1
* Co espondence o: Rod igo Cha a eddine Bulamah. Uni e sidade Fede al de São Paulo (Uni esp). Escola de Filoso ia, Le as e Ciências Humanas. Es ada do
Caminho Velho, n.º 333. Jd. No a Cidade - Gua ulhos - SP. CEP: 07252-312 – [email p o ec ed] – h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4734-7672.
Cómo ci a / How o ci e: Cha a eddine Bulamah, Rod igo (2020). Go e ning mobili y: depo a ion and he possibili y o li e in Pequeño Hai í, San o Domingo. Pape-
les del CEIC, ol. 2020/1, papel 229, 1-19. (h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1387/pceic.20764).
Recibido: ab il, 2019; acep ado: oc ub e, 2019.
ISSN 1695-6494 / © 2020 UPV/EHU
This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License
Papeles del CEIC, 2020/1
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1387/pceic.20764
ISSN 1695-6494
go e n i n g mobili y:
d e P o a i o n a n d h e Possibili y o l i e in Pe q u e ñ o ha i Í ,
sa n o do m i n g o
Gobe nando la mo ilidad:
depo ación y posibilidades de ida en Pequeño Hai í, San o Domingo
Rod igo Cha a eddine Bulamah*
Uni e sidade Fede al de São Paulo (Uni esp) (B asil)
Keywo ds
Hai i
Dominican
Republic
Depo abili y
Census
Li e
ABS RAC : On Sep embe 23, 2013, he Cons i u ional Cou o he Dominican Republic
uled on he case o Juliana Dequis Pie e. Known simply as «la sen encia», he 168-13 ul-
ing c ea ed a new depo abili y si ua ion ha Hai ians and Dominicans s a ed acing in
2015. Combining in e iews and e hnog aphic ieldwo k, I analyze he expe ience o hese
ac o s and how hey concei ed his new si ua ion along wi h he poli ical ocabula y hey
mobilized. D awing om an an h opology o he s a e, I ack how he Dominican go e n-
men and i s echnologies and appa a us o coun ing and con ol ope a ed a so o cunning
poli ics by no being clea abou wha was being concei ed and planned in ela ion o a spe-
ci ic g oup conside ed as «in ansi people». I a gue ha a e he Cons i u ional Cou ul-
ing 168-13, he Dominican go e nmen ook ad an age o he momen o ac ually c ea e an
ambiguous spec acle o exclusion ha selec i ely p oduced he «illegali y» o subjec s and
a he same ime p omo ed i s own image, bo h na ionally and in e na ionally, as one o he
mos mode n na ions in he Ca ibbean, p oducing no only ci izenship bu li e i sel . How
people managed o na iga e his new si ua ion h ough a poli ical epis emology g ounded
in his o ical s uggles cons i u es he main heme o his a icle.
Palab as cla e
Hai í
República
Dominicana
Depo abilidad
Censos
Vida
esumen: El 23 de sep iemb e de 2013, el T ibunal Cons i ucional de República Dominicana
juzgó el caso de Juliana Dequis Pie e. A pa i de 2015, la sen encia 168-13 c eó una nue a
si uación de «depo abilidad» que en en a on hai ianos y dominicanos descendien es de
hai ianos. A a és de en e is as y de un abajo de campo e nog á ico, discu o las expe-
iencias de esos ac o es y como ellos conciben la nue a si uación y mo ilizan un ocabula io
polí ico especí ico. A pa i de un apo e eó ico de las discusiones sob e una an opología
del es ado, me dedico a pensa como el Es ado dominicano y sus ecnologías y apa a os de
con aje y con ol, a pa i del censo nacional de 2010, lle ó a cabo una polí ica ingeniosa no
siendo cla o sob e lo que concebía y planeaba con elación a un g upo especí ico de pe so-
nas conside ados «en ánsi o», as la Sen encia 163-19 del T ibunal Cons i ucional, cono-
cida bajo el nomb e de la sen encia. A gumen o que, al hace es o, el gobie no dominicano
se ap o echó del momen o pa a c ea un espec áculo ambiguo de exclusión que p odujo
la ilegalidad de algunos suje os mien as p omo ía su p opia imagen como una de las más
mode nas naciones del Ca ibe, p oduciendo no solo o mas de ciudadanía sino la ida de sus
suje os. Como las pe sonas na ega an en es a nue a si uación, y qué ca ego ías his ó icas,
polí icas y epis emológicas mo iliza on, es el ema cen al de es e a ículo.
Rod igo Cha a eddine Bulamah
2 Papeles del CEIC, 2020/1, 1-19
Eske K is ò Kolon e gen alyenka ?
Michel-Rolph T ouillo 1
1. IN RODuC ION2
The i s ime I a i ed a Calle Bení o egion, also known as Pequeño Hai í, in San o Domingo,
i called my a en ion he ac ha he a ea, as many o he s in he Dominican Republic, holds
some so o amilia i y wi h o he egions I ha e been o in Hai i. I made me hink abou
wha is eally a s ake in deba es abou di e ences be ween Hai i and he Dominican Repub-
lic and how hey end o essen ialize and dehis o icize ha same di e ence. In Calle Bení o,
back in 2015, I encoun e ed Hai ians, Dominicans, Dominicans o Hai ian descen , and o he
na ionals li ing hei daily li e, acing p oblems, and c ea i ely dealing wi h ad e si ies, build-
ing social bonds as well as ies o amily, neighbo hood, and iendship. My in e es on he
new depo abili y si ua ion and decisions om he Dominican go e nmen was wha led me
o c oss he bo de . When in no he n Hai i in ea ly 2015, I s a ed wi nessing he daily a i al
o people om he Dominican Republic, mos o hem ca ying no only bags and pe sonal
objec s, bu also u ni u e and wholesale goods. I was no a massi e a i al, as many people
we e o ecas ing om bo h sides o Hispaniola and om ab oad. Indeed, i ended up no be-
ing a la ge mig a ion, as I came o ealize some ime la e .
Ha ing a i ed du ing key momen s o his humani a ian c isis, be ween June and Augus ,
mos o he people I me in Pequeño Hai í we e discussing wha was going o happen nex
a e e e y new esolu ion he Dominican go e nmen announced and ha he media and
people hemsel es ca ed o sp ead. A cons an eeling o unce ain y media ed he in e ac-
ions be ween hose people and he Dominican s a e. No ions o abuso (abuse) and no ha -
ing igh o lajis is (jus ice) we e common e e ences when desc ibing hei ac ual si ua ion.
Concu en ly, my in e locu o s we e also conscious ha hey we e acing no a clea and co-
he en new poli ical si ua ion, bu an ine ec i e and disconnec ed one. Recen li e a u e on
mobili y and mig a ion in he Ca ibbean and ab oad ha e shed ligh on how mobili y is his-
o ically g ounded and how p ac ical engagemen s wi h si ua ions cons i u e no only poli-
ics bu also subjec i i ies (Richman, 2005; Khan, 2007; Ba le , Jaya am & Bonhomme , 2011;
Jaya am, 2014; Joseph, 2015; Mon ina d, 2019). De Geno a (2002, 2013), o ins ance, has em-
phasized he way he s a e p oduces illegali y in daily li e and how exclusion ends up engag-
ing speci ic o ms o inclusion based on ma ginali y in wha he igh ly calls « he obscene o
inclusion» (2013: 1181 e passim). Aisha Khan (2007), on he side, wo king wi h Indo-T inida-
1 Re ain o Michel-Rolph T ouillo ’s song Alyenka . Ly ics a ailable a h p://pawolmizik.com/ly ics/pa oles-aly-
enka -manno-cha lemagne/. Las access: 05/01/2016.
2 Besides he h ee anonymous pee - e iewe s and he edi o Gab iel Ga i, who ga e gene ous and hough ul
ad ice o imp o e his ex , I would like o hank Gab iela Read, Hen y «Chip» Ca ey, E e Hayes, Mille W igh ,
Vincen Joos, Ki an Jaya am, Jean-Philippe Belleau, Fede ico Neibu g, Nadège Mézié, Mélanie Mon ina d, Vic-
o Macedo, and Oma Ribei o Thomaz o hei ca e ul eading and sugges ions. I am g a e ul o Mille W igh
o p oo eading he manusc ip and o Mélanie Mon ina d o he sugges ions in Hai ian C eole spelling. Mos
impo an ly, I would like o exp ess my g a i ude o all hose I ha e me in Pequeño Hai í. Ne e heless, as i
ough o be, any mis ake is en i ely my aul . This esea ch was inanced by he São Paulo Resea ch Founda-
ion (FAPESP), g an n. 2013/24916-4.
Go e ning mobili y: depo a ion and he possibili y o li e in Pequeño Hai í, San o Domingo
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1387/pceic.20764 3
dians belonging o di e en eligious adi ions e eals he way mobili y is amed in o eli-
gious and spi i ual se ings ha gi es bo h meaning and his o ici y o diaspo ic si ua ions.
In a ecen wo k (Bulamah, 2015), I ha e a gued ha people’s mobile expe iences a e his-
o ically g ounded in na a i es and in e ac ions wi h o he beings, humans and mo e- han-
humans, such as ances o s and spi i s, p oducing a geophysical landscape ha combines
di e en imes and spaces in daily si ua ions o displacemen . In his a icle I de elop his a -
gumen u he by combining an an h opology o he s a e and i s e ec s and he way pop-
ula o ms o poli ics a e li ed h ough. I wish o show how S a e and popula poli ics a e a
he basis o con empo a y o ms o mobili y and compose mobile exis ences ha a e ha d o
g asp i we s ay a ached o he assumed isomo phism o cul u e, people, and place (Gup a
and Fe guson, 1992; De Geno a, 2016; see also P emawa dhana, 2018).
I will explo e wo dimensions o he new depo abili y si ua ion ha Hai ians and Dominicans
s a ed acing in 2015. Fi s , I analyze he expe ience o hese ac o s and how hey concei ed
his new si ua ion along wi h he poli ical ocabula y hey mobilized. Second, I ack how he
Dominican go e nmen and i s echnologies and appa a us o coun ing and con ol, a e
he na ional census in 2010, ope a ed a so o cunning poli ics by no being clea abou wha
was being concei ed and planned in ela ion o a speci ic g oup conside ed as «in ansi peo-
ple». A e he Cons i u ional Cou uling 168-13, known simply as la sen encia ( he e dic ),
he Dominican go e nmen ook ad an age o he momen o ac ually c ea e an ambiguous
spec acle o exclusion ha selec i ely p oduced he «illegali y» o subjec s and a he same
ime p omo ed i s own image, bo h na ionally and in e na ionally, as one o he mos mod-
e n na ions in he Ca ibbean, p oducing no only ci izenship bu li e i sel .
2. LIFE IN PEquEñO HAI í
Pequeño Hai í holds a s ong posi ion in he u ban imagina y o San o Domingo. I is he
place whe e many Hai ians and Dominicans li e and o ganize hei shops and open-ma -
ke s ands. Cha ac e ized by some locals as a «b idge» (yon pon), Pequeño Hai í is he main
des ina ion o many Hai ians who a i e in San o Domingo o «make a li ing» o chache
la i, a polysemic no ion ha can also be ansla ed as «looking o li e». This a ea is also
he place o go i one is looking o ou da ed second-hand elec onics, used clo hes, i ual
objec s and eligious a i ac s, cosme ics, hai d esse s, esh ood, spices, and lowe s. I is
loca ed a ew blocks away om Zona Colonial, including pa s o he Ba ío Chino ( he Do-
minican China own) and s e ching i s way beyond he Me cado Modelo ( he bigges ou -
is ma ke in San o Domingo). Pequeño Hai í is he e o e igh a he cen e o a di e se
and busy economic and linguis ic landscape whe e mul iple o ms o spa ial p ac ices and
p ojec s including housing, comme ce, exchange, and cul u al ac i i ies ake place —all
his ga he ed in a complex in e sec ional in e play be ween class, gende , e hnici y, and
na ionali y—3.
3 See Hin zen (2014a) and Coulange-Mé oné (2018) o a his o ical analysis o Hai ian mig a ion o he Domini-
can Republic. Since ea ly 2000s, he e is a ema kable p esence o Hai ians in educa ional ins i u ions in he
neighbo ing coun y. See o ins ance, Jaya am (2014) o an e hnog aphy conduc ed in Pequeño Hai í ocus-
ing on class, ace and educa ion.
Rod igo Cha a eddine Bulamah
4 Papeles del CEIC, 2020/1, 1-19
This whole cen al egion a ac s a signi ican amoun o a en ion and public and p i a e
in es men s mainly h ough eno a ion p ojec s ha end up ep oducing a gen i ying pa -
e n and a colonial nos algia, as exempli ied by he ecen dolla iza ion o Calle El Conde, he
ne e ending wo ks in he main s ee s o Zona Colonial, o he con o e sial eno a ion p o-
posed o he uins o he San F ancisco Monas e y. Ne e heless, no only uppe class capi al
and eli is p ojec s a e no able in ha egion. The whole a ea is ull o popula houses, ien-
das, e hnic es au an s and ma ke s, second hand s o es, and s ee shops, being densely in-
eg a ed in o ne wo ks o local and ansna ional exchange and mobili y.
My i s isi o Pequeño Hai í ook place in June 2015. I had jus s a ed my long- e m ield-
wo k in no he n Hai i wo king on con lic s o e land, his o ical na a i es, and he i age
a ound he Na ional His o ical Pa k which hos s he Ci adel, he Sans Souci Palace, and o he
cons uc ions om he ime o King Hen y Ch is ophe (1806-1820) (Bulamah, 2018). Wa ch-
ing g oups o people a i ing daily om he Dominican Republic o di e en u al commu-
ni ies in he No h a e he end o he Na ional Regula iza ion Plan o Fo eigne s —Plan
de Regula ización Nacional de Ex anje os, es ablished by he law 169-14 on June 17— I de-
cided o c oss he bo de o ga he a mo e p ecise unde s anding o wha was happening
on he o he side o Hispaniola. This was a «c i ical e en », in e ms p oposed by Veena Das
(1997), in which he na ion-s a e is in es ed wi h an agency o de ine i s ci izens and i s non-
ci izens allowing new modes o ac ion in di e en scales and o di e en ac o s and ins i u-
ions. Wi h he Plan eaching i s conclusion, he nex phase, scheduled o s a on Augus 1s ,
was suddenly announced as he depo a ion o «illegal immig an s». Indeed, many mig an s
and ci izens ea ed being kidnapped and sen o Hai i wi hou he oppo uni y o see ela-
i es, iends, and ga he hei belongings. The announcemen o his measu e was enough
o make housands o people lea e he Dominican Republic a e June 17 —an e en ha
o ced hem o ede ine hei ou es and expec a ions o mobili y—.
A Pequeño Hai í, I me people who we e wo ied abou his new si ua ion, discussing i pub-
licly while doing hei daily du ies in a scene ha is common in many pa s o Hai i (Mézié, in
p ess). Se e al had egis e ed hemsel es acco ding o he Regula iza ion Plan, while o he s
we e suspicious abou he whole p ocess ea ing su eillance and did no go o he s a e o -
ice a he ime equi ed. Ma co4 was one o hose who had gone h ough all he phases o
egula iza ion and was, by he ime we me each o he , wai ing o he legal decision abou
his condi ion. The i s hing he did a e ou i s con e sa ion was o show me a educed and
lamina ed copy o he eceip hey ga e him a e handing his documen s o he s a e o ice .
He ca ied ha li le copy wi h a lo o ca e and used i o p o e ha he was no ilegal. This
documen can be seen as a cons i u i e pa o his mobile s a egies and he o iginal one he
le a home, a aid o losing i o , as he s a ed, o some policemen ha could e en ually ea
i down. This was a common p ac ice as I would la e disco e . Du ing ou con e sa ions in
he s ee s o Pequeño Hai í, Ma co and o he people old me abou he conside able amoun
o pape s ha hey had o ake o he Immig a ion O ice, such as bi h ce i ica es, decla a-
ions o good manne s, es imonials, and le e s om employe s, as well as decla a ions om
he jun a de ecinos (neighbo hood associa ions). Some o hese documen s we e pe cei ed
as highly con adic o y. Fo ins ance, he employe ’s le e , because in some cases i was nec-
essa y o al eady ha e a esiden ca d o be employed. An impo an poin o he whole p oc-
ess a e exac ly hese mul iple and con adic o y demands coming om he s a e.
4 All in o man s’ pe sonal names employed he e a e pseudonyms.
Go e ning mobili y: depo a ion and he possibili y o li e in Pequeño Hai í, San o Domingo
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1387/pceic.20764 5
Besides hose small con adic ions, lies he well-known p ac ice o using undocumen ed
people in local and na ional dispu es o powe du ing elec o al imes. Along wi h ga he ing
people om suga cane plan a ion companies, known as ba eys, and popula neighbo hoods
o o ge images o spec acula popula i y o poli ical candida es, pa ies, and s a e o icials,
was he common p ac ice o gi ing away elec o al ca ds (cédula o sedola, in Hai ian C eole).
As pa o a « ime o he poli ics», as de ined by He edia and Palmei a (1993), in which a new
empo ali y is es ablished ac u ing daily li e in e ac ions, his si ua ion allowed Hai ian na-
ionals o pa icipa e in elec ions, es ablishing new alliances and exchange ies wi h poli i-
cians, poli ical pa ies and local eli es. Du ing Joaquín Ballague ’s e ms (1960-1962; 1966-
1978 and 1986-1996) his was qui e common and became a wide-sp ead poli ical ac ic a e
his hi d p esidency5. Fu he mo e, wi h he sedola, undocumen ed people we e allowed, no
only o o e, bu also o access ce ain public se ices and he e o e expe ience ce ain o ms
o ecogni ion and ci izenship. As Ma co explained once, wi h e e ence o he new si ua ion:
I i ’s elec o al imes and we speak Spanish as we all do he e, you can ind a poli i-
cal pa y ha will easily gi e you an elec o al ca d. Bu his sedola, hey gi e us only
o o e. This ca d doesn’ insc ibe us in he Dominican egis e ha gua an ees ha
you’ e bo n in such hospi al [in Hai i o elsewhe e]. I hey ga e me a ca d o me o
o e, wha do I do a e wa d? I’ e had child en unde his sedola. Now om he mo-
men I’ e had child en unde his ca d, hey s a o bea my name. […] Conside o
ins ance hese Hai ians when hey a e ecen ly bo n and suppose hei a he dies,
hey’ll need his bi h ce i ica e. They won’ ind i . Ne e heless, i was a sedola ha
hey ga e me. Poli icians know wha hey do. When hey’ e eached a si ua ion
like he p esen one, hey said hey would come o ake away he sedola om he
hands o people. Explain o me why when you en e somewhe e wi h he sedola,
hey p ocess you name in he compu e and you name was supposed o g an ac-
cess o all you in o ma ion bu his doesn’ happen. Why when hey p ocess all he
da a, hey ind all he s u hey need bu e en so hey say you’ e no egis e ed?
Why do hey say you’ e no egis e ed?
To o e is pe cei ed he e as a o m o aking pa in a wide a angemen o ci il igh s and
du ies as well as new o ms o clien elis ic alliances (He edia, 2010). The sedola can be seen
hen as a echnology o ci izenship and wo ks symbolically as such (Ba le , Jaya am & Bon-
homme, 2011). The ques ion emains why he ac o being egis e ed and o ing was no
conside ed a o m o expe iencing a poli ical igh and, he e o e, g an ing people access o
o he ci il igh s. This gi ing and aking back was (and s ill is) ac ually a pe sis en ea u e in
he Dominican s a e’s ac ions owa ds undocumen ed people. Acco ding o Ma co and o he
in e locu o s I encoun e ed du ing my s ay in Pequeño Hai í, he main p oblem a e he sen-
encia and he cons i u ional changes on he pa ame e s o na ionali y was he ac ha go -
e nmen was ne e clea and p ecise abou wha people had o do. One migh suspec ha i
was an in en ional poli ical disposi ion o he s a e o ac ually e ain in o ma ion and a oid
being o ally anspa en abou i s poli ical decisions and demands, subsc ibing a ce ain so-
cial en i onmen o unce ain y and pa anoia ha is so impo an in he p oduc ion o ille-
gali y and consequen submission o poo condi ions o labo (De Geno a, 2010). Indeed, we
can a gue ha he Dominican s a e wo ked as a «cunning s a e», de ined by Shalini R ande ia
(2003) as a media ing ins i u ion ha a om being weak o weakening «capi alize on hei
pe cei ed weakness in o de o ende hemsel es unaccoun able bo h o hei ci izens and
5 Gab iela Read, jou nalis , pe sonal communica ion, 05/2016.
Rod igo Cha a eddine Bulamah
6 Papeles del CEIC, 2020/1, 1-19
o in e na ional ins i u ions» (ibídem: 28). My in es iga ion sugges s, ne e heless, ha e en
o he s a e appa a us i sel and i s many b anches i was ne e qui e clea whe e all his
would end. As Oma Ribei o Thomaz obse es in he Mozambican con ex , he s a e he e
«while ying o be s ong beha es as a weak ins i u ion and he e o e in e ac s wi h local de-
e minan s o powe and domina ion exp ession, pa icula ly wi h cosmological elemen s»
(2008: 181). Ine iciency and con usion we e ac ually cons i u i e pa s o he whole p ocess,
as we can see om con adic o y in o ma ion ha was sp ead, cons an changes o dead-
lines, su eal demands o pape wo k and documen s. This cunning disposi ion p omo ed a
eeling o insecu i y among undocumen ed people and hose who we e subjec o he Con-
s i u ional Cou ’s decisions. This p ocess was d agged on o mon hs.
These si ua ions we e cons an ly desc ibed o me in dialogues wi h Hai ians and Domini-
cans as a o m o abuso, unde s ood he e as p eca iousness and s uc u al iolence. In e -
es ingly enough, hey employed he e m «abuse» in Spanish e en i he dialogue was hap-
pening in Hai ian C eole6. This p eca iousness ga e ise o o he o ms o abuso such as
ex o ions om lawye s and go e nmen o icials ha would o e cha ge undocumen ed
people o comple e hei dossie s and media e hei legal demands. Apa om ha , epi-
sodic iolence based on acism and on wha has been known as an i-hai ianismo became
mo e common wi h agg essions agains Hai ians happening in many pa s o he coun y,
mos o hem a om he spo ligh s o he media7. This whole si ua ion ga e ise o umo s
abou policemen en e ing houses o Hai ians du ing he nigh o kidnap people and s eal
om hem and s o ies abou he ecu en appea ance o he spec al igu e o la camiona,
a uck ha could be summoned by anyone, om neighbo s o employe s, o ake a pe son
o he bo de .
Hai ian ansna ional mobili y has been desc ibed by many au ho s as a o m o «mak-
ing a li ing» (chache la i): inding one’s ways o p o iding money and goods o he am-
ily household (Richman, 2005; Jaya am, 2014; Joseph, 2015; Mon ina d, 2019). Chache la i is
bo h an indi idual and a amily dynamic ha is pa o Hai i’s social landscape no only ou -
side i s bo de s bu also inside. «Li e» (la i) in Hai ian C eole has he seman ic ambi alence
ha de ines bo h li elihoods and exis ence as a whole (Richman, 1984: 53), hence, he pos-
sibili y o ansla ing chache la i bo h as «making a li ing» and «looking o li e» (Neibu g,
2019). Mig a ing means, he e o e, an expansion o social ne wo ks in o de o g an p o i-
sions and also a social dynamic a ached o an exis en ial mobili y ha is i sel pa o Hai-
ian his o y.
Si ua ions o abuso and allego ies such as la camiona became common in he Dominican Re-
public and g an ed he dynamic o «looking o li e» (chache la i) a condi ion commonly de-
ined as nan kou i (on he un), exp essing an in ense eeling o unce ain y, ulne abili y, and
anxie y. Indeed, he ea o going missing, losing one’s s u , and being depo ed had impac s
on people’s physical and men al heal h. As Ma ie, Ma co’s wi e, s a ed o me in Pequeño
Hai í: «Many hai ians ha e los a lo he e». As she con inued: «I someone li es he e, li e be-
6 The same hing happened wi h o he e ms, such as acis a, escla os, e c. Ano he ema kable p ocess was he
c eoliza ion o Spanish e ms, o ins ance me kad ( o ma ke ), kolmad ( o ood ma ke o ba ) and so on. This
was jus i ied o me by a iend as «E e y place has i s own C eole; Cap Hai ian has one C eole, Po -au-P ince
has one C eole, San o Domingo has one C eole».
7 Fo an app oach o an i-hai ianism and he his o y o Hai ian and Dominican ela ions, see: De by (2012), Tu i s
(2002), Ma ínez (2003), Hin zen (2014a), Moya Pons (2013), Elle (2016), among o he s.
Go e ning mobili y: depo a ion and he possibili y o li e in Pequeño Hai í, San o Domingo
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1387/pceic.20764 7
comes s ess ul. […] I’ e had all so s o diseases due o s ess. One ge s diabe es, one ge s hy-
pe ension. One ge s cance , e e y hing». As ano he pe son li ing in Pequeño Hai í old me
du ing ha same con e sa ion: «Hai ians a en’ wo h any hing he e (pa gen ale). They ea
us as dogs ( ankou chen). In he Dominican Republic i ’s like his: dogs ha e mo e igh s han
Hai ians and Hai ians a e escla os».
As we can see, he e is an impo an poli ical epis emology unde lining hese a gumen s
ha I would like o a gue is buil h ough concep s such as alue ( alè), abuse (abuso), and
me apho s abou dogs, economic and mo al dispossession, and o ced labo du ing colo-
nial and con empo a y imes (escla os) (Becke , 2017; Johnson, 2012). This was ac ually
a ea u e ha I ollowed mo e ca e ully on he o he side o he bo de among peasan s
and lowe class Hai ians. Sla e y was a ecu en me apho used o desc ibe illegi ima e
o ms o labo in Hai i and ab oad. To wo k wi hou being paid o unde di icul condi ions
b ough ques ions and easoning abou i s p oximi y o o ms o labo unde he F ench co-
lonial egime and plan a ion li e (Ma celin, 2012). Ne e heless, I sugges ha his poli ical
amewo k no only e eals a mechanism o comp ehension ha ope a es his o ically and
in e e ence o pas expe iences, bu also sus ains a o m o expec a ion and ac ual g ound
o ac ion o con empo a y and u u e mobiliza ions o esis ance o social change. In
no he n Hai i, his was p e y clea when he heme o he Hai ian Re olu ion was b ough
up in ecollec ions abou episodes o land occupa ion a e he all o Jean-Claude Du a-
lie and du ing he p esiden ial campaign in 2015/2016 when popula mobiliza ions would
b ing in o he public scene ances o s such as Hen y Ch is ophe and Jean-Jacques Dessal-
ines (Bulamah, 2018).
As o he people I ha e encoun e ed in Pequeño Hai í, hem no ha ing alè, and being
ea ed as dogs o sla es was pe cei ed as a gene al si ua ion o undocumen ed o ma ginal-
ized people «no ha ing he igh o jus ice» (nou pa gen dwa lajis is). «Jus ice» (lajis is) he e
is concei ed as he abs ac sphe e o he ule o law and legal ju isdic ion, in opposi ion o
«jus ice» (jis is) as he popula and o dina y o ms o egula ion o li e and con lic s, such as
in he exp ession «We’ e doing jus ice ou sel es» (Nap è jis is nou menm). Finally, o illus a e
a bi mo e wha I am ying o de ine he e as a p ac ical and concep ual poli ical epis emol-
ogy and he way people make a li ing o look o li e (chache la i), i migh be in e es ing o
look a wo no ions ha appea ed cons an ly du ing my ieldwo k: he no ion o li e ( o igh )
and o degaje ( o ge by).
In o dina y si ua ions and encoun e s in Hai i, one o he possible answe s o he ques ion
«how a e you?» (kijan ou ye?) is he ph ase «nap li e» (We’ e igh ing), usually p eceded by a
«bon» (well) p onounced wi h a one o esigna ion: Bon, nap li e. Figh he e means ha e e-
yday li e is some hing o s uggle o , nei he easily ea ned no endu ed. In si ua ions like
he one li ed by Hai ians in he Dominican Republic, igh acqui es a new meaning ha o e -
comes esigna ion becoming an impe a i e o ac ion: «Nou gen pou li e» (We ha e o igh /
esis ). Degaje ( o ge by), on i s own, is a common desc ip ion o how li e is c ea i ely li ed
h ough o ms o imp o isa ion in a cons an s uggle o ea n money and ge by. In he con-
ex s o unce ain y, «nap degaje nou» (we’ e ge ing by) un olds as a ce ain disposi ion o
o e come poli ical s uc u es and ules in a o o mo e c ea i e o ms o li e, e en in he
con ex s o ex eme ulne abili y and con ol. These si ua ions and no ions gi e a mo e p e-
cise image o how ce ain poli ical ca ego ies acqui e new meanings when looking o li e in
San o Domingo and b ing up o ms o his o ically-g ounded s uggle.
Rod igo Cha a eddine Bulamah
8 Papeles del CEIC, 2020/1, 1-19
3. A SPEC ACuLAR CENSuS
The e migh be some analy ical gains i we look a he o he side o his social si ua ion ca e-
ully conside ing how he Dominican s a e ac ed poli ically o p oduce illegali y and he con-
sequen depo abili y o people li ing on i s bo de s. By doing ha we can o e come un ui -
ul discussions abou weak o s ong s a es, aking in o accoun local and global ea u es
ha de ine how powe and domina ion a e c ea ed and ep oduced in di e en scales. Fo
ha we ha e o ake in o accoun a p e ious p ocess ha p oduced an image o he coun-
y’s popula ion based in numbe s and mul iple ca ego ies h ough a g ea e o wi hin he
bu eauc acy and s a e appa a us —an e o ha had many s a e e ec s (T ouillo , 2001;
see also Viei a, 2017)—. In 2010, pa allel o he cons i u ional changes on he pa ame e s o
g an na ionali y, he IX Censo Nacional de Población y Vi ienda (9 h Na ional Census o Popu-
la ion and Housing) ook place all o e he Dominican Republic and was ollowed by a g ea
amoun o p opaganda suppo o ganized mainly by he O icina Nacional de Es adís ica (Na-
ional S a is ics Bu eau). Videos, news, and adio bulle ins we e sp ead in o de o elucida e
he p ocess and s imula e he popula ion o con ibu e in o ma ion abou hei li es, houses,
and weal h. Howe e , his did no happen wi hou a no able amoun o ejec ion and esis -
ance in o ms anging om picke s o ganized by empad onado es (census ake s) demand-
ing hei paymen o peasan s a oiding he census ake s o gi ing dis o ed in o ma ion. The
ocabula y and symbols o he s a e’s populis p opaganda in hose ideos and p onounce-
men s is wha I would like o analyze now.
Wi h a s ong, in en ionally-s essed coun yside accen (cibaeño, o be mo e p ecise),
he ideo «Campaña de man enimien o IX Censo Nacional de Población y Vi ienda 2010-
Campesinos» displays wo men si ing unde a ee, holding hei labo ins umen s, su -
ounded by goa s and wha appea s o be a donkey8. The ideo was eleased in No embe
2010, and uploaded o YouTube la e ha same mon h. The younge man is explaining o
he oldes why « hey will come and coun people» ( eni y con a la gen e). He s a es: «Lis-
en, i I ell you ha we’ e p epa ing a sancocho, he i s hing ha you’ll ask me is o how
many people. Fo you ha e o know how much mea o pu in. I ’s he same hing. I we don’
know how many we a e, i ’s impossible o do any hing». The elde eplies wi h a ques ion ha
employs he double sense o he e b « o coun » in Spanish (con a , meaning bo h includ-
ing by coun ing and aking in o accoun ): «So hey will coun me ali e?». The answe ollows:
«Tha ’s i ! E en o eigne s will be coun ed. And he one who’s no coun ed is as i he we e no
ali e». The las sen ence e eals how he eldes was pe suaded and becomes con inced ha
he has a so o obliga ion o show ha he is ali e; mo eo e he is joy ul o ha : «They ha e
o coun me, as I’m ali e and wagging he ail!»
The ideo is densely comic bu also e y ouching. The display o a senio peasan o be in-
cluded in his way in o he na ion’s numbe s is highly mo ing. On op o ha he e is a e -
e ence o one o he mos impo an na ional dishes, he mea soup called sancocho, as a
me apho o his big assemblage p omo ed by he s a e. Ne e heless, and maybe mos sig-
ni ican ly, he census is no only coun ing people, bu ac ually p oducing li e. Claiming he
impo ance o egis a ion ocused mainly on peasan s, he ideo mobilized he ea o dea h
8 O icina Nacional de Es adís ica (ONE). Campaña de man enimien o IX Censo Nacional de Población y Vi ienda
2010-Campesinos, YouTube ideo, pos ed by ONE ideos1, 30/11/2010, a ailable a : h ps://www.you ube.com/
wa ch? =JqBXTuSs8w4. Las access: 10/04/2019.
Go e ning mobili y: depo a ion and he possibili y o li e in Pequeño Hai í, San o Domingo
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1387/pceic.20764 9
es ablishing he s a e as he only place whe e li e was possible and e en hinkable. To be
ou side he census —and he e o e ou side o he biopoli ics o he mode n s a e (Foucaul ,
2003)— is a o m o dea h, e ealing how his whole p ocess culmina ed in wha Samuel Ma -
ínez and B idge Wooding (2017) named a «biopoli ical u n» in he long adi ion o an i-
hai ianism in he coun y. As Geo ges Ba aille (1991: 221-222) amously a gues, his in e play
be ween i ali y and dea h a e cons i u i e o he dialec ics o so e eign y. I dea h is bu one
ea u e o he so e eign ges u e, his «spec acula display o li e o ce» as Chelsey Ki land
(2014: 675) pu s i , is wha nega es dea h and shows li e in i s excess. The posi i e dimension
o powe is he e aken as an aspec o a so e eign y ha un eils i sel less in a s able and de-
ini i e collec ion o ac ions han a cons an and mul iple p ocess o becoming.
Dea h is an impo an subjec in bo h he Dominican and Hai ian peasan and popula cul-
u es, always submi ed o in ense deba es and easoning. Dea h is no ea ed in and o i sel ,
as cons an mo bid jokes and popula sayings show. Howe e , illegi ima e dea h h ough
poisoning, wi chc a , o o he e il o ces is igh ening. A lo has been said abou magic and
eligion in Hispaniola, pa icula ly in Hai i (Mé aux, 1995 [1958]). My in e es he e is no o
de elop a heo y o magic su ice o say ha I ag ee wi h a pe spec i e ha pu s aside an ho-
lis ic unde s anding o magic in a o o a mo e e hnog aphic ake ha comp ehends hese
isible and in isible phenomena in connec ion o kinship, labo , land, ma e ial, and spi i ual
agency being he e o e a dynamic p ocess subjec o changes acco ding o i s many powe s
and agencies in connec ion wi h each o he (Lowen hal, 1978; Richman, 2005; James, 2012;
De by, 2015; Dalmaso, 2018; Fiod, 2019). Du ing my ieldwo k in no he n Hai i, and as I would
also no ice du ing s ays in he Dominican coun yside, illegi ima e dea h by magic b ings
abou suspicion o occul me hods ha po en ially in lic dea h. Being killed by magic o e -
comes «God’s choice» ( olon e Bondye) as i belongs o an immanen dimension o human
a ai s. In ac , a g ea amoun o money can be spen in une als in o de o gua an ee ha
he pe son ollows up a jou ney ha many in o man s named as a jou ney «back o A ica-
Guinea» (La ik-Ginen) o , in case o hose con e ed o one o he many p o es an chu ches
in he egion, «pa adise» (pa adi). As an h opologis Rémy Bas ien a gues in his classic e h-
nog aphy in sou he n Hai i «a g ea conce n o [ he Hai ian] peasan is he ea ha his o he
ela i es would no du i ully ul ill hei necessa y obliga ions o es in peace» (1951: 103).
This ea is jus i ied by he possibili y o no only being killed by magic bu also by being
u ned in o a zombie (zonbi) —which is ac ually an inescapable condi ion once someone is
killed by magic—. In ac , zombies a e ha d o de ine in e ms ha a e amilia o us as hey
ha e li le in common wi h wha Uni ed S a es cul u al indus ies ha e sp ead a ound he
wo ld (Glo e , 2005; McAlis e , 2012; Ramsey, 2011). In ac , hey a e a om he ac i e be-
ings ha wande a ound looking o lesh and blood. Indeed, zombies a e beings wi h a lack
o conscience, c ea ed o ul ill he desi e o someone mo i a ed by e ilness (mechans e)
o , mo e speci ically, en y (jalouzi). The e o e zombies a e ic ims o e il desi es o gene -
a e weal h h ough socially illegi ima e means as hey can be sold o pu o wo k in plan a-
ions o ac o ies. «I ’s de ini ely a sla e» (se eskla menm), as a young iend om Milo once
old me. The di e en being ha sla es we e no bu ied and b ough back o li e (eskla yo pa
pase anba è a). Common o he na a i es I hea d abou zombies is ha i someone is zombi-
ied in he No h, hey will be sold o pu o wo k in he Sou h and ice- e sa. Zombies ac u-
ally e eal a connec ion wi h missing people (Edkins, 2011), someone ha was aken away
om he amily ci cle by magic and could no go back o he ances al land (La ik-Guinea) o
ind i s way o pa adise.
Rod igo Cha a eddine Bulamah
16 Papeles del CEIC, 2020/1, 1-19
du ing he egis a ion p ocess. Howe e , he ph ase eminds us o he uni e sal side o
dea h, as o «in he ceme e y he e will be no alien ca d».
In he Dominican Republic, as i his o y was epea ing i sel , he agedy o Hai ians and Do-
minicans o Hai ian descen has gained ai s o a ce wi h a con used and ine icien p ocess
o egis a ion opening he possibili y o suspicion and esis ance. To na iga e a ound hese
bu eauc a ins i u ions and p ac ices (James, 2012), people had o mobilize ways o ge by
(degaje) and igh (li e), making poli ics beyond he s a e. Unde his c i ical e en (Das, 1997),
no ions like abuso and lajis is, as well as me apho s abou sla e y and animali y became con-
s i u i e pa s o people’s expe iences o mobili y and labo . To pu hese ca ego ies and ex-
pe iences a he cen e o ou e lec ion migh b ing in e es ing analy ical possibili ies. Wha
is a s ake in he case analyzed he e is no only he possibili y o depo a ion and he p oduc-
ion and expe iences o illegali y, bu a dimension o li e i sel and i s mobile po en iali ies
in a wo ld ha insis s o a ach iden i ies o bo de s and o o e see sha ed his o ies such as
hose be ween Hai i and he Dominican Republic.
F om he beginning, Dominican depo a ion poli ics we e conside ed a g ea success by Do-
minican media and some poli icians despi e no ha ing eached he p omised ex ensi e and
massi e a bi a y depo a ion o people a he hands o he s a e. Rumo s, ha assmen , epi-
sodic iolence, ins i u ional c uel y, suspicions o e he ole o he s a e’s egis a ion, diso -
ganized in o ma ion, and mul iple changings o he objec i es and «sys ems» o mig a ion
policies became e icien poli ical ac ions ha made housands o undocumen ed people
choose o hide o make hei way o Hai i. E en i an exp essi e amoun o hem we e bo n
in he Dominican Republican, had p e iously been g an ed esidency, and had no amily con-
nec ions on he Wes side o Hispaniola hey we e all conside ed «in ansi ». Con empo a y
o ms o mobili y con ol in con ex s such as he Dominican Republic e eal he imminen
cha ac e o exploi a ion as a biopoli ics egula ing bo h on ie s o he na ion and ac i ely
p oducing speci ic o ms o li e. The Dominican s a e aimed owa ds being included in he
hall o mode n na ions bu o ha , and ac ing like a cunning s a e (Rande ia, 2003), i was
necessa y o he na ion-s a e no only o become a place ha a ac s a labo o ce om
o he na ions, bu also o be able o discipline and submi hose people o a p eca ious li e,
go e ning hei mobili y, and, i judged necessa y, o depo hem as a sign o spec acula ye
con used and agmen ed s a e so e eign y.
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