili y and cul u al beha iou s o i s
inhabi an s as pa o ne wo ks ha pilg ims s ill ead in o
he 21s cen u y.
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen-
a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s12520- 022- 01678-0.
Acknowledgemen s This p ojec has been suppo ed by a g an om
he ‘la Caixa’ Banking Founda ion (ID 100010434; Code: LCF/BQ/
ES16/11570006). Pa xi Pé ez-Ramallo and Pa ick Robe s would also
like o hank he Max Planck Socie y o unding o his p ojec . Pa xi
Pé ez-Ramallo, Hannah Koon and Julia Beaumon would like o hank
he Uni e si y o B ad o d o unding a suppo he i s os eological
and s able iso ope analysis conduc ed in 2015. Two o he iso opic
analyses and 14C da es ha e been ca ied ou wi h unding om he
Xun a de Galicia o he CulXeo G oup (ED431B 2018/47) and o he
esea ch ne wo k ‘Cul u al He i age, a chaeological and echnical
se ices’ (R2016/023). The au ho s ex end hei special g a i ude o
he Fundación Ca ed al de San iago, Museo Ca ed al de San iago and
Museo das Pe eg inacións, o g an ing us access o he samples. Pa -
icula hanks o P o esso Geo ge G eenia, Nie es Veiga López, Daniel
Lo enzo, D . Ramón Yzquie do Pei ó, Robe o Pena Puen es, Rosa
Ma ía Paz Lobei as, Eugenio Rod íguez Puen es, D . Ma io Fe nández
Pe ei o, D . Cel ia Rod iguez Gonzalez, Ma ia Tania Rial Figuei as,
O ia Fe ei o Diz,Rod igo Ba que a, Jesús Vazquez del Rey, Vicen e
Alonso B ión, Ramón Alonso B ión,Rod igo B a o, F ancisco Luis
Pé ez López, Iñaki Pé ez Ramallo and Cla a González Fe nández.
Au ho con ibu ion P.P-R ini ia ed his esea ch. P.P-R, H.K., A.G-d.,
E.O., E.S., R.R-V. and J.L.A. conduc ed ieldwo k. P.P-R., H.K., J.B.,
D.C., J.I., T.H. and P.L.R. comple ed he chemical analyses. P.P-R. and
P-R. w o e he pape , wi h all au ho s con ibu ing owa d in e p e ing
he esul s and e ining he pape .
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek
DEAL.
Da a a ailabili y No applicable.
Code a ailabili y No applicable.
Decla a ions
E hics app o al No applicable.
Consen o publica ion No applicable.
Compe ing in e es s The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
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bu ion 4.0 In e na ional License, which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a-
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