ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Is na ional iden i y in c isis? An assessmen
o na ional imagina ions in he ea ly 2020s
Asie H. Agui esa obe
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
(UPV-EHU), Spain
Co espondence
Asie H. Agui esa obe, Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Spain.
Email: [email p o ec ed].eus
Abs ac
The cu en con ex o a wo ldwide pandemic has once
again spa ked deba e abou he bleak u u e o na ion-
alism. Fo hose who suppo his iew, he ac ha
long-las ing na ional iden i ies a e being decisi ely con-
es ed ep esen s a majo symp om o he c isis o
na ionalism, which he challenges associa ed wi h he
co ona i us ou b eak can only accen ua e. In his
pape , i is my objec i e o p o e his belie inco ec
and o demons a e ha na ionalism emains almos
hegemonic as a o m o poli ical and communal iden i-
ica ion. My me hod o achie ing his goal comp ises
wo in e linked endea ou s: i s , a heo e ical analysis
o he concep s o c isis and na ional iden i y; second,
an o e iew o cu en global con lic s and poli ical
deba es o de e mine he ex en o which hey i wi h a
na ionalis wo ld iew. The esul s o his esea ch sug-
ges ha na ional pe spec i es – om which na ional
iden i ies a ise –a e no expe iencing any meaning ul
challenge in con empo a y socie ies. E en in hose
cases whe e deep-sea ed na ional discou ses a e h ea -
ened, such opposi ion emains cons ained by he
assump ions o he na ionalis wo ld iew. Conse-
quen ly, and albei he COVID-19 pandemic may ul i-
ma ely esul in he iumph o globalism, i is mo e
likely ha in e na ional coope a ion will de elop in a
wo ld cons uc ed o na ional imagina ions a he han
one om which hese ha e disappea ed.
DOI: 10.1111/sena.12359
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© 2022 The Au ho . S udies in E hnici y and Na ionalism published by Associa ion o he S udy o E hnici y and Na ionalism and John
Wiley & Sons L d.
14 S ud. E hn. Na l. 2022;22:14–27.wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/sena
INTRODUCTION
In ecen mon hs, insecu i y and ins abili y ha e become cen al concep s o de ining he s a e
o global a ai s. The sudden and ex ensi e impac o he COVID-19 global pandemic has
al e ed social beha iou , limi ed he possibili ies o economic exchange, and exposed he sho -
comings and ulne abili ies o he poli ical and ins i u ional amewo ks wi hin which socie ies
li e ac oss he wo ld.
I is ha dly su p ising, hen, ha in such a con ex o con ulsion and unce ain y, schola ly
deba e has been di ec ed a de e mining whe he his pandemic ep esen s he u ning poin
owa ds a new cycle in his o ical ime; a new age, so o speak. In he ield o poli ical imagina-
ion, he discussion has been conce ned wi h he impac o cu en ci cums ances on na ionalis
policies and iden i ies a he global scale (Biebe , 2020; Maleše i
c, 2020: 9; Woods e al., 2020),
which has been p omp ed by he wo ldwide na u e o he phenomena aced by communi ies, as
well as he la ge-scale esponses ha ha e had o be de eloped o ackle hem
(Johansson, 2020). To many, his seems o be ye ano he mani es a ion o he puzzling ela ion-
ship be ween p ocesses o globaliza ion and na ionalism, which ha e been ho ly deba ed in
ecen decades (A iely, 2012: 2; Guillén, 2001).
This gene al ‘c isis o belonging’(Alexande , 2019; Nicol, 2020) o e s an a ac i e
app oach o unde s anding cu en poli ical and social ends. Indeed, a quick e iew o he
esea ch e idences he ex en o which many poli ical deba es a ound he wo ld hinge on he
pe cei ed de e io a ion o es ablished na ional iden i ies, be i in he Balkans (Kajose ic, 2020),
he Uni ed S a es (Mu ey, 2020), Wes e n Eu ope (Denney, 2020; Diab, 2020), Pakis an
(Naq i, 2020), o Sou heas Asia (In e na ional C isis G oup, 2020). A i s glance, hese
e en s would seem o suppo he iews o hose who de end he idea ha na ional iden i ies a e
indeed acing a global challenge (Woods e al., 2020: 12), and ha socie ies ha e s a ed o
de elop new ypes o communal sel -awa eness ha challenge he p e iously p e alen
discou ses and na a i es o hese na ion-s a es (Beck, 2000).
My objec i e in his pape is o p o e ha his in e p e a ion is mis aken and ha –as o he
au ho s ha e al eady a gued (Biebe , 2020; Billig, 1995; Maleše i
c, 2019, 2020; Skey, 2011;
Woods e al., 2020) –na ionalism emains almos hegemonic as a o m o poli ical and commu-
nal iden i ica ion, e en in he cu en con ex o a wo ldwide pandemic. Howe e , I will also
explain why he cu en sense o c isis wi h ega d o pa icula aspec s o na ional iden i y is
no comple ely i ele an , whe e his imp ession emana es om, and how i can shed some ligh
on he way na ional iden i y is es ablished and ep oduced.
To his end, he meaning o he concep s o c isis and na ional iden i y will be analysed, in
o de o showcase how he gene al and unc i ical usage o he wo e ms is undamen ally o
blame o he po ayal o na ionalism as a phenomenon in decline. Once hese wo concep s
ha e been de ined, a b ie o e iew o some majo con lic s and ci cums ances a ound he
wo ld –un olding on s ages as a ied as Yemen, E hiopia, China, Russia, B i ain, and he
Uni ed S a es –and o he impac o he COVID-19 ou b eak will be p o ided. The aim o his
examina ion is o de e mine whe he na ional imagina ions play a majo ole in he aming
and expe iencing o hese si ua ions, and i hese phenomena can be aken as symp oms o
he c isis o na ional iden i ica ion. These ques ions will be explo ed in mo e de ail in he
concluding sec ion.
DEFINING CRISIS
To ind ou whe he na ional iden i y is cu en ly acing a c isis, i is i s necessa y o y o
de ine he meaning o his e m. I is common in con empo a y media epo s o ind e e ences
o economic, inancial, in e na ional, o social c ises, and o disco e ha he concep is used
STUDIES IN ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM 15
in e changeably wi h o he s such as ‘un es ’,‘con lic ’,o ‘ e olu ion’(Koselleck &
Rich e , 2006: 399). Howe e , his unc i ical con la ion ends o occlude he mos ep esen a i e
cha ac e is ics o he s a e o c isis, wi h he esul ha , when he e m is la e b ough in o he
wo k o esea che s on social phenomena, he e is a lack o cla i y and p ecision. Fo his
eason, I will y o delinea e ce ain undamen al aspec s o he concep o c isis so as o i mly
g ound my claim ha hese aspec s a e no p esen in he con ex o na ional iden i y.
P obably he mos common idea associa ed wi h he no ion o c isis is ha o ans o ma-
ion. Usually, his is equa ed wi h a momen o ansi ion om a p io condi ion o a new one
(Bauman & Bo doni, 2016: 13); o a he , wi h ‘an upse in a s eady s a e’(Rapopo , 1962:
212). App oaches which po ay he cons uc ion o iden i y as he esul o a na a i e p ocess
also ag ee ha c isis can be iden i ied as ‘a u ning poin in li e, whe e he indi idual aces a
p oblem ha he o she canno sol e’(Ganze oo , 1994: 22). O he de ini ions, o hei pa ,
ha e poin ed o he abno mali y o he ci cums ances ha a e associa ed wi h a s a e o c isis
(Shalu e al., 2003: 29), o he pe cei ed su p ising and sudden na u e o said c isis
(He mann, 1969: 411).
Howe e , we mus be ca e ul no o assume ha a c isis akes place whene e an objec
unde goes change, be i mo e o less sudden o ex ensi e (S ensson, 1986: 134). In addi ion,
e en i some de ini ions ake ca e no o po ay c ises as necessa ily ad e se phenomena
(Bauman & Bo doni, 2016: 13), he associa ion o he concep wi h nega i e ou comes emains
he mos ex ensi e and p e alen one (B eche & Wilken eld, 1997: 3; Shalu e al., 2003: 29;
Walby, 2015: 15).
A second ea u e o c isis si ua ions is he lack o p opo ionali y ha exis s be ween he
causes ha c ea e hem and he consequences ha hey subsequen ly p oduce. E en i he
easons behind he e up ion o a c isis a e o en di icul o de e mine, hese ci cums ances a e
gene ally concei ed as ‘ h ea ening’(B eche & Wilken eld, 1997: 3), ‘momen ous’(Koselleck
& Rich e , 2006: 372), ‘decisi e’(Bauman & Bo doni, 2016: 13), and highly isky unless
ca e ully managed (Shalu e al., 2003: 29), o a leas , ha hey ha e he po en ial o p oduce
‘la ge de imen al change’(Walby, 2015: 15). A e all, mos c ises a e no he esul o he
al e a ion o a single pa ame e , bu a he , a e p oduced by seemingly mino changes in a
se ies o in e connec ed e en s which ul ima ely yield signi ican and un o eseen consequences.
The pe cei ed momen ousness o s a es o c isis is also heigh ened by hei empo al limi a-
ion (Rapopo , 1962: 213). Hence, c ises need o be clea ly iden i ied wi h sho pe iods o ime
in which sudden and ab up ans o ma ions occu o ha e he po en ial o occu ing. In con-
as , a c isis which encompasses a la ge pe iod o ime (i.e. se e al decades o cen u ies) can
ha dly be conside ed a c isis a all, and ough ins ead o be ega ded as a new –albei uns able
o p eca ious –sys em o balance.
I is o hese wo easons – he lack o p opo ionali y be ween he causes and consequences
o a c isis and i s empo al limi a ion – ha a c isis si ua ion calls o u gen and decisi e ac ion.
The main p oblem in his ega d, howe e , is ha , by de ini ion, a c isis si ua ion is one in
which ‘ he habi ual p oblem-sol ing ac i i ies a e no adequa e’(Rapopo , 1962: 212–3), and
his in u n esul s in a si ua ion in which ‘ he pe sonal na a i e o ame o in e p e a ion can-
no adequa ely gi e meaning o new ac s in he cou se o li e’, and ye ‘ he ac s a e in e p e ed
as oo impo an o neglec ’(Ganze oo , 1994: 23). Unde hese ci cums ances, he indi idual
inds i di icul o ind app op ia e cogni i e schemas h ough which o hink abou , e alua e,
and o mula e solu ions and possible ou comes o he c isis (Rapopo , 1962: 215). This unce -
ain y, when combined wi h he sense o u gency, may e en u he complica e he chances o
inding a i ing esponse h ough which o a ain he desi ed ou come/cessa ion o he c isis
(Bauman & Bo doni, 2016: 18).
None heless, a c ucial aspec o he concep o c isis is o en misunde s ood. Fo a sudden
change o p oduce un o eseen and la ge consequences and o call o an u gen esponse om
he ac o s in ol ed, i mus decisi ely challenge he essen ial aspec s o he objec conce ned,
16 AGUIRRESAROBE
h ea ening o o cibly ans o m all o i s iden i ying cha ac e is ics (S ensson, 1986: 135).
These can comp ise ‘one o mo e [o i s] basic alues’(B eche & Wilken eld, 1997: 3); i s ‘basic
sys emic a iables’–i.e. hose ha need o be main ained i he s abili y o he whole is no o
be c i ically endange ed (He mann, 1969: 411); o , in he case o iden i ies, he pe sonal na a-
i e (Ganze oo , 1994: 25). I ollows om his, hen, ha he sudden ans o ma ion o any
elemen s which do no o m pa o hese iden i ying cha ac e is ics canno o and by i sel be
conside ed a c isis, jus as he al e a ion o a single no e canno make a melody un ecognizable.
On he o he hand, i is unclea o wha ex en changes o some –bu no all –o he iden i-
ying cha ac e is ics would esul in an ac ual c isis o me ely a ans o ma ion (B eche &
Wilken eld, 1997; 135: S ensson, 1986: 3). Con inuing wi h he me apho , he ques ion comes
down o whe he a melody in which hal o he no es ha e been changed emains he same
melody wi h al e na ions, o whe he i has become a comple ely new melody. In he case o
communal iden i ies, such as na ional iden i y, I a gue ha he di e ences in he basic p emises
o he a ious ypes o possible imagined communi ies a e o en so ew, ye so decisi e, ha we
ough o accep he h ea o change o any one o hese basic p inciples as being su icien cause
o he ensuing si ua ion o be conside ed a c isis o he whole.
In summa y, and o he pu poses o his pape , I de ine a c isis as a sudden, nega i e, and
empo ally cons ained change wi hin a sys em which h ea ens o b ing abou a la ge
and un o eseen ans o ma ion o a numbe o he iden i ying cha ac e is ics o ha sys em and
which u gen ly calls o new app oaches and solu ions.
EIGHT BASIC PREMISES OF THE NATIONALIST WORLDVIEW
Up un il his poin I ha e unde sco ed he close in imacy be ween he concep o c isis and
he essen ial ea u es o he objec i a ec s. In he case o na ional iden i y, howe e , a
consensual posi ion ega ding hese co e elemen s is s ill a om being accep ed. B oadly
speaking, we can de ine na ional iden i y as he sel -awa eness o an indi idual as being a
membe o a pa icula imagined na ional communi y (Ande son, 2006: 6). And ye such a
de ini ion does no o e any dis inc elemen h ough which o e alua e when na ional iden-
i y is in a s a e o c isis. A mos , i allows us o conclude ha na ional iden i y disappea s
once indi iduals no longe imagine ha hey a e membe s o a na ional communi y. Fo his
eason, we mus ins ead ocus on iden i ying which a e he basic p inciples ha es ablish
and sus ain hese na ional communi ies and how i migh be possible o de e mine whe he
any o hese elemen s is cu en ly being challenged in a way ha me i s i s depic ion as a
s a e o c isis.
Na ional iden i ies, like o he ypes o social iden i y, a e he esul o na a i e p ocesses
h ough which we ‘come o know, unde s and, and make sense o he social wo ld’
(Some s, 1994: 606). Sel -unde s andings hus cons ued ‘ h ough he medium o language,
h ough alking and w i ing’(C ossley, 2000: 10) hen p oduce ‘imagined communi ies’
(Ande son, 2006: 6) whose main aim is o b idge he p esen wi h he pas and o e he
eassu ing com o o con inui y in he ace o endless change (Ze uba el, 2003: 4). I should
no su p ise us, hen, ha he ul ima e sou ce o all he powe s and igh s ha hese na ions
allo o hemsel es lies in a pe cei ed common his o ical jou ney, in which he elemen s ha
compose he na ion a e po ayed as ha ing come in o being and me ged oge he in a na u al
p ocess (Dua a, 1995: 4).
The na a i e desc ip ion o na ional iden i y has led o a g owing in e es in he s udy o
he in e nal emplo men and s uc u e o hese accoun s –a so o ‘mas e na a i e’–as well
as he undamen al ole ha hey play in shaping he imagina ion o communal iden i ies
(Ca e e o & an Alphen, 2015). These analyses ha e shown ha , because he na a i e ame-
wo ks a ely change and a e ei e a ed ime and again, hey cons i u e a undamen al elemen
STUDIES IN ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM 17
o unde s anding he his o ical pe manence o na ional in e p e a ions o he pas , he p esen ,
and he u u e (Dua a, 1995: 27).
Bu how can we di e en ia e his na ionalis wo ld iew om o he ways o concei ing he
ela ionship be ween peoples, space, and ime? The answe o his ques ion es s in he
pa icula se o p inciples and assump ions ha combine o p oduce his pic u e o he social
wo ld. Se e al au ho s ha e al eady ied o p o ide a lis o he de e minan cha ac e is ics o
na ionalism as ideology (B euilly, 1993: 2–3; Hobsbawm, 1992; Skey, 2011: 9–36), bu hey
ha e ended o assume he empi ical eali y o na ions as subs an ial g oups, a he han hei
luid and p ac ical cons uc ion (B ubake , 2004: 8–11), o hey ha e aken a oo na ow –
i.e. poli ical –app oach o he phenomenon. O he s, such as Ca e e o and an Alphen (2017),
ha e a emp ed o de e mine ce ain p inciples ha ame he his o ical imagina ion o he
na ion. Howe e , al hough inspi a ional, I conside ha hei wo k alls sho in o e ing an
o e iew o he ways in which na a i e assump ions e ec i ely c ea e na ional iden i ies. Fo
his eason, and ollowing ecen esea ch on na ionalism and na a i i y, I a gue ha he e a e
eigh co e ideas behind he na ionalis wo ld iew, and ha hese in u n decisi ely shape he
ways in which indi iduals a ound he wo ld imagine hei own communal belonging.
The i s assump ion is ha o uni y, which es ablishes ha na ions a e homogeneous,
na u al communi ies which sha e a unique and dis inc cha ac e . This connec ion be ween
na ionals can be imagined in e ms o common descen , e hnici y, cul u e, o language, among
many o he s, bu i is always pic u ed as being s onge han he connec ion which indi iduals
sha e wi h o he sup a-na ional o in a-na ional communi ies. This aspec has been widely
acknowledged by his o ians and esea che s on na ionalism, who ha e desc ibed how a na ion
is ‘ hough o be a ela i ely homogeneous en i y wi h sha ed cha ac e is ics which anscend
in e nal di isions o class, s a us, and egion’(Dikö e , 1996: 590). Al hough he concep ion o
such a ‘homogeneous popula ion’(Comisso, 2006: 159) has been la gely conside ed a my h
a he han an obse able phenomenon (Smi h, 2009: 33), i is s ill di icul o deny i s c ucial
impac in he de elopmen o public sel -unde s andings (Ca e e o & an Alphen, 2017: 293;
Hon, 2013: 9–10). E en con empo a y schola s, when discussing poli ical p ojec s aimed a
es ablishing mul ina ional go e nmen s, ha e o en ended o ake he exis ence o easily
iden i iable g oups called na ions as a wo king assump ion (Tully, 2001: 2–3).
A second p inciple o he na ionalis wo ld iew is ha o communi y. This es ablishes ha
na ions a e la ge g oups o people and ha he mos impo an and signi ican e en s and
de elopmen s a e hose p oduced by –o which a ec – hese b oad popula ions. This pic u e
o he na ion has o en p o ided he basis o an i-eli e and democ a ic mo emen s aimed a
elimina ing unna u al ba ie s such as class, gende , o poli ical a ilia ion be ween hei
membe s and making explici he cen al ole o he communi y as a whole.
The idea o con inui y, o i s pa , connec s hese na ions wi h hei pas and hei u u e by
cha ac e izing hem as capable o emaining unchanged in hei undamen al cha ac e is ics
despi e he passage o ime. Gi en ha na ional iden i y is p omo ed, o a la ge ex en , by
‘e oking an appa en ly common pas and a common cul u e’(Giles & Middle on, 1995: 22), i
is his sense o unb oken pe manence which allows na ions o be concei ed ‘as communi ies,
no jus o he li ing, bu o he li ing in con inui y wi h he dead and he ye unbo n’
(Cubi , 1998: 8). In mo e conc e e e ms, he assump ion o con inui y sus ains he use o he
i s pe son plu al o e e o he pas and o os e a sha ed sense o belonging (Ca e e o &
an Alphen, 2017: 294) –in s a emen s such as ‘back in ancien imes, ou coun y was g ea ’.
I also encou ages he glossing o e o di e ences be ween di e en popula ions sepa a ed by
as ch onological expanses as long as hey a e hough o be a ia ions o he same na ional
g oup.
The ou h assump ion o he amewo k is ha o na ional so e eign y, which a gues ha
na ions possess inhe en poli ical igh s and a ibu ions, pa icula ly he igh o de e mine
hei poli ical o ganiza ion by hemsel es. The connec ion be ween he na ion and poli ical
18 AGUIRRESAROBE
powe has been he ocus o many in luen ial in e p e a ions o na ionalism (B euilly, 1993: 4;
Gellne , 1983: 1), and i is undeniable ha i cons i u es a undamen al componen o he
phenomenon. Mo eo e , i can also be in e ed om his no ion ha he na ional g oup is he
sou ce o any legi ima e au ho i y ha a ec s i (Maleše i
c, 2019: 30). Consequen ly, i is
necessa y o make common e e ence o he ‘wishes’o ‘will’o he people (na ion) as c ucial
g ounds o subsequen poli ical ac ion.
I he bond which uni es he na ional g oup in e nally is hough o be he ul ima e ma ke
o i s exis ence, i is no di icul o unde s and how impo an i is ha his sha ed cha ac e
should be p o ec ed and p ese ed. This is he ideological ounda ion o he i h p inciple,
na ional pu i y: ha na ions a e au onomous communi ies ha ha e o be kep om being
a ec ed, as a as possible, by ex e nal in luence. Ra he han being cons ained o he ield o
poli ics, his assump ion also a ec s cul u al, economic, and social de elopmen s such as ash-
ion, language, he a s, and e en ma iage and descen . In u n, he applica ion o his p inciple
can esul in a wide a ay o di e en measu es di ec ed a emphasizing na ional homogenei y
and sameness o , a imes, ad oca ing he seg ega ion, expulsion, o elimina ion o g oups
deemed ‘ o eign’ o he na ional body (Ma oudi, 2010: 219–20).
As al eady indica ed, his o ical imagina ion plays a majo ole in he cons uc ion o
na ional iden i y (Ande son, 2006; Ca e e o and an Alphen, 2015; Dua a, 1995). This owes
i s impo ance in no small measu e o ano he cen al elemen o he na ionalis wo ld iew, ha
is, he idea o he his o ical subjec hood o he na ion. This con ends: 1) ha His o y mus i s
and o emos p o ide an accoun o na ional de elopmen ; 2) ha he con en s o such a na a-
i e mus be selec ed and e alua ed in acco dance wi h hei signi icance o his p ocess; and 3)
ha , ul ima ely, he his o ical jou ney o he na ion ends owa ds a ce ain goal o conclusion.
In Eu ope, he ans o ma ion o his o ical p ac ice o sa is y he objec i es and equi emen s o
he na ionalis wo ld iew was al eady well-ad anced by he 1880s (Be ge , 2007: 33), and his
became inc easingly ex ended and accep ed a ound he wo ld h oughou he i s hal o he
wen ie h cen u y (Lin, 1999; Wang, 2001).
The p ocess o na ional de elopmen is hen b ough o ui ion h ough selec ed indi id-
uals, g oups, o ins i u ions, which a e po ayed as embodying undamen al aspec s o he
na ion hey ep esen . This idea o ep esen a ion is essen ial o he na ionalis wo ld iew
because i o e s a way o imagining na ions as decision-making ac o s wi hin he his o ical na -
a i e (B ubake , 2004: 8; Flude nik, 2006: 79), while a he same ime bols e ing he legi imacy
o any agen which comes o be accep ed as a na ional ep esen a i e. A e all, and gi en ha
he na ion is es ablished as he ul ima e locus o so e eign y, he ela ionship be ween a commu-
ni y and i s ule s mus ecognize he heo e ical sup emacy o he o me . This phenomenon is
no jus limi ed o he ield o poli ics, howe e , as a simila connec ion can exis be ween he
na ion and o he ypes o ep esen a i es, such as ‘na ional’a is s, poe s, o w i e s
(Cubi , 1998: 15).
The las co e p inciple ha sus ains a na ionalis wo ld iew is ha o in e na ional
global spa iali y. This, b ie ly summa ized, a gues ha na ions can only exis in a wo ld o
o mally equal na ions, as none o hem can imagine i sel ‘co e minous wi h mankind’and
mus be cons ained o a limi ed geog aphical a ea (Ande son, 2006: 7). This p oduces a
men al pic u e o he wo ld as being made o ‘une en and di e en na ional e i o ies and
spaces’(Tang, 1996: 2), which in u n en ails a p ocess o e i o ializa ion and agmen a-
ion o boundless space, wi hou which he na ional imagina ion would no be possible
(Smi h, 2009: 27).
These eigh elemen s shape he ield o possibili y wi hin which a na ional iden i y can a ise.
The exac combina ion o hese assump ions is wha makes a na ion a na ion and di e en ia es
i om o he ypes o agg ega ion such as a eligious communi y, an e hnici y, a class, o a am-
ily. Fo his eason, and assuming ha na ional iden i y ep esen s he sel -awa eness o indi id-
uals as belonging o a pa icula imagined na ional communi y, i ollows ha a na ional
STUDIES IN ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM 19
iden i y can only be p oduced –and ep oduced –i his comple e se o co e p inciples is p e-
sen . In he absence o any one o hem, he e o e, alk o a na ional iden i y would simply be
inco ec .
NATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETIES
Ha ing b ie ly p esen ed he co e elemen s which p oduce a na ional unde s anding o he
wo ld and ame an indi idual’s na ional iden i y, i is ime o add ess he ques ion posi ed in
he in oduc ion o his pape . In o de o de e mine whe he na ional iden i y is cu en ly
unde going a c isis, we need o conclude ha one o mo e o i s iden i ying cha ac e is ics is
being decisi ely challenged o h ea ened (S ensson, 1986: 135). Because hese key elemen s
ha e been equa ed wi h he eigh co e p inciples o he na ionalis wo ld iew –uni y, commu-
ni y, con inui y, so e eign y, pu i y, his o ical subjec hood, ep esen a ion, and in e na ional
global spa iali y –i is necessa y o assess whe he any o hem a e being challenged in ou con-
empo a y socie ies as a consequence o he COVID-19 pandemic.
Con en ious si ua ions whe e he na ionalis wo ld iew emains s ong
A quick analysis o con en ious si ua ions a ound he wo ld illus a es ha some o hese
no ions a e no cu en ly being meaning ully challenged. A clea case would be he assump ion
o communi y, which i any hing has been s eng hened and emphasized du ing he COVID-19
pandemic, due o he collec i e na u e o he i us ansmission and ac ions needed in esponse.
In his ega d, he idea ha ‘coope a ion is he an ido e’(Johansson, 2020) ep esen s a new
ins ance o he p inciple which con ends ha only la ge communi ies can p oduce meaning ul
change on a global scale.
Simila ly, and e en hough in ecen decades some his o iog aphical ends such as
‘global his o y’ha e ied o con es he hegemonic ole played by ‘ he na ion’as a his o i-
cal subjec , hese new ideas ha e no ye aken deep oo in he gene al public’s his o ical
imagina ion. Fo example, a quick su ey o he bes -selling his o y books on sale ia he
majo online e aile s in he Uni ed S a es, he Uni ed Kingdom, F ance, and Spain in
Decembe 2020 (e.g. Amazon, Wa e s ones, Fnac, and Casa del Lib o) e idences he
p eponde ance o na ionally- amed opics being consumed. Fo ins ance, he biog aphies o
majo pe sonali ies o na ional poli ics, such as Ba ack Obama, F ançois Mi e and, o
King Juan Ca los o Spain, monopolize he op posi ions o hese ankings, while he Second
Wo ld Wa and he Spanish Ci il Wa –c ucial symbols o na ional iden i y and cu en
deba es in hese coun ies –also ea u e p ominen ly. Likewise, in he Uni ed S a es i is
no iceable ha he ela ionship be ween ace and na ionali y is a cen al opic o in e es o
Ame ican eade s, no doub os e ed by he acially- amed dispu es and con lic s ha ook
place du ing 2020.
Na ional his o y con inues o play a undamen al ole in he inne unc ioning o na ion-
s a es; pa icula ly ( hough no su p isingly) wi hin school cu icula (Ca e e o & an Alphen,
2017: 286; Chau, 2020), bu by no means exclusi ely so. In Russia, o ins ance, he consec a ion
o he new Ca hed al o he A med Fo ces has se ed as he symbol o a pa icula in e p e a-
ion o Russian his o y which emphasizes he connec ion ha exis s be ween he Russian
Empi e, he So ie Union, and he Russian Fede a ion as ‘epochs’o a single s a e: ‘Holy Rus’
(Walke , 2020). Simila ly, in a public speech in Sep embe 2019, he leade o he Chinese
Communis Pa y, Xi Jinping, emphasized ‘ he communal consciousness o he Chinese
[li . Zhonghua] na ion’as jus i ica ion o he expansion o a policy o cul u al na ionalism o e
he coun y’s non-Han e hnici ies (Leibold, 2019).
20 AGUIRRESAROBE
The cu en si ua ion c ea ed by he COVID-19 pandemic has also emphasized he ex en o
which he pic u e o he wo ld as being comp ised o a se ies o na ion-s a es s ill ames ou his-
o ical imagina ions. In his in e na ional global space, na ional e i o ies and communi ies
emain he key ca ego ies o mos p ojec s aimed a dealing wi h he new s a e o a ai s (Skey
& Jiménez-Ma ínez, 2020), and compa ison be ween hem is bo h common and widesp ead,
unde sco ing he alleged ela ionship ha exis s be ween na ional cul u es, beha iou s, and
ins i u ions and he a ying deg ees o success in comba ing he i us (Tami , 2020). This kind
o discou se has simila ly been espoused by go e nmen s, which ha e ins umen alized hem o
gene a e suppo o hei policies (Gülse en, 2020; McTague, 2020; Yang & Chen, 2020).
No has he p inciple o na ional so e eign y su e ed om any undamen al opposi ion in
ecen imes. I is ue ha he pandemic has bols e ed he igh o na ional go e nmen s o
es ablish hei own measu es o comba ing he i us, o en ampling o e in e nal as well as
ex e nal opposi ion. None heless, o he con empo a y poli ical de elopmen s ha e also ended
o in oke he p inciple o na ional so e eign y as a legi ima e mo i e o ac ion. Thus, o many
indi iduals in he Uni ed Kingdom, he B exi o e o 2016 was abou egaining o he na ion
ce ain a ibu es o so e eign y –such as legisla i e powe and bo de con ol – om he
Eu opean Union (Richa ds & Hea h, 2019).
Simila ly, in an al oge he mo e iolen and con ulsi e con ex , he a ious g oups igh ing
each o he in Yemen – he no he n Hou his, s ill loyal o P esiden Abdo Rabu Mansu Hadi,
and he Sou he n T ansi ional Council –all base hei claims o s a ehood on he alleged so e -
eign igh s o hei imagined na ional communi ies (Abdal
a, 2020; Aljazee a, 2020;
Glenn, 2018). The same can be said abou he Tig ayan secessionis pa y, which ecen ly chal-
lenged he cen al go e nmen o E hiopia (Geb emedhin, 2020).
Con en ious si ua ions whe e he na ionalis wo ld iew is unde h ea
While he p inciples o communi y, his o ical subjec hood, in e na ional global spa iali y, and
so e eign y ha e emained ai ly s able and unopposed, o he s ha e been he ocus o many
deba es and ans o ma i e p ocesses. Such is he case, o ins ance, wi h ega d o he p inciple
o uni y, which has been u ilized o mobilize he popula ion and social agen s in o de o
con on he pandemic and a oid disunion (Johansson, 2020; The A menian Weekly, 2020), bu
which has also domina ed many poli ical a enas a ound he wo ld, and has e en se ed as
jus i ica ion o iolen con lic .
The a o emen ioned Yemeni case o e s an example o his end, as he main comba an s in
his con lic o e a ious in e p e a ions o he bond ha links he na ion oge he and which
ames hei e i o ial and poli ical claims. Fo many no he n Hou his, he b anch o Islam
hey p ac ise –Zaydism –de ines hei g oup in opposi ion o he Sala ism o he cen al
go e nmen (Glenn, 2018). Fo hose who ad oca e es ablishing a Sou he n Yemen Republic,
he expe ience o B i ish colonialism in he lands a ound he po o Aden sus ain hei claim o
ha ing a di e en and dis inc iden i y om ha o he es o he coun y (Aljazee a, 2020).
Finally, and in opposi ion o hese wo secessionis g oups, he e a e hose who eel hemsel es
o be Yemeni, who ejec pa i ion and a e ying o euni e he coun y in o a single s a e
(Abdal
a, 2020).
This same pa e n is epea ed in E hiopia, whe e he ounda ion o he P ospe i y Pa y
(PP) –aimed a os e ing a s onge sense o na ional iden i y h oughou he e hnically-
ac u ed coun y –has led o opposi ion by he leade s o he no he n Tig ay egion
(Geb emedhin, 2020; Ge h-Niculescu, 2020), o whom he main enance o hese e hnic di e -
ences is p ecisely wha jus i ies he exis ence o he E hiopian s a e in he i s place. Likewise,
2020 has wi nessed escala ing un es and con on a ion be ween India and Pakis an o e he
egion o Kashmi (Bukha i & Naqash, 2020). Tension o e he ambiguous s a us o his
STUDIES IN ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM 21
e i o y, which lies wi hin India ye has a Muslim-majo i y popula ion, has been heigh ened
since he Indian go e nmen e oked he egion’s semi-au onomous s a us in Augus 2019 and
li ed he ban on Indians (i.e. Hindus) se ling and owning p ope y in Kashmi
(Aljazee a, 2019; BBC News, 2019). This seems o be pa o a policy by he go e ning
Bha a iya Jana a Pa y (BJP) o sp ead a mo e cohesi e na ional iden i y o e he whole o he
coun y and elimina e he opposing claims o Pakis an o he egion (BBC News, 2019).
Bu i he homogeneous na u e o na ional imagined communi ies is con es ed in con lic
a eas, he same is also ue in mo e peace ul ci cums ances. In he Uni ed Kingdom, o exam-
ple, he e e endums on Sco ish independence in 2014 and B exi in 2016 b ough o he su ace
a ious di ides in he ways ha indi iduals conside hei own na ional iden i y –whe he as
B i ish, English, Sco ish, Welsh, I ish, o Eu opean –which ine i ably p oduces poli ical con-
sequences (Ga dne , 2017; Richa ds & Hea h, 2019). In he Uni ed S a es, meanwhile, he
Black Li es Ma e mo emen has denounced an in e p e a ion o Ame ican iden i y ha
s a kly hie a chizes whi e and non-whi e popula ions, and has ied o eplace i wi h a new
sense o wha being a ci izen o he coun y should mean (Mu ey, 2020). Simila deba es abou
he speci ic con en o na ional iden i y, o he ea men o pa icula popula ion g oups which
allegedly should be pa o he na ion bu a e no ea ed acco dingly, ha e de eloped ecen ly
in places as di e se as Mon eneg o, Belgium, China, Ge many, and Aus alia (Chau, 2020;
Da ies, 2020; Denney, 2020; Diab, 2020; Kajose ic, 2020; Leibold, 2019).
S ongly connec ed wi h his pe cei ed ins abili y a ound no ions o uni y a e ques ions
abou he impo ance o pas communi ies as o ebea s o he p esen na ion –as he p inciple
o con inui y unde sco es –and a ound hese communi ies’ ep esen a i es and symbols. In
Russia, he go e nmen has ied o os e a con inuous sense o sha ed iden i y om impe ial
o pos -So ie imes, embodied in he a med o ces and especially in he expe iences o he
Second Wo ld Wa (Walke , 2020). Likewise, in Yemen, bo h he Hou his and he Sou he n
Yemenis ha e g ounded hei claims o a sepa a e s a e in hei alleged dis inc his o ical expe i-
ences as hei s o he Zaydi Imama e (1597–1849) and he pos colonial ci cums ances a ound he
po o Aden in o de o debunk he idea o a uni ed Yemen (Aljazee a, 2020; Glenn, 2018).
And in Aus alia, he au ho i ies ha e ecen ly ied o push an in e p e a ion o he na ion’s
his o y which ‘acknowledges [ he coun y’s] Indigenous his o y’and hus emphasizes he
alleged con inui y be ween hese g oups and p esen -day Aus alia in an e o o suppo he
c ea ion o a mo e e hnically di e se e sion o he coun y’s na ional iden i y (Da ies, 2020).
O cou se, hese his o ical e-in e p e a ions a e bound o p oduce disag eemen s ega ding
he ole played by pa icula igu es and ins i u ions in e ms o na ional ep esen a ion, o he
ex en o which hey can be concei ed as ad ancing he cause o na ional uni y. A pe ec exam-
ple o his phenomenon would be he oppling o allegedly acis symbols and monumen s om
he s ee s o he Uni ed S a es and some Eu opean coun ies ollowing he Black Li es Ma e
p o es s as being un i o se e as na ional symbols (G o ie , 2020). Howe e , despi e he spec-
acula na u e o hese e en s, conside a ions abou he ole o na ional ep esen a ion ha e
been equally cen al o banning he F ancisco F anco ounda ion in Spain, amending he
Aus alian na ional an hem so as o emb ace he coun y’s Indigenous popula ions
(Da ies, 2020), o he dea h o oo ball and A gen inian idol Diego A mando Ma adona
(O on, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic, wi h i s a endan sense o s ess and ulne abili y,
has c ea ed a e ile g ound o he mobiliza ion and c ea ion o na ional symbols, no ably he
na ional heal hca e se ices, which ha e ecei ed widesp ead ins i u ional and public espec
(Skey & Jiménez-Ma ínez, 2020; Tami , 2020).
Finally, he p inciple o na ional pu i y has been ins umen alized in ecen mon hs o jus i y
poli ical o e en iolen ac ion. A e all, he secessionis in en ions o bo h he Hou his and
Sou he n Yemenis ha e been ideologically sanc ioned by hose on he ‘ igh ’o hese espec i e
popula ions in o de o oppose he ‘ o eign’and cen alizing e o s o he na ional go e nmen
(Glenn, 2018; Aljazee a, 2020). Simila ly, he Tig ayan leade s in E hiopia ha e jus i ied hei
22 AGUIRRESAROBE
