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Pe spec i es: Ad e ising and clima e change - Pa o he p oblem o pa o he solu ion?
Pa ick Ha manna, Ai o Ma cosa, Juana Cas ob and Vanessa Apaolazaa
aFacul y o Economics and Business Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU,
Bilbao, Spain
bIns i u e o En i onmen al Science and Technology, Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona,
Bella e a, Spain
Co esponding au ho : Pa ick Ha mann ([email p o ec ed]) Facul y o Economics and
Business Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, A da. Lehendaka i Agui e
83, 48015 Bilbao, Spain
Acknowledgmen s
This wo k was suppo ed by he Spanish Go e nmen and Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund
[g an numbe PID2021-123686OB-I00 AEI/FEDER UE], he Basque Go e nmen [g an numbe s
IT1731-22, PRE-2021-2-0037] and FESIDE Founda ion [g an numbe 03-21].
The e a e no compe ing in e es s o decla e.
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Pe spec i es: Ad e ising and clima e change - Pa o he p oblem o pa o he solu ion?
Abs ac
The ad e ising indus y has a di ec ca bon oo p in bu also con ibu es o clima e change by
s imula ing unsus ainable economic g ow h, p omo ing clima e-ha m ul consume ism, and
g eenwashing pollu ing p oduc s and companies. Howe e , ad e ising can also play a pi o al ole in
igh ing clima e change. The ad e ising indus y can educe i s ca bon oo p in , igh
g eenwashing, and cu ies wi h pollu ing clien s and indus ies. G een ad e ising can shi
consume s away om clima e-ha m ul consump ion pa e ns owa d a low-ca bon cul u e by
p o iding accu a e in o ma ion and le e aging psychological p ocesses such as mo al sa is ac ion,
na u e expe iences, and ea esponses, among o he s. Fo ad e ising esea ch o play a signi ican
ole in his pa adigm shi , i should ocus mo e speci ically on clima e- ele an beha io s ins ead o
on gene al g een consume beha io , and adop a mo e holis ic app oach o analyze he ole o
ad e ising no only in in luencing indi idual consume s’ decisions bu also in sus aining a cul u al
na a i e ha p omo es clima e p o ec ion.
Keywo ds: g een ad e ising; clima e change; g eenwashing; g een consume ; ca bon oo p in
In oduc ion
The e is a b oad consensus among scien is s ha he clima e c isis is one o he g ea es challenges o
ou ime and he ca bon emissions caused by ou consump ion habi s a e he p ima y cause o
clima e change, wi h mo e han 70% o global g eenhouse gas emissions di ec ly a ising om
household consump ion decisions (I ano a e al. 2016; He wich and Pe e s 2009). Ad e ising has
been shown in p ac ice and esea ch o a ec consume beha io . Changes in unsus ainable
consump ion pa e ns could subs an ially educe households’ ca bon oo p in (Mo an e al. 2020),
pa icula ly in high-income coun ies whe e consume s ha e a wide ange o op ions (Dubois e al.
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2019). Ad e ising can a ec consume choice be ween di e en al e na i es, bu i can also
mo i a e pu chases ha in absence o ad e ising would no ha e aken place. Al hough i is ye
unclea whe he ad e ising can inc ease o e all agg ega e consump ion, he e is e idence
suppo ing ad e ising’s ole in d i ing economic g ow h (Kop , To es, and Enomo o 2011;
Molina i and Tu ino 2018). While he emissions caused by ad e isemen p oduc ion and
dissemina ion—including i s impac on he communica ion sec o —cons i u e he indus y’s di ec
ca bon oo p in , ad e ising may also ha e a signi ican in luence on clima e change h ough i s
e ec on consume beha io . Howe e , he e is ye sca ce li e a u e on he ela ionship be ween
ad e ising and clima e change. Does ad e ising con ibu e o clima e change? Can, on he con a y,
ad e ising help mi iga e clima e change?
Depa ing om he p emise ha ad e ising plays an ac i e ole in shaping public as es and
habi s beyond in luencing pu chases, his a icle aims o p o ide a pe spec i e on whe he and how
ad e ising and clima e change a e connec ed. The a icle is o ganized as ollows (Table 1): We s a
by examining he di ec and indi ec en i onmen al impac s o ad e ising, along wi h he
widesp ead p ac ice o g eenwashing (i.e., he use o decep i e o ambiguous g een messages). We
hen explo e he ad e ising indus y’s plans o g een i s sec o and he g een ad e ising s a egies
aimed a con eying and s eng hening p o-en i onmen al a i udes and beha io s among consume s.
We conclude his pape by discussing upcoming challenges he esea ch communi y and he
ad e ising indus y will need o add ess o make ad e ising pa o he solu ion o he clima e c isis.
Ad e ising as pa o he p oblem
The ca bon oo p in o he ad e ising indus y
Ad e ising and media agencies cause a signi ican amoun o ca bon emissions when designing and
implemen ing hei clien s’ ad e ising and communica ion campaigns. Ca bon emissions a e no
only gene a ed by indus y’s ope a ional ac i i ies like ai a eling and e en s, bu also by he
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communica ion sec o ha ansmi s ad e ising messages h ough media o any kind. P in media,
elec onics, and o he means o con ey messages consume ma e ial and ene gy esou ces ha add o
he ca bon oo p in o he ad e ising indus y. Fo ins ance, based on da a om he B is ol Ci y
Council (2019), campaigne s in he UK es ima ed ha a double-sided digi al bus s op ad e ising
sc een consumes ou imes mo e elec ici y han he a e age B i ish home (Adblock B is ol 2019).
Also, se e al US municipali ies a e implemen ing en i onmen ally mo i a ed es ic ions on ligh ed
on-p emise signs (Taylo and Sa kees 2016).
Despi e agencies and p o essionals acknowledging he en i onmen al impac o he sec o
(Timpe ley 2021), ad e ising p oduc ion inc eases yea by yea d i en by clien s’ demands: F om
2020 o 2021, global ad e ising spending inc eased by $78bn o a o al o $657bn (Ba ke 2021) and
ma ke p edic ions poin o a apid inc ease in spending ha will su pass $1 illion by 2025
(Goe zen 2021). This spending boom has been la gely d i en by he omnip esence o online
ad e isemen s. Ad e ising unde pins many business models on he in e ne . As soon as web-based
applica ions became mains eam, ad e ise s con ibu ed o social media g ow h by alloca ing a
g owing p opo ion o hei media budge s o online ad e ising (Knoll 2016; Okazaki and Taylo
2013), as hey could each consume s online a any ime due o he ex ensi e adop ion o
sma phones (T uong, McColl, and Ki chen 2010; Ma ins e al. 2019). Since messages ha
p e iously had o be deli e ed h ough adi ional mo e esou ce-in ensi e channels such as p in
media we e being ansmi ed h ough digi al media (Lee and Cho 2020), he en i onmen al impac
o ad e ising in e ms o ca bon emissions should ha e dec eased. Howe e , ha was no he case.
On he one hand, digi al ad e ising consumes la ge amoun s o ene gy ha a e s ill mos ly gene a ed
by ossil uels. On he o he hand, e en hough he i ualiza ion o a signi ican pa o he
ad e ising indus y could educe ad e ising’s esou ce consump ion, he numbe o online
ad e isemen s is also g owing due o pe sonaliza ion and oppo uni ies o engage wi h consume s
mo e o en (And ews e al. 2016). The e o e, he inc ease in digi al ad e isemen p oduc ion
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ou weighs he esou ce e iciency gains o he i ualiza ion o he indus y. Fi e ac o s inhe en o
end- o-end online ad e ising d i e he high ene gy consump ion and ca bon oo p in es ima es o
online ad e ising (Pä ssinen e al. 2018): i) online ad e isemen s inc ease he ime equi ed o
access he payload con en , ii) he amoun o downloaded da a, iii) he numbe o ac i e connec ions
equi ed, i ) he ene gy consump ion o da a cen e s, and ) any o he ac i e code ela ed o
ad e ising (e.g., acking a use 's b owsing beha io ). Reliable da a on he ene gy consump ion o
online ad e ising a e sca ce. Simons and P as (2010) es ima ed ha online ad e ising was
esponsible o 3.4% o he a e age compu e ’s o al ene gy consump ion while b owsing he web. In
2016, online ad e ising consumed an es ima ed 106 TWh o ene gy wo ldwide and gene a ed 60
million ons o CO2 emissions, wi h a wide con idence in e al be ween 12 and 159 M o CO2e
(Pä ssinen e al. 2018). Good-loop’s ca bon calcula o (2021), a pla o m o ne -ze o
ad e isemen s, es ima es ha he a e age online ad e ising campaign in he UK emi s 5.4 ons o
ca bon dioxide. Reducing he ca bon emissions o online ad e ising is necessa y o lowe
ad e ising’s o e all ca bon oo p in .
Ad e ising’s ole in d i ing he in e ne ’s ca bon emissions
Al hough educing online ad e ising a ic could imp o e he ene gy e iciency o he In e ne , i
would also hampe he mos cu en business model o ee in e ne se ices, based on ad e ising
income (Pä ssinen e al. 2018). The ad e ising indus y indi ec ly d i es and inances hese ee
media con en and communica ion se ices. Ad e ising indi ec ly con ibu es o he ca bon
emissions caused by hese ad e ising-d i en communica ion se ices and con en . Rega ding he
ca bon oo p in o social media, De udde (2021) p o ides an agg ega e es ima e based on
G eenspec o , a so wa e company ha measu es he pe o mance o digi al mobile se ices.
G eenspec o es ima ed he ca bon emissions o en common social media pla o ms (Twi e ,
Facebook, Tik Tok, Reddi , Pin e es , Ins ag am, Snapcha , LinkedIn, Twi ch, and YouTube)
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gene a ed du ing one minu e o usage (i.e., sc olling he news eed). On a e age, hese en social
media pla o ms, which a e all pa ly o en i ely inanced by online ad e ising, caused 1.15 gEqCO2
(g am equi alen o CO2) e e y minu e pe use (De udde 2021). Conside ing an a e age daily
social media usage o 2 hou s and 24 minu es pe pe son in 2021, he ca bon oo p in o online
ad e ising-powe ed social media adds up o 165.6 gEqCO2 pe use and day (De udde 2021). E en
hough he ad e ising indus y is no di ec ly esponsible o he ca bon emissions o social media
pla o ms, i enables a business model ha has a conside able ca bon oo p in .
Ad e ising and agg ega e consump ion
The ques ion o whe he ad e ising exace ba es en i onmen al p oblems is ine i ably connec ed o
he deba e on whe he , a he mac o-economic le el, ad e ising inc eases o e all consump ion le els
o only edis ibu es consump ion wi hou inc easing i (Reekie and Allen 1983). The o me would
imply ha ad e ising inc eases emissions and con ibu es o esou ce deple ion, while he la e
would only shi consume beha io owa d o away om mo e clima e-ha m ul consump ion
beha io s. So a , his deba e emains unsol ed. Taylo (2013) called o mo e esea ch on his
subjec because he e was no conclusi e e idence o an o e all e ec o ad e ising on agg ega e
consump ion.
Mixed empi ical esul s on he mac o-economic impac o ad e ising make i di icul o
es ablish a di ec ela ionship be ween ad e ising expendi u e and he nega i e en i onmen al
impac caused by consump ion-d i en economic g ow h. On he one hand, se e al case s udies and
his o ical e idence a he mac o le el ound limi ed e ec s o ad e ising conce ning agg ega e
consump ion (e.g., B oadben 2008; Wilcox and Gangadha ba la 2006). On he o he hand, many
s udies ha e con i med he in luence o ad e ising on agg ega e consump ion, in es men , hou s
wo ked, economic ac i i y (B ulle and Young 2007), and economic g ow h (Kop , To es, and
Enomo o 2011; Molina i and Tu ino 2018).
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Fu he mo e, ad e ising’s impac on clima e change may be media ed by i s ela ionship wi h
ma e ialism and consume ism. In line wi h Kasse (2016), we e e o ‘ma e ialism’ as he p io i y
indi iduals place on goals and alues o accumula e possessions and weal h, o en ueled by s a us o
image mo i es. ‘Consume ism’ e e s o he idea ha he consump ion o goods and se ices—
including expe ien ial consump ion such as lying o a aca ion des ina ion—enhances well-being
and happiness. Bo h ma e ialism and consume ism mo i a e pu chasing (Lee e al. 2021) and he
c ea i e sec o o he ad e ising indus y exploi s his o encou age consump ion (e.g., he “You
wo ld awai s” campaign, launched by Ai Canada in 2015 o p omo e lying using slogans including
“The wo ld is no an oys e , i 's a 10,075 km pea l”). S udies showing ha ad e ising can inc ease
ma e ialism (Chia 2010; Moldes and Ku 2020; Twenge and Kasse 2013; Op ee e al. 2014) and
consume ism (F ick e al. 2021) con i m he e ec i eness o such s a egies. The e is also signi ican
empi ical suppo o a nega i e ela ionship be ween ma e ialism and p o-en i onmen al a i udes
and beha io . Indi iduals who p io i ize ma e ialis ic alues and goals do no only consume mo e bu
also ac in less en i onmen ally iendly ways (Hu s e al. 2013; Kasse 2016; Unanue e al. 2016).
Se e al ecen s udies ha e co obo a ed his ela ionship in China (Gu e al. 2020), Finland
(Lundbe g e al. 2019), he UK (Ga e sleben e al. 2018), Spain (Diaz-Ruiz, Cos a-Fon , and Gil
2018), Sweden (Ande sson and Nässén 2016) and he US (Sege , Shoham, and Ga ish 2015). Thus,
despi e he li e a u e no being conclusi e on a di ec mac o-economic impac o ad e ising, he e is
e idence suppo ing an indi ec ela ionship be ween ad e ising and clima e change: Ad e ising
exposu e can inc ease ma e ialism and consume ism which, in u n, disincen i es clima e- iendly
beha io .
G eenwashing
Ad e ising can change consume pe cep ions o he en i onmen al impac o companies, p oduc s,
and se ices. G een ad e ising—by po aying a company o b and as en i onmen ally iendly—
imp o es consume s’ co po a e and b and a i udes and d i es pu chase in en ion (Ha mann and
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Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2009). Howe e , g een ad e ising has equen ly been u ilized o g eenwashing
pu poses. ‘G eenwashing’ e e s o a p oduc ’s en i onmen al communica ion ha is alse,
decep i e, ambiguous, o ha omi s ele an p oduc in o ma ion (Kangun, Ca lson, and G o e
1991). Table 2 summa izes he g eenwashing s udies discussed in his sec ion.
Ad e ising claims a e o en ambiguous, such as Body Shop’s “Na u e’s way o beau i ul”
slogan. The e a e nume ous examples o communica ion campaigns po aying companies and
p oduc s decep i ely as en i onmen ally iendly (Bowen and A agon-Co ea 2014; Delmas and
Bu bano 2011), e en when hey a e indeed en i onmen ally ha m ul (Plec and Pe enge 2012). Fo
ins ance, se e al ai line campaigns (KLM, Lu hansa, and Ryanai ’s “Lowes a es lowes
emissions”) we e banned o misleading claims abou ca bon emissions (Baazil 2022; Oakes 2022).
Danone’s 2020 “Good o he plane ” message o hei Alp o almond d inks and Danish C own’s
2021 “clima e-con olled pigs” claims ha e been epo ed as cases o g eenwashing, he i s o
misleading claims and he second o a sel -acc edi ed eco-label (P o enance 2022).
The mos pollu ing indus ies, such as oil companies, ha e widely and equen ly u ilized
g eenwashing (Megu a and Gunde son 2022). Apa om g eenwashing p oduc s and co po a e
images, he bigges ca bon emi e s ha e also downplayed he u gency o clima e ac ion. Toge he ,
he i e majo oil companies, ExxonMobil, Shell, Che onTexaco, B i ish Pe oleum, and
ConocoPhillips spen nea ly $3.6 billion in ad e ising om 1986 o 2020 (B ulle, A onczyk, and
Ca michael 2020). Documen -by-documen ex ual con en analysis and compa ison o 187 clima e
change communica ions om 1989 o 2004 showed ha ExxonMobil ‘ad e o ials’—paid, edi o ial-
s yle ad e isemen s—in The New Yo k Times ou inely exp essed doub abou clima e change as
eal and human-caused (Sup an and O eskes 2017). In con as , mos pee - e iewed pape s and
in e nal epo s au ho ed by ExxonMobil’s scien is s acknowledged ha bu ning ossil uels caused
global wa ming. Pa adoxically, ExxonMobil’s scien is s’ academic publica ions ad anced clima e
science, while he company launched ad e ising campaigns o p omo e doub and mislead he public
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(Sup an and O eskes 2020). Mo eo e , a big po ion o oil companies’ ad e ising budge s has been
spen on delaying clima e legisla ion. B ulle, A onczyk, and Ca michael (2020) showed ha majo
oil companies’ ad e ising expendi u e co ela ed wi h he le els o US cong essional ac ion and
media a en ion o clima e change. Acco ding o B ulle e al. (2020), hese companies spen $315
million in 2010 alone, when he likelihood o binding clima e legisla ion in he US was e y high.
These p ac ices do no limi o ad e ising campaigns bu ha e also been an in eg al pa o
many clima e-ha m ul companies’ public ela ions (PR) p og ams. These PR ac i i ies aim o
imp o e companies’ public image and a oid egula ions and public p essu e. PR s a egies ha e also
shaped he public deba e on clima e change. Fo example, hink- ank in o ma ion denying clima e
change inc eased exponen ially om 1998 o 2013 (Bede 2002; Boussalis and Coan 2016). Indus y
PR has signi ican ly shaped he common public na a i es and amings o clima e change
(Schlich ing 2013). The mos common ame is he use o unce ain y and doub o deny clima e
science and delay ac ion by oil companies (Dunlap and McC igh 2011; Jawo ska 2018; Sup an and
O eskes 2017). As a ecen s udy on ExxonMobil’s s a egies o shape public discou se on clima e
change shows, he company used selec i e en i onmen al amings (i.e., emphasizing some e ms
and opics while a oiding o he s), and e e ed o scien i ic unce ain y wi h e ms such as “clima e
isk” o downplay he eali y and se iousness o clima e change (Sup an and O eskes 2021). Clima e
change has also been amed as an indi idual esponsibili y o de lec indus y’s esponsibili y (Ken
2009). In Eu ope, oil companies used a simila s a egy by emphasizing unce ain y abou clima e
change and downplaying i s u gency, as an analysis o To al oil company’s communica ions om
1971 o 2021 has ecen ly shown (Bonneuil, Choque , and F an a 2021).
A common ea u e o g eenwashing communica ion is he use o ague and unspeci ic e ms
(de F ei as Ne o e al. 2020). Ins ead o conc e e echnical e ms and in o ma ion (e.g., 100%
biodeg adable, o ganic ag icul u e, made om 80% ecycled plas ics, e c.), g eenwashed
ad e isemen s use ambiguous and unin o ma i e claims (e.g. g een, eco- iendly, sus ainable,
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especially when indi iduals belie e ele an o he s buy g een p oduc s oo (Nybo g, Howa h, and
B ekke 2006). Since g een consump ion can signal a socially desi able p o-en i onmen al iden i y
(Sachde a, Jo dan, and Maza 2015), g een ad e ising should highligh he social bene i s o
conspicuous en i onmen ally iendly beha io (Polica po and Aguia 2020). Fo ins ance,
Timbe land’s “Na u e Needs He oes” appeals o consume s’ eelings o p ide and social app o al by
sugges ing ha buye s o i s p oduc s a e special because hey con ibu e o sus ainabili y o he
bene i o all humans and na u e.
Visual cues ypically used in g een ad e ising such as na u e images and g een colo s a e also
cen al o g een pe suasion (Ha mann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2009; Ha mann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez
2010). Ad e isemen s employing scenes o na u e can igge emo ional expe iences simila o hose
el when in con ac wi h na u e. New Zealand powe company Me idian Ene gy’s 2005 "Wa e ” and
“Wind” TV comme cials showing p is ine na u e scene y a e excellen examples o how ad e ising
can e oke such i ual na u e expe iences. Na u e images can lead o mo e posi i e a i udinal
e ec s han in o ma i e en i onmen al claims (Ha mann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2008; Ha mann and
Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2009; Ma hes, Wonnebe ge , and Schmuck 2014), las longe in memo y han ex
in ad e isemen s (Rayne e al. 2001), a ac consume s’ a en ion and imp o e ad e ising ecall
(Ha mann, Apaolaza, and Alija 2013). Mo eo e , esea ch has shown ha he use o g een colo
alone is associa ed wi h na u e and can induce consume s o pe cei e a lowe en i onmen al impac
o b ands, igge ing posi i e ad e ising a i udes and pu chase in en ions (Pance , McShane, and
Nosewo hy 2017).
Con a y o gain-o ien ed appeals e oking posi i e eelings, p e en ion- ocused messages in
g een ad e ising igge nega i e eelings. The images o clima e change- ela ed deg ada ion o
na u e—wild i es, loods, d ough s, e c.—can e oke ea esponses (Ha mann e al. 2014) and
inc ease he sense o he impo ance o he issue (saliency) o clima e change (O’Neill e al. 2013).
Fo ins ance, Vol o’s 2021 “The Ul ima e Sa e y Tes ” ad e ising campaign, in o ming abou he
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ansi ion o he company o elec ic ca s, shows in an impac ul way and se ing he e ec o clima e
change on he deg ada ion o glacie s. Ad e ising appeals ha aise awa eness o po en ial losses
and nega i e consequences o clima e change can inc ease p o-en i onmen al in en ions. The highe
he h ea le el, he highe he ea , and hus he la ge he inc ease in p o-en i onmen al in en ions
(Ha mann e al. 2014; Pi man, Read, and Chen 2021). Also, appeals s essing p esen ( s. u u e)
ou comes om en i onmen al pu chases igge s onge consume eac ions i hey ocus on losses
om clima e change a he han gains om a educed en i onmen al impac (Homa and Kneže ić
C elba 2021). Howe e , ad e ise s using en i onmen al ea appeals should conside ha
combining ea ac i a ion wi h in o ma i e ad e ising claims on how o p e en he en i onmen al
h ea may educe he e ec i eness o he ea appeals because i educes he pe cei ed se e eness o
he h ea (Ha mann e al. 2014). En i onmen al h ea appeals can also educe consume s’
pe cei ed sel -e icacy, lowe ing he mo i a ion o engage in p o-en i onmen al beha io (O’Neill e
al. 2013). Apa om igge ing p imi i e emo ions such as ea , ad e ising appeals s essing losses
om clima e change may also e oke nega i e social emo ions such as guil o shame. Ac i a ion o
guil and shame abou en i onmen ally un iendly consump ion choices can ac as a mechanism ha
inc eases he pe cei ed sel -bene i s o g een pu chases (Ama ulli e al. 2019; Chang 2012).
Consume heu is ics o e a u he p omising a enue, so a li le explo ed, o g een
ad e ising p ac ice and esea ch. Examples o such heu is ics a e consume s associa ing happiness
and pleasu e wi h he consump ion o o ganic ood (Apaolaza e al. 2018), o he “g een halo e ec ”,
acco ding o which consume s pe cei e g een p oduc s as as ing o pe o ming be e han iden ical
non-g een al e na i es (Sö q is e al. 2015). While a lack o expe ience wi h g een a ibu es can be
one o he causes o he in en ion–beha io gap in g een consump ion (Biswas and Roy 2015),
epea ed exposu e o ad e ising inc eases eelings o amilia i y wi h he b and and p oduc (Pa k
and Lessig 1981). Consume s make g een pu chases mo e consis en ly when hey a e epea edly
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exposed o g een ad e ising (Juhl, Fenge , and Thøge sen 2017), e en ually adop ing a low-ca bon
de aul in consump ion as amilia i y inc eases.
Dema ke ing clima e-ha m ul consump ion
Inc easing consump ion, e en i less clima e-ha m ul, migh be a odds wi h clima e-p o ec i e
beha io because consump ion is ine i ably ied o esou ce use. Al hough ma ke ing’s main
objec i e is o inc ease he demand o goods o se ices, in ce ain si ua ions i may be desi able o
use ma ke ing o educe demand (Ko le 2011). ‘Dema ke ing’ e e s o ma ke ing ac ions aimed a
educing demand. Ko le and Le y’s (1971) h ee-ca ego y amewo k classi ies dema ke ing as a
means o companies o es ic he demand o hei p oduc s o bene i he common good (gene al
dema ke ing), o a oid a ac ing unwan ed consume segmen s (selec i e dema ke ing), and o
signal a sho age o an inadequacy (os ensible dema ke ing). As a speci ic case o dema ke ing,
‘g een dema ke ing’ (A ms ong Soule and Reich 2015) seeks o educe he o e all le el o
consump ion and de ia e consume demand om p oduc s ha a e mo e en i onmen ally ha m ul.
Fo ins ance, Pa agonia’s 2011 “Don’ buy his jacke ” campaign highligh ed consume s’
en i onmen al oo p in and u ged hem o consume less (Hwang e al. 2016). Ye , despi e
dema ke ing’s po en ial o educe clima e-ha m ul consump ion, expe imen al indings sugges ha
g een ad e ising claims ou pe o m dema ke ing campaigns when i comes o in luencing pu chase
decisions (Reich and Soule 2016). G een dema ke ing and g een ad e ising a e no subs i u es bu
a he complemen a y s a egies o encou age he adop ion o sus ainable consump ion pa e ns. The
beha io al changes p omo ed by g een dema ke ing would be mo e a ac i e o consume s i hese
campaigns ensu ed symbolic bene i s o hose who educe hei clima e-ha m ul consump ion.
Sekhon and A ms ong Soule (2020) ound ha a isible signal ha communica es en i onmen al
mo i a ions o educing consump ion o clima e-ha m ul p oduc s is necessa y o engage consume s
because he ac o o egoing consump ion does no p o ide e iden symbolic bene i s o indi iduals
18
and ‘an iconsume s’ may e en be ega ded as ha ing a lowe socioeconomic s a us. Hence,
dema ke ing campaigns will ha e o le e age ‘conspicuous an iconsump ion’ (Sekhon and
A ms ong Soule 2020) o be e ec i e, which implies he use o isible signals ha con e s a us
wi hou needing o make a pu chase and es o e he symbolic bene i s ha a e o en los when
o egoing consump ion. Ad e ising, no leas h ough e oking such symbolic bene i s, can play an
impo an pa in g een dema ke ing.
Wha ’s nex o he indus y
Towa d a clima e- iendly pa adigm shi
An inc easing numbe o ad e ising p o essionals a e u ning owa ds ne wo ks and associa ions o
p omo e a clima e p o ec ion agenda h oughou he indus y. To name a ew, ne wo ks such as
C ea i es o Clima e, Conscious Ad e ising, Clean C ea i es, Pu pose Dis up o s, and Comms
Decla e connec indus y p o essionals wi h a sha ed mission o make ad e ising pa o he solu ion
o clima e change. The p o essionals ga he ed a ound hese ne wo ks ac i ely discou age clima e-
ha m ul p ac ices using hei espec i e pla o ms. A a mo e ins i u ional le el, he Wo ld
Fede a ion o Ad e ise s (WFA) is u ging global ma ke e s o champion he Uni ed Na ions’ Race
o Ze o campaign—a coali ion o leading ne ze o ini ia i es. The WFA has i s ini ia i e oo, called
Plane Pledge, which guides agencies on how o comply wi h ne ze o commi men s. The ad e ising
indus y can and should adop a p oac i e ole in he igh agains clima e change. The mos p essing
issues in his ega d a e igh ing g eenwashing, le e aging low-ca bon media campaigns, ad e ising
ca bon oo p in in o ma ion, and cu ing ies wi h clima e-ha m ul companies.
19
Figh ing g eenwashing
Figh ing g eenwashing should be a p io i y o ad e ise s and egula o y bodies alike because, as
p e iously discussed, g eenwashing is pe asi e and a signi ican ba ie o he shi owa d mo e
clima e- iendly consump ion. The mos p ominen ools o comba g eenwashing a e ce i ica ion
sys ems, sel - egula ion, bans on ad e ising p ac ices aimed a g eenwashing, and in e en ions o
inc ease consume s’ g eenwashing li e acy. Howe e , each o hese app oaches has d awbacks,
ende ing he e ec i e e adica ion o g eenwashing di icul .
Cu en ce i ica ion sys ems p o ide quali y s anda ds such as en i onmen al labels which can
help consume s o e i y he au hen ici y o g een claims. Howe e , he p oli e a ion o non-o icial
g een labels and ce i ica es, o en using g een ad e ising cues (e.g., g een appeals, g een colo s,
na u e images, e c.), has dec eased public con idence because hey o en do no ep esen c edible
s anda ds (do Paço and Reis 2012). Ad e ise s should only use g een labels ha a e backed by
o icial egula ions and con ols.
The e is an u gen need o he ad e ising indus y o sel - egula e on g eenwashing. Failing o
do so will likely esul in public au ho i ies s epping in wi h u he bans and mo e s ingen
egula ions ha could hinde he ad e ising indus y’s ans o ma i e po en ial. Resea ch on he
egula o y aspec s o g een ad e ising is howe e s ill sca ce and indings a e ambiguous (Aga wal
and Kuma 2020). Sel - egula ion o g een ad e ising is u he complica ed by he complexi ies o
sel - egula ing digi al ad e ising (Dickinson-Delapo e e al. 2020; Ro eld and Taylo 2009). G een
ad e ising sel - egula ion should ocus on g een claim speci ici y. Claim speci ici y can imp o e
c edibili y in g een ad e ising and enhance ad e ising e ec i eness (Ganz and G imes 2018).
Signi ican s eps, p oposals and esea ch on g eenwashing sel - egula ion should be an u gen
p io i y.
Go e nmen e o s o cu ail pe asi e g eenwashing h ough g een ad e ising egula ion
ha e apidly e ol ed in ecen decades o include bans a ge ed a g eenwashing (de F ei as Ne o e
20
al. 2020). Speci ically, oil companies’ ad e ising campaigns a e unde sc u iny. Fo ins ance, New
Yo k Ci y sued h ee majo oil companies o allegedly using misleading ad e ising campaigns ha
ailed o disclose he clima e impac o ossil uels (Gilme and Van Vo is 2021). Some Eu opean
ci ies a e al eady legisla ing o limi ad e isemen s ha con ibu e o g eenwashing he ossil uel
indus y (Neslen 2021). En i onmen al o ganiza ions like Clien Ea h a e also using legal ac ion o
demand obacco-s yle heal h wa nings on ad e isemen s om oil companies (UK Na ional Con ac
Poin o he OECD 2020). Indi iduals a e exe ing p essu e oo by adhe ing o campaigns like he
Eu opean Ci izen’s Ini ia i e (ECI) egis e ed on June 16 h, 2021, which p oposes a ban on ossil uel
ad e isemen s (ECI 2021). This ini ia i e can u n in o an EU law i i ga ne s enough suppo .
Ad e ising egula ions s ipula e ha ad e ising should do no ha m, enhance us in he
ma ke ing sys em and hold e hical alues (Ame ican Ma ke ing Associa ion 2015). Howe e ,
p ac ices like he sys ema ic ad e ising o ossil uels using posi i e en i onmen al associa ions
illus a es ha au ho i ies o en ail o add ess g eenwashing e ec i ely. So a , clea guidelines on
wha makes a p oduc “en i onmen ally sa e” a e s ill mos ly lacking (Delmas and Bu bano 2011).
In p ac ice, moni o ing o ad e ising ails as i equi es speci ic echnologies and high le els o
cos ly audi s (Jahn, Sch amm, and Spille 2005). Mo eo e , he pe suasion e ec s o g een
ad e ising s em o a signi ican ex en om cues such as he g een colo and na u e images, and
hese a e di icul o o bid in ad e ising. Limi ed, unce ain, and o en non-en o ced egula ion
makes g eenwashing mo e di icul o e adica e (Delmas and Bu bano 2011). As long as an i-
g eenwashing e o s om go e nmen s emain uncoo dina ed and he e a e no clea guidelines o
wha ep esen s an en i onmen ally sa e p oduc , g eenwashing will likely emain widesp ead,
ep esen ing a ba ie o educing consump ion emissions.
A u he p omising app oach consis s in neu alizing i s e ec s by educa ing consume s o
spo g eenwashing. Cogni i e in e en ions can inc ease consume s’ g eenwashing li e acy so ha
hey lea n o ecognize ce ain o icial s anda ds and de ec decep i e claims (Fe nandes, Sege , and
21
Leopold 2020). The ad e ising indus y can join ly inance educa ional communica ion campaigns
like hese o coun e ac he noxious e ec s o g eenwashing s ill p ac iced by many o i s membe s.
Le e aging low-ca bon media campaigns and ad e ising ca bon oo p in in o ma ion
Since he ad e ising indus y wo ks o i s clien s—who decide which campaigns o implemen and
how—,ini ia i es o g eening he indus y such as he abo emen ioned UK Ad e ising
Associa ion’s Ad Ne Ze o ini ia i e o each ne -ze o by 2030 (Ad e ising Associa ion 2020) will
only be easible i hey esona e wi h clien s’ needs. Bu ins ead o being a limi a ion, clien s’ needs
can po en ially le e age he low-ca bon ansi ion o he indus y because hose co po a e clien s will
unde go a simila p ocess o de-ca boniza ion, likely also d i en by end-consume s’ a i udes and
mo i es conce ning clima e change. By cu bing p oduc ion emissions and choosing low-ca bon
media channels, ad e ising agencies can con ibu e o lowe ing hei clien s’ ca bon oo p in .
Companies inc easingly epo ca bon oo p in in o ma ion in hei sus ainabili y epo s (ei he
olun a ily o d i en by legisla ion). Ad e ising clien s will ha e signi ican incen i es o demand
low-ca bon ad e ising campaigns because epo ing ca bon emission sa ings can po en ially a ec
co po a e image and clien a i udes. As a p e equisi e, ad e ising agencies need o adop de ailed
ca bon accoun ing me hods o assess campaign- ela ed ca bon emissions. P o iding his in o ma ion
o ad e ising clien s should enable mo e clima e- iendly ad e ising campaign choices, le e aging
he low-ca bon ansi ion o he ad e ising indus y.
22
Cu ing ies wi h clima e-ha m ul companies
An inc easing numbe o agencies and media companies e use o p oduce and dissemina e
g eenwashed ossil uels ad e isemen s, wi h execu i es likening his shi o he ad e ising
indus y’s mo e away om obacco (Hsu 2021). Bo h obacco and oil companies ha e long used
ad e ising o mislead he public and delay legisla i e ac ion (Boyle e al. 2020; Megu a and
Gunde son 2022; Plec and Pe enge 2012). Kaupa (2021) a gues ha , since majo oil companies
ha e used ad e ising o block egula o y change and o no malize a ha m ul commodi y, cu en
ossil uel ad e isemen s a e as misleading as o me obacco ad e ising and, he e o e, a ban on
ossil uel ad e ising would be he bes egula o y solu ion. In he same ein, clima e expe s (O o
e al. 2020) sugges a ban on ossil uel ad e isemen s would cons i u e a social ipping poin (i.e.,
an in e en ion ha can ac i a e con agious p ocesses o apidly sp eading echnologies, beha io s,
social no ms, and s uc u al eo ganiza ion) o educe ca bon emissions. Howe e , ecen ini ia i es
o ban ossil uel ad e isemen s a e no widesp ead, and i is ye unclea whe he his endency will
sp ead o media ou le s. To da e, only a ew media ou le s, such as The Gua dian and he B i ish
Medical Jou nal in he UK, and he Swedish publica ions Dagens Nyhe e and Dagens ETC, ha e
imposed an ou igh ban on ossil uel ad e isemen s (Hsu 2021).
Al hough a ban on ossil uel ad e isemen s seems s ill poli ically challenging, many agencies
a e al eady e using o wo k wi h ca bon-in ensi e companies in gene al, and oil companies in
pa icula . In he US, mo e han 130 agencies and 400 p o essionals ha e joined he Clean C ea i es
ini ia i e (h ps://cleanc ea i es.o g/) and pledged o decline u u e con ac s wi h he ossil uel
indus y. Recen ly, he G ea Rese campaign in he UK (h ps://g ea ese .com/) encou aged i s
membe s o ake esponsibili y o he ad e isemen s hey p oduce. Simila ly, many communica ion
p o essionals in Aus alia ha e joined he CommsDecla e ini ia i e (h ps://commsdecla e.o g/) and
commi ed no o wo k o he ossil uel indus y. CommsDecla e also collabo a ed wi h Clean
C ea i es on he F-lis Repo (2021), which exposes ad e ising and PR companies ha keep
23
wo king wi h he ossil uel indus y. This epo e eals ha some o he bigges ad e ising
companies s ill sign con ac s wi h oil companies. Despi e aising awa eness in he b oade c ea i e
communi y, mainly in small agencies hough, big ad e ising i ms a e s epping away om oil
companies a a slowe pace (Hsu 2021). Agencies in e es ed in cu ing ies wi h clima e-ha m ul
companies can publish Clien Disclosu e Repo s (e.g., Fu e a 2022) de ailing he pe cen age o
hei annual u no e ha comes om high-ca bon clien s. Agencies ha ha e decided o s ep away
om oil companies be o e a— a he dis an —ban is enac ed by law o esee ha wo king wi h hese
clien s will be cul u ally less accep able in he u u e (Hsu 2021). In he sho e m, agencies will
ha e o posi ion hemsel es because emaining ambi alen will become mo e di icul as he clima e
c isis wo sens. Agencies hea ily elian on he e enue om highly pollu ing clien s will need o
keep wo king wi h hem, dealing wi h accusa ions o con ibu ing o a high-ca bon li es yle.
Con e sely, agencies wan ing o spu cul u al change will ha e o di e si y hei clien po olio,
which will imply enouncing luc a i e con ac s. The indus y will no be able o play bo h sides
c edibly because he en i e supply chain, down o he indi idual consume , is inc easingly becoming
awa e o he ad e ising indus y’s ambi alen ole in he clima e c isis.
Wha ’s nex o ad e ising esea ch
De ining and ope a ionalizing concep s and cons uc s
Ad e ising esea ch can and should play a pi o al ole in lowe ing he ca bon oo p in o he
ad e ising indus y and ac i i y, as well as o socie y as a whole (Table 4 p o ides an o e iew o
u u e esea ch a enues). Conc e e cons uc de ini ions a e a p econdi ion o adequa e u u e
esea ch. Howe e , cu en de ini ions o many concep s and cons uc s ela ed o sus ainable o
g een ad e ising a e s ill ague due o changes in de ini ions and ope a ionaliza ions o e ime and
be ween s udies (e.g., g een/sus ainable ad e ising, g eenwashing, e c.). Cons an changes
unde mine he compa abili y o empi ical indings and challenge he in eg a ion o insigh s in o
24
exis ing heo y. Fu u e esea ch needs o add ess and uni y g een ad e ising e minology based on
ecen heo e ical de elopmen s on he de ini ion and ope a ionaliza ion o concep s and cons uc s
(e.g., Be gk is and Eisend 2022; Be gk is and Eisend 2021; Be gk is and Taylo 2022).
Assessing he impac o ad e ising on clima e change
Excep o some no able excep ions (e.g., Pä ssinen e al. 2018), eliable da a a e lacking on he
di ec and indi ec ca bon emissions gene a ed by he ad e ising indus y. Cu en ly, p o essionals
om he ad e ising indus y hemsel es elabo a e mos epo s abou he en i onmen al impac o
ad e ising (Timpe ley 2021). Fo example, an o ganiza ion o indus y inside s ad oca ing o
making ad e ising g eene eleased he ‘Ad e ised emissions’ epo du ing COP26 2021 in
Glasgow, claiming ha he upli in sales gene a ed by ad e ising in 2019 in he UK accoun ed o
o e 186 million ons o CO2, which cons i u es an inc ease o 28% o he annual ca bon oo p in o
e e y UK ci izen (Pu pose Dis up o s 2021). Howe e , he epo was no subjec o pee - e iew and
hence will ha dly access academic deba es. Ad e ising schola s need o s a by collec ing and
sha ing da a on he indus y’s di ec , indi ec and consume beha io -media ed impac on clima e
change. Fi s ly, esea ch needs o add ess he di ec emissions o he ad e ising indus y’s
communica ion sec o o asce ain how media choice a ec s ca bon emissions (i.e., physical esou ce
use and ene gy consump ion o digi al media). Secondly, as ad e ising inances ene gy-in ensi e
companies such as online pla o ms, assessing he emissions he ad e ising-d i en business models
gene a e is key o es ima e he indi ec impac o ad e ising on he clima e. Las ly, schola s need o
es ima e he consume beha io -media ed impac o ad e ising, which accoun s o he ull ex en o
he ex a economic ac i i y—and hus ca bon emissions—d i en by ad e ising.
31
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Table 3. O e iew o g een ad e ising esea ch
Topic
Con ibu ion
S udies
Theo e ical
de elopmen
This body o esea ch co e s ea ly a emp s o
de ine g een ad e ising and p o ides a amewo k
o assess he g eenness o ad e ising, iden i y
consume s who a e likely o pay mo e o g een
p oduc s, and discuss ma ke ing s a egies o a ge
hem.
Bane jee, Gulas, and Iye (1995);
Kilbou ne (1995); Kilbou ne (2004);
La oche, Be ge on, and Ba ba o‐Fo leo
(2001); Zinkhan and Ca lson (1995)
Accu a e
in o ma ion
p o ision
To in o m consume s’ choices and a oid
suspicions o g eenwashing, g een ad e ising
should p io i ize cla i y, speci ici y, and salience o
en i onmen al ac s using subs an i e claims
ins ead o ague image-enhancing cues.
Ca lson, G o e, and Kangun (1993); Chan
(2000); Da is (1993); Kangun and
Polonsky (1995); Ha mann and
Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2009); Scammon and
Maye (1995).
P omo ion-
ocused appeals
S udies es ing gain-o ien ed g een ad e ising
ha e mainly ocused on h ee s a egies: Fi s ,
an icipa ing a posi i e a ec om helping he
en i onmen (i.e. wa m glow) can mo i a e p o-
en i onmen al ac ion. Second, consume s’
willingness o signal a socially desi able iden i y
can be exploi ed by linking g een consump ion o
social app o al. Thi d, ad e isemen s using he
g een colo o showing na u e scenes ac i a e an
en i onmen al schema o he consume leading o
posi i e emo ional expe iences ha can encou age
g een consump ion.
Bha naga and McKay-Nesbi (2016);
Ha mann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2008,
2009, 2010, 2012); Ha mann e al.
(2017); Ma hes, Wonnebe ge , and
Schmuck (2014); Maza and Zhong
(2010); Nybo g, Howa h, and B ekke
(2006); Pance , McShane, and
Nosewo hy (2017); Polica po and Aguia
(2020); Sachde a, Jo dan, and Maza
(2015).
P e en ion-
ocused emo ional
appeals
G een ad e ising s a egies based on nega i e
emo ions can e ec i ely in luence consume s.
They may ac p o-en i onmen ally o a oid
eelings o guil and shame. Fea ac i a ion can
also inc ease p o-en i onmen al in en ions.
Clima e change- ela ed images ac i a e ea by
highligh ing he se e i y o na u e deg ada ion and
inc easing he le el o pe cei ed h ea .
Ama ulli e al. (2019); Chang (2012);
Ha mann e al. (2014); Homa and
Kneže ić C elba (2021); O’Neill e al.
(2013); Pi man, Read, and Chen (2021).
Heu is ics
G een ad e ising can exploi consume heu is ics,
ha is, men al sho cu s which simpli y decisions.
Fo ins ance, he ‘g een halo e ec ’ caused by
g een labels can imp o e pe cep ions o p oduc
pe o mance e en in aspec s un ela ed o
sus ainabili y. Ano he heu is ic, amilia i y bias,
leads o consume s mo e consis en ly making
g een pu chases when epea edly exposed o g een
ad e ising.
Apaolaza e al. (2018); Juhl, Fenge , and
Thøge sen (2017); Pa k and Lessig
(1981); Sö q is e al. (2015).
48
Table 4. Fu he esea ch agenda
Topic
Wha we know
Resea ch gap
Fu he esea ch a enues
Cons uc de ini ions
The cu en li e a u e
p o ides di e se
de ini ions and cons uc
ope a ionaliza ions
conce ning g een
ad e ising.
Vague de ini ions o concep s
and cons uc s conce ning
sus ainable ad e ising (e.g.,
g een/sus ainable ad e ising,
g eenwashing, e c.).
Uni ied de ini ions and
ope a ionaliza ions based on ecen
heo e ical de elopmen s in he
de ini ion and ope a ionaliza ion o
concep s and cons uc s.
Ad e ising’s ca bon
oo p in
Ac i is and indus y-
based s udies ha e
in ended o quan i y
ad e ising’s ca bon
emissions.
Exis ing da a a e sca ce,
indus y-sou ced, and no
backed by sys ema ic esea ch.
The ca bon oo p in o ad e ising
campaigns (ad e ising
managemen , p oduc ion, media
choice).
Ad e ising’s
indi ec ole in he
in e ne ’s ca bon
oo p in
Ad e ising enables
online business models.
In e ne ac i i y causes
ca bon emissions.
Sca ce da a and concep ual
de elopmen .
Ad e ising’s ole in enabling
ad e ising-d i en online business
models ha ha e a signi ican
ca bon oo p in (e.g., social
ne wo ks).
Ad e isings’ e ec
on agg ega e
consump ion
Some s udies suppo ha
ad e ising s imula es
consump ion.
Ongoing discussion on whe he
ad e ising d i es agg ega e
consump ion, o ins ance
h ough ma e ialism and
consume ism.
The ex en o which ad e ising
inc eases agg ega e consump ion
and boos s economic ac i i y. The
magni ude o he addi ional ca bon
emissions a ibu able o
ad e ising.
G een ad e ising
esea ch’s clima e
change ocus
G een ad e ising
esea ch has add essed
he e ec s o ad e ising
claims on p o-
en i onmen al consume
beha io .
The ocus o ex an g een
ad e ising esea ch is on
en i onmen ally iendly
consump ion in gene al.
Lack o speci ic heo e ical
unde pinnings on how o
mi iga e clima e change.
De elopmen and empi ical es o
speci ic heo e ical models o he
ela ionship be ween g een
ad e ising claims and clima e-
iendly (consump ion) beha io .
Resea ch ocus on
ca bon-in ensi e
sys emic beha io s
Isola ed s udies ha e
assessed ad e ising
e ec s on ca bon-
in ensi e beha io such
as ene gy choice.
Exis ing esea ch ocuses on
mo e easily in luenceable
beha io s while a oiding ha d-
o-manipula e, ca bon-in ensi e
sys emic beha io s (e.g.
mobili y and ene gy).
Ex end g een ad e ising esea ch
scope o he p omo ion o low-
ca bon al e na i es o sys emic
ca bon-in ensi e p oduc s,
se ices, and beha io s (e.g.,
adop ion o g een elec ici y a
home, public anspo , e c.).
Dema ke ing clima e
ha m ul beha io
Resea ch ecognizes he
need o dec ease he
consump ion o some
goods unde ce ain
ci cums ances and has
e ealed ela ed
mechanisms.
Sca ce esea ch on g een
dema ke ing and on how o
es o e he symbolic bene i s
ha a e los when o egoing
consump ion. Lack o a clima e
change ocus.
De elopmen and empi ical es o
speci ic heo e ical models ocused
on discou aging clima e ha m ul
beha io (e.g., lying, indi idual
anspo , mea consump ion, e c.).
Psychological and
sociological
p ocesses in ol ed
in clima e- ela ed
pe suasion
Se e al media ing and
mode a ing p ocesses
ha e been e ealed o
g een ad e ising e ec s.
Lack o knowledge on
media ing p ocesses explaining
speci ic clima e- ela ed
ad e ising e ec s.
Theo e ical p oposi ion and
empi ical es o speci ic
psychological and sociological
p ocesses in ol ed in clima e
p o ec i e beha io (e.g.,
media ing a iables social
emo ions p ide, shame, and guil ,
clima e anxie y, no m ac i a ion,
social- and sel -iden i y;
pe sonali y ai s and si ua ional
mode a o s).
G een luence s
Ex an esea ch has
add essed he e ec s o
in luence ai s.
Lack o esea ch on he e ec s
o g een luence s on clima e-
ele an (consume ) beha io .
Impac o g een luence s on
consume ’s ca bon oo p in .
E ec s o g een luence ai s and
49
G een luence
communica ion has been
assessed by con en
analysis.
appeals. Iden i ica ion o
media ing a iables o explain
g een luence pe suasion
p ocesses.
Sys emic change o
p omo e clima e
p o ec ion
Mos heo ies o social
change ocus on
indi idual esponsibili y
o mi iga e clima e
change.
Sca ce in e disciplina y
esea ch on he sys emic
impac s o ad e ising on how
consume op ions a e
s uc u ed by go e nmen s,
in as uc u es, and economic
ins i u ions.
A mo e holis ic app oach o he
ole o ad e ising in sus aining a
socie y-wide cul u e and na a i e
ha p omo es clima e p o ec ion.
