F on ie s in Psychology 01 on ie sin.o g
Dual educa ional a ionali y and
accul u a ion in Mapuche people
in Chile
DanielQuilaqueo R.
1, En iqueRiquelme M.
1
*, Da íoPaez
2,3 and
Ma íaJoséMe a-Lemp
4
1 Facul ad de Educación, Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile, 2 Facul y o Psychology,
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, San Sebas ian, Spain, 3 Facul ad de Educación y Ciencias Sociales,
Uni e sidad And es Bello, San iago, Chile, 4 Cen o Cielo, Facul ad de Ciencias Sociales y
Comunicaciones, Uni e sidad San o Tomas, San iago, Chile
E en hough Mapuche people ep esen he la ges indigenous popula ion in
Chile, he “logic o double a ionali y” in hei educa ional knowledge and i s
link wi h accul u a ion dynamics, has been sca cely s udied. The aim o his
s udy was o explo e he ela ionships be ween he a i udes owa d school
educa ion and he accul u a ion o ien a ions o 468 Mapuche people, wi h
ages om 17 o 53 yea s (M = 16.19; SD = 7.0). Pa icipan s we e s uden s
o seconda y schools and uni e si ies om u ban and u al a eas o di e en
egions o Chile. Resul s showed ha mos o he pa icipan s p esen ed a
bicul u al o ien a ion (39.4%), ollowed by a g oup o seg ega ed o e hnic
iden i y p o ile (23.5%), while hose who p e e ed assimila ion (17.5%), and
ma ginaliza ion (20.7%) ep esen ed a mino i y. Resul s indica ed ha people
iden i ied as bicul u al sco ed highe in he componen s o dual Mapuche/
Chilean Mes izo educa ional a ionali y han he o he accul u a ion p o iles.
Also, he luency in speaking Mapuche language was posi i ely associa ed wi h
he pe cep ion o cul u al di e ences in knowledge and educa ion be ween
Mapuche and Chilean cul u e, he e alua ion o he eaching o Mapuche
cul u e, he pe cep ion o school as a ac o o assimila ion, he alua ion
o bicul u al p ac ices, and he jus i ica ion o double a ionali y. Findings’
con ibu ions o he de elopmen o pe inen educa ional p ac ices in
con ex s o social and cul u al di e si y a e discussed.
KEYWORDS
educa ional a ionali y, accul u a ion, Mapuches, iden i y, cul u e
In oduc ion
The concep ualiza ion and explo a ion o accul u a ion p ocesses ha e been app oached
om di e en pe spec i es. One o he models, de i ed om he concep o mul icul u alism,
is ha o bicul u al iden i y whe e bo h he iden i y o he sociocul u al mains eam and he
sociocul u al iden i y o o igin a e in eg a ed (Bene -Ma ínez e al., 2002; Bene -Ma ínez and
Hong, 2014).
Howe e , he adap i e capaci y o any gi en accul u a ion app oach may depend on he
p e ailing cul u al clima e in ques ion (Be y, 1997). Acco ding o Be y (1980, 1997), Sam and
Be y (2010), bicul u alism is likely o beadap i e because i allows indi iduals o in e ac
success ully wi h bo h hei cul u al he i age communi y and he socie y in which hei cul u al
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Xiaopeng Ren,
Ins i u e o Psychology (CAS),
China
REVIEWED BY
S an on Wo ham,
Bos on College,
Uni edS a es
Daniela Vanesa Mo ales,
CIEMEP, A gen ina
*CORRESPONDENCE
En ique Riquelme M.
[email p o ec ed]
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Cul u al Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
RECEIVED 16 Decembe 2022
ACCEPTED 03 Feb ua y 2023
PUBLISHED 06 Ma ch 2023
CITATION
Quilaqueo RD, Riquelme ME, Paez D and
Me a-Lemp MJ (2023) Dual educa ional
a ionali y and accul u a ion in Mapuche
people in Chile.
F on . Psychol. 14:1112778.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
COPYRIGHT
© 2023 Quilaqueo, Riquelme, Paez and Me a-
Lemp. This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed
unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion License (CC BY). The use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion in o he o ums is
pe mi ed, p o ided he o iginal au ho (s) and
he copy igh owne (s) a e c edi ed and ha
he o iginal publica ion in his jou nal is ci ed,
in acco dance wi h accep ed academic
p ac ice. No use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is
pe mi ed which does no comply wi h hese
e ms.
TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 06 Ma ch 2023
DOI 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 02 on ie sin.o g
g oup is embedded. Al hough au ho s such as Rudmin (2003) a gue
ha bicul u alism may bea p eca ious condi ion in which he pe son
is a he apped, p essu ed bo h by hei home communi y no o
acqui e he ecei ing cul u e and by he ecei ing cul u al communi y
agains e aining he he i age cul u e (Schwa z e al., 2010).
Howe e , he s udy o mul icul u al iden i ies has in e es ing
implica ions o bo h psychology and he ield o educa ion, as he
ques ion o how indi iduals de elop a sense o belonging o a
sociocul u al g oup becomes pa icula ly signi ican in si ua ions o
cul u al con lic and in eg a ion (Baumeis e , 1987; Robe s e al.,
1999; Ka im, 2021). He e, he dynamics o mul icul u al iden i y
cons uc ion p o ide no only a window o s udy indi idual a ia ions
in sel -concep and social iden i y de elopmen bu also an
oppo uni y o explo e how he educa ional a ionali y o a dominan
cul u e s ands as a e e en o assessing dis ance om he knowledge
o he sociocul u al g oup o o igin. This p inciple also applies o
people who mus mo e be ween cul u es o each o lea n (Sha i ,
2019; S asel, 2021) and need o gene a e new and iche mechanisms
o lea ning and e lec ion on hei own iden i y and ha o hei
colleagues/s uden s; ha is o say, om he mechanisms o
accul u a ion and bicul u ali y, wecan also explo e he possibili y o
cons uc ing a double educa ional a ionali y.
Be y’s model
Be y’s model desc ibes an o ganiza ional s uc u e o he sea ch
o iden i y in mul icul u al con ex s; i has concep ualized
accul u a ion by dis inguishing p ocesses and ou comes, classi ying
a i udes and o ien a ions, and ca ego izing accul u a ing g oups.
Acco ding o Be y (2017), accul u a ion s a egies a e based on wo
ac o s ha mo e along a g adien : he desi e o main ain one’s own
cul u e and he desi e o es ablish con ac wi h o he g oups. The
dicho omous esponses be ween hese wo a iables will de e mine
he esul ing accul u a ion s a egy: in eg a ion (main enance o
cul u e and con ac wi h o he g oups is impo an ); sepa a ion (only
con ac wi h o he g oups is impo an ); assimila ion (only
main enance o one’s own cul u e is impo an ); o ma ginaliza ion
(nei he is impo an ). In o he wo ds, indi iduals can beo ien ed
owa d he adi ional cul u e, he majo i y cul u e, bo h, o nei he .
Wha is no clea , howe e , is how indi iduals a i e a such
o ien a ions and whe he hey change o e ime.
La e , app oaches ha e sugges ed ha he “desi e o con ac ”
dimension in Be y’s schema could use ully be eplaced by a “desi e
o adop he majo i y cul u e” (Wa d and Kennedy, 1994; Bou his
e al., 1997), and he e has been some discussion as o whe he hese
wo concep ualiza ions should beconside ed synonymous (Snauwae
e al., 2003; Be y and Saba ie , 2010). All in all, he model has
emained s able and g owing concep ually since i s o mula ion and
allows o a dynamic app oach o unde s anding indi idual and social
in e ac ion in socially and cul u ally di e se se ings. Al hough he
model has been equen ly applied in in e ac ions be ween dominan
social g oups and olun a y mino i ies (Ogbu, 1991), we conside ha
i is necessa y o explo e hese dynamics in in e ac ions in which
people om indigenous popula ions ep esen in olun a y social and
cul u al mino i ies, and ye main ain hei own educa ional knowledge
wi hin he amewo k o a dominan cul u e ha imposes i s own
educa ional logic. Thus, among o he elemen s, he o icially
ecognized language, he educa ional logic and i s con en s, and he
p inciples o spi i uali y a e e e en s o a pa icula epis emic basis o
be conside ed o po en ial bicul u ali y and po en ial double
educa ional a ionali y. Wea e no a guing o an essen ialis iew o
cul u e and he exis ence o wo sepa a e, homogeneous cul u es:
Mapuche and Chilean. Cul u e is no a bounded g oup o people who
sha e p ac ices and belie s bu a box o ools ha people use in an
adap i e and c ea i e manne (Appadu ai, 1988). Cul u e is a luid
phenomenon. Howe e , sha ed social belie s p oduced by lay people
usually use his essen ialis iew—i is a common poin o ic ion
be ween an an h opologis and indigenous social mo emen s. U ban
Mapuche people sha e an essen ialis iew o he i age cul u e, based
on homeland and cul u al u al ea u es. The claim o an essen ial
cul u e helps social mobiliza ion in he u ban con ex in which mos
Mapuche people li e (Figue oa, 2015).
1
O cou se, his essen ialis
iew o cul u e ha imp egna es social ep esen a ions o Mapuche
collec i e ac ion plays an ambi alen ole. As B ablec posi s “While
he essen ialis connec ion be ween iden i y and he Mapuche
homeland, he Wallmapu may appea as a poli ically equi ed
depic ion o Mapuche socie y, i c ea es a se ies o obs acles o he
majo i y o he same Mapuche people who cu en ly li e in ci ies. This
includes he pe pe ua ion o s e eo ypes ha educe indigenei y o
u al dwelling, anach onis ic pe cep ions o indigenei y as p e-mode n
in which adi ional ways o li e a e ou o place in he as mo ing
globalized wo ld and he supposed con adic ion be ween indigenei y
as local- u al and u baniza ion as global non-Indigenous”
(B ablec, 2021).
Bicul u al iden i y could be concep ualized as dual cul u al
iden i y, bicul u al in eg a ed iden i y, and dual cul u al adap a ion, o
bicul u al compe ence. Dual cul u al iden i y e e s o he
simul aneous and independen de elopmen o Mapuche and
mains eam cul u es. The bicul u al in eg a ed app oach examines
how pe sons o m in e ac ion ac oss he he i age and mains eam
cul u e and include blendedness (o e lap s. dissocia ion be ween
cul u es) and ha mony (compa ibili y s. opposi ion). Bicul u al
pe sons could sha e and use wo cul u es’ a ionali y in di e en
si ua ions, in a bicul u al coexis ence o wo cul u es di e en ia ed
and po en ially in con lic . In public and wo k si ua ions, Mapuche
p obably applies mains eam no ms and seman ic and p ocedu al
knowledge, and in p i a e and p ima y g oups, p obably uses
Mapuche no ms and knowledge—as accul u a ion s udies ound in
mig an s. Ano he al e na i e is a mixed o ha monious blending o
he wo cul u es, he c ea ion o a hi d mes izo cul u e. Dual cul u al
1 An e nog aphical s udy in a u al school concludes: “The u al school s udied
is a cha e school loca ed in he A aucania Region, and is de ined by i s
eache s as “non-in e cul u al.” This educa ional cen e has app op ia ed he
school space in o de o de elop a p ojec o “Mapuche educa ion” linked o
a poli ical agenda o sel de e mina ion…despi e he an i-in e cul u al and
essen ialis discou ses, he school is a communi y o p ac ice whe e di e en
elemen s and meanings coexis in a bicul u al logic. This bicul u al coexis ence
and he p edominance o he adi ional school model ep esen o child en
a signi ican knowledge backg ound ha coun e balances eache s’ wo k on
aising consciousness abou being Mapuche. The unc ionali y o an essen ialis
ision o Mapuche cul u e aimed a social and poli ical empowe men is
discussed” (p.1).
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 03 on ie sin.o g
adap a ion o bicul u al compe ence e e s o he abili y o join ly
access, swi ch, and use he i age and mains eam cul u e, his means
changes om Mapuche o mains eam ames, no ms, and knowledge,
and ice e sa (Sa a and Umaña-Taylo , 2021). The concep o dual
a ionali y, which is de eloped below, is simila o he las app oach
(Wa d e al., 2018; McAdams e al., 2021).
Mapuche people and bicul u alism
As p e iously men ioned, he clash be ween p edominan and
non-dominan cul u es can also beapp oached om he pe spec i e
o na i e people who, as a esul o coloniza ion, a e pa o a
coun y’s non-dominan social g oups and he e o e subjec o he
coun y’s na ional cul u e. The 2017 Census showed (Ins i u o
Nacional de Es adís ica, 2017) ha 12.8% o he popula ion conside s
i sel o belong o some indigenous o na i e people, o his
pe cen age, 79.8% belong o he Mapuche people, ollowed by he
Ayma a people wi h 7.2%. Due o a sus ained emig a ion om he
coun yside o he ci y since he 1930s, he e has been a sus ained
inc ease in he u ban indigenous popula ion o e he u al one,
which shows 87.8% indigenous membe s compa ed o 12.2% li ing
in u al a eas. Thei mig a o y p ocesses we e aking place s ongly
a e he end, in he ea ly 1930s, o he Chilean occupa ion o hei
e i o ies, causing a g owing lack o land, which added o he
p ocesses o indus ializa ion ha he capi al was expe iencing hen,
became a pole a ac ion o housands o peasan mig an s, many o
hem Mapuche (Campos e al., 2018). Mapuche people li e mainly
in he Me opoli an Region, mainly in San iago capi al o he na ion
and a big ci y o 6 million inhabi an s (35.23%), ollowed by
A aucanía (18%) and Los Lagos (12.65%), and o a lesse ex en , in
he egions o Biobío (9.10%), Los Ríos (5.34%), and Valpa aíso
(5.31%). The A aucanía, Los Lagos, and Biobío egions a e he
his o ical Mapuche u al homeland. A aucanía and Biobío a e
cu en ly he “hea ” o e i o ial dispu es be ween Mapuche and
non-indigenous Chilean (24 Me ino e al., 2020). The Mapuche
popula ion has highe le els o u ali y and po e y. A o al o 32%
o Indigenous g oups li e in po e y compa ed o app oxima ely
20% o Chile’s non-Indigenous popula ion. Po e y is p e alen in
he coun y’s sou he n u al Indigenous communi ies (A aucania,
Los Lagos, and Biobio) whe e he Mapuche people li e in
impo e ished encla es. Indigenous g oups ha e less a o able heal h
indica o s han he es o Chileans. Fo ins ance, dea h om
b onchopneumonia in Indigenous child en younge han 5 yea s is
p opo ionally highe han in non-Indigenous child en. The a es o
ube culosis, among some Indigenous g oups, a e double he
na ional a e age, acco ding o go e nmen da a, whe eas he same
applies o child mo ali y a es. Li e expec ancy a es a e lowe in
Indigenous communi ies compa ed o non-Indigenous g oups
(Moloney, 2010). In e ms o educa ional quali y, Mapuche s uden s
achie e lowe sco es on s anda dized educa ional es s and mos ly
a end schools ha se e ulne able popula ions, sha ing he
class oom wi h low-pe o ming s uden s (Rod íguez-Ga cés
e al., 2021).
One o he measu es aken since he c ea ion o he Chilean
S a e was he es ablishmen o a single monocul u al and
monolingual educa ion sys em in Spanish, which denied he use o
he Mapuche language and cul u al mani es a ions. Since hen, he
new gene a ions ha e lea ned o li e wi h double educa ional
a ionali y. Quilaqueo Rapimán e al. (2016) in es iga e he double
educa ional a ionali y used by he Mapuche amily as a s a egy o
o e come he monolingual–monocul u al Chilean school
cu iculum. This double a ionali y is unde s ood as he abili y o
in eg a e educa ional knowledge, which may e en becon adic o y
o di e en cul u al logic. By double a ionali y, we e e o he
coexis ence o wo “wo ld iews” o cul u al ames, no ms, and
knowledge, and do no e e o wo di e en ypes o concep s and
cogni i e p ocesses. In his sense, double a ionali y implies a dual
cul u al compe ence. The A o-Ame ican sociologis Du Bois
(1903) de eloped a e y in e es ing concep ualiza ion a he
beginning o he 20 h cen u y; e y ele an o people such as he
Mapuche (we hank an anonymous e iewe who d ew ou
a en ion o his au ho ). A pe son om he disc imina ed e hnic
g oup eels a duali y in his o he sel (Dubois woness): he eels and
hinks like an Ame ican and an A ican-Ame ican in which wo
con lic ing cul u es coexis . In addi ion, his pe son expe iences
disc imina ion and su e s om he nega i e e alua ion (wha
Dubois calls he eil) ha he dominan cul u e makes o him
(Mee , 2019). In his sense, Dubois sha es wi h ano he classic
Fanon he idea ha he dominan cul u e aliena es and humilia es
people om subo dina e e hnic g oups. Howe e , in i s
de elopmen , Dubois sugges s ha he A ican–Ame ican pe son
can de elop a “be e ” sel o sel ha main ains bo h cul u es and
posi i ely in eg a es hem (Mee , 2019). The impo ance o
disc imina ion is ele an o dual a ionali y, bu wealso sha e ha
bicul u alism can gi e ise o a pe son wi h dual cul u al
compe ence and he e o e o an in eg a ed cul u al iden i y.
S udies showed ha he Mapuche li e and coexis wi h di e en
cul u es, and ha cul u al di e ences can be ca ego ized om a
compa a i e poin o iew ha a ies acco ding o he esea ch
ques ion posed. Fo ins ance, a s udy sugges s ha Mapuche cul u e
s esses emo ional sel -con ol. Compa ed wi h Chileans, Mapuche
people s ongly belie e ha child en should o e come ea and
becalm and can lea n o con ol emo ions by connec ing wi h na u e,
and by lis ening and wa ching elde s in he communi y (Halbe s ad
e al., 2020).
Thus, o unde s and he a ionali y o Mapuche educa ion, i is
necessa y o bea in mind h ee cen al aspec s on which i is based.
Fi s , an epis emic base o i s own cul u e is sus ained by a social
memo y in ela ion o how o build knowledge wi h amily and
e i o ial ances y. Second, he no ion o he ela ionship wi h
knowledge, which aim is o o ganize he esea ch ques ions abou
he Mapuche educa ion. Thi d, a double educa ional a ionali y ha
has as i s axis i s own sociocul u al knowledge and ha which is
imposed by he p edominan socie y, which in he case o o mal
educa ion is he one imposed h ough he school cu iculum o he
S a e o Chile (Quilaqueo, 2012). Al hough in a simpli ied way, he
Mapuche cul u e can besyn hesized in o h ee opics. Fi s , social
ela ionships a e based on espec , which is a cen al alue in social
in e ac ions. The alues o communica ion wi h espec a e
accen ua ed when pe sons a e in ela ion wi h he elde s. Elde
condi ion in he Mapuche cul u e means a supe io s a us because
o he accumula ed expe ience o li e and wisdom. Second, Mapuche
people ha e a coexis ence ela ionship wi h na u e based on
s a emen s o ecip oci y and communica ion, and na u e is
concei ed as a gene ous mo he who gi es he necessa y elemen s
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 04 on ie sin.o g
o he li e o human beings. Thi d, he ela ionship wi h di ini y is
based on he coexis ence and he communica ion o Mapuche
people wi h each one o he o ces ha go e n hei li e. Religion is
pa o daily li ing and coexis s wi h i al unc ions such as heal h
and disease. The Machi o indigenous man o woman heale
manages he ela ionship wi h he di ini ies and he p ocesses o
ea men o diseases.
The educa ion and o ma ion p ocess o he Mapuche child en a e
de eloped h ough lea ning s a egies based on o al and a i udinal
communica ion, which in ol ed all he communi y membe s. A
Mapuche adi ional me hodology o educa ion is “pen ukum” o
p o ocol Mapuche g ee ing. This me hod included he de elopmen
o memo y, speech skills, and communica ion, in gene al, and hen
quali ies such as p udence, empa hy, solida i y, and espec among
o he s. Since childhood Mapuche a e sen as “We ken” o messenge s
o isi close ela i es, child en had o ansmi in o ma ion, as hei
mo he o a he , o any o he ela i es eques ed i . Ano he me hod
is Nü am o Con e sa ions. Fo Mapuche people, he con e sa ion is
an impo an pa o o al communica ion among people and child en,
hey had o unde s and he impo ance o con e sa ion, alking,
dialoguing, no only lis ening, and hey had o speak o pa en s o
o he ela i es o membe s o he communi y in an a mosphe e o
us -de eloped lea ning. Ano he educa ional me hod is Gülam o
ad ice by elde s. The epis emic basis o Mapuche educa ion is also
suppo ed by he concep o kimel uwün, as he me hodological
amewo k o educa ion based on he social cons uc ion o knowledge
impa ed by pa en s (Quilaqueo, 2015). This educa ional logic guides
he cons uc ion o knowledge wi h amily and e i o ial ances y,
suppo ed by he social memo y o he amily and i s communi y wi h
he his o ical Mapuche (Quilaqueo and Quin iqueo, 2017), and
includes eaching he a ibu es ha he Mapuche pe son should ha e,
such as p e iously men ioned espec , solida i y, and es eem o o he
membe s o he communi y.
The no ion o ela ionship wi h knowledge has o do wi h he
cons uc ion o discou se-based knowledge om he social memo y
and o ally communica ed in he amily con ex (Mon espe elli, 2004;
Quilaqueo, 2019). A di e en ela ionship wi h knowledge is c ea ed
depending on whe he i is abou aining as a pe son o speci ic
con en o he aining o a job o wo k ole (Alonqueo, 1985;
Quilaqueo, 2019).
Following Lahi e’s equa ion (Lahi e, 2012) in which he
inco po a ed pas + p esen ac ion con ex = gi es ise o obse able
p ac ices, he double educa ional a ionali y om Mapuche knowledge
is he esul o pas social p ac ices in educa ional ac ion based on he
social memo y o amily educa ional discou ses and in eg a ion o he
Wes e n educa ional scena io in he p esen ac ion con ex . Thus,
he e is e idence o obse able social p ac ices o double educa ional
imme sion ha conside he Mapuche amily and a monocul u al
educa ion om he non-Mapuche socie y—Chilean mes izo cul u e.
In his double a ionali y, i is undamen al o ake in o accoun ha
he inco po a ed pas is linked o a “ amily inhe i ance” o a
“knowledge o belonging,” he küpan whe e i is inco po a ed, o
example, he pe cep ion o “loss o meaning” and o belonging o he
Mapuche his o ical collec i i y (Cu i il, 2007).
Social mobiliza ions du ing he ecen decade aised and
succeeded in imposing In e cul u al Bilingual Educa ion (IBE). An
in e cul u al bilingual educa ion p og am was c ea ed la e in 1994.
The law es ablishes ha i he e is a minimum o 20% Mapuche
s uden s, a bilingual educa ion mus beca ied ou . I is impo an
o ema k ha he Mapuche pa en s ha e unila e ally de eloped
his educa ional double imme sion because hey a e he ones who
ha e a ionalized he social and cul u al clash a school as
social ac o s.
Quali a i e s udies desc ibe how his dual a ionali y logic could
bedisplayed—a leas pa ially. An e hnog aphic s udy illus a es how
Mapuche indigenous knowledge (Kimün) and language (Mapudungun
o Mapunzugun) we e inco po a ed in o an In e cul u al Bilingual
Educa ion (IBE) p og am o a school wi hin a Mapuche con ex in
Chile. Based on a 6-mon h school e hnog aphy, his s udy shows he
ole o an ances al educa o (Kimche) who, as a eache in he IBE
p og am, becomes an agen o Indigenous cul u al and linguis ic
ansmission as heb ings Indigenous knowledge in o he class oom
as his main cu icula objec i es (O iz, 2009). Ano he a icle, based
on wo school e hnog aphies, analyzes Mapuche language and cul u e
eaching p ac ices o a u al school in he Chilean A aucanía egion
un by Mapuche eache s, aimed a ein o cing he language, cul u e,
and iden i y o child en. The s udy desc ibes he ways child en lea n
o beMapuche, by pa icipa ing in social and communi a ian p ac ices
ep oduced in school. While he eaching o mains eam cul u e and
school con en s a e conduc ed in s anda d ways, Mapuche language
and cul u e a e ansmi ed and lea ned h ough he ec ea ion o
modes o li ing, p oducing, and ep oducing indigenous adi ional
knowledge ha no mally occu s in amily and communi y (Luna
e al., 2018).
In summa y, Mapuche educa ion has i s own cha ac e is ics ha
di e om Wes e n educa ion in e ms o he ac ha i is based on
di e en logic o he o ma ion o people. In a scena io o domina ion,
Mapuche educa ion has had o in eg a e he logic o Wes e n (Chilean)
educa ion, bu i has kep i s own logic on he ma gins o
school educa ion.
A me a-analysis ound a signi ican associa ion be ween
p o iciency in he i age o e hnic language and he sense o e hnic
iden i y (Mu, 2015). Ou p e ious quali a i e s udies also sugges he
ele ance o language skills and use as a ac o ha con ibu es o he
main enance o he amily memo y and enhances belonging o he
Mapuche his o y and collec i e and allows i o ix i s own knowledge
om whe e di e ences be ween Mapuche and Chilean school
educa ional knowledge a e acknowledged.
Sugges ing ha bicul u alism is he dominan iden i y, a su ey
conduc ed in he A aucanía a ea ound ha 45% o pe sons
conside ed hemsel es bo h Mapuche and Chilean, 28% conside ed
hemsel es Mapuche o mos ly Mapuche, 17% conside ed
hemsel es only Chilean o mos ly Chilean, and 1% did no answe
(Le Foulon, 2022).
P e ious s udies show ha Mapuche e hnic collec i e iden i y was
ela ed o epo ed highe disc imina ion, o suppo he Mapuche
social mo emen , and o highe wellbeing, as well as he mode a e
nega i e impac o disc imina ion on wellbeing (Ga cía e al., 2021).
Mapuche e hnic iden i y has also been ela ed o low le els o
an isocial beha io s (Jiménez Bus os e al., 2017).
The p esen in es iga ion
The esul s ob ained by he s udy o Quilaqueo Rapimán e al.
(2016) lead o he ques ion o whe he Mapuche’s educa ional double
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 05 on ie sin.o g
a ionali y can bee alua ed unde he p ism o accul u a ion as
p oposed in Be y’s model (Be y and Saba ie , 2010). This esea ch
aimed o explo e he associa ion be ween he dual a ionali y
s a egy in Mapuche educa ion and he ou ca ego ies o
accul u a ion s a egies in Be y’s model. I is expec ed ha
bicul u al and e hnic iden i y should be ela ed o H1— luency in
speaking Mapunzugun o Mapuche language; H2—a highe
pe cep ion o cul u al di e ences in knowledge and educa ion
be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e, a mo e posi i e e alua ion
o he eaching o Mapuche cul u e, he pe cep ion o school as a
ac o o assimila ion, he alua ion o bicul u al p ac ices, and he
jus i ica ion o double a ionali y. I is expec ed o ind he opposi e
in he case o assimila ion and ma ginaliza ion H3— luency in he
he i age language o Mapuche will show a speci ic in luence on he
pe cep ion o di e ences be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e.
Me hodology
Pa icipan s
A o al o 468 people pa icipa ed, anging in age om 17 o
53 yea s (M = 16.19; SD = 7.0): men (43%) and women (57%);
elemen a y (43.4%), middle school (30.6%), and high school
(21.1%) s uden s; om u ban (57.5%) and u al (42.5%) sec o s;
om he Me opoli an (19.2%), La A aucanía (54.7%), and Los
Lagos (26.1%) egions. The pa icipan s we e chosen h ough a
non-p obabilis ic sampling, by accessibili y, om schools, high
schools, and uni e si ies in he a o emen ioned egions. All ag eed
o pa icipa e olun a ily and in he case o mino s wi h pa en al
consen . P obably because we ely on olun a y esponses, ou
sample will bebiased owa d people sha ing a mo e e lec i e and
sensi i e a i ude owa d he Mapuche issue. Ou sample has an
o e ep esen a ion o he his o ic u al a eas o he Mapuche
homeland such as A aucanía—al hough mos people li e in
u ban a eas.
P ocedu e
This s udy was pa o a la ge p ojec , whe e uni e si y academics
and school eache s (bo h Mapuche and non-Mapuche) om he
di e en egions men ioned we e pa o he esea ch eam, hey
o ganized hemsel es o gene a e a p e ious link wi h he schools and
amilies o hose who answe ed he su ey, being able o no only
explain he pu poses o he s udy, oles, ecei e que ies, commen s,
and sugges ions bu also o eedback he esul s; his p ocess was also
app o ed by he esea ch e hics commi ee o he Ca holic Uni e si y
o Temuco (2018–2020).
The su ey was applied du ing 2018–2019. An a ea coo dina o
( o example, o an A aucanía own hall o communi y) con ac ed he
high school and uni e si y eache s who applied he ques ionnai es o
he s uden s in mass classes. The s uden s collec ed ques ionnai es
om hei pa en s, a e ha ing answe ed hem and cla i ied any
doub s hey had. The ins umen was applied on pape and pencil.
The e is no paymen o answe ing he ques ionnai es. The esponse
a e was e y high in he classes, and in he case o he pa en s, i
was 40%.
Ins umen s
Cul u al o ien a ion
To e alua e he accul u a ion s a egies o Mapuche pa icipan s,
wo i ems based on Be y’s (2017) Accul u a ion Model we e used:
one on a i ude owa d Mapuche cul u e (“Mapuche people should
y o li e acco ding o hei cus oms”) and ano he owa d he
dominan cul u e (“Mapuche people should y o pa icipa e ully in
he li e o non-Mapuche socie y in Chile”). Pa icipan s we e di ided
based on he heo e ical mean: on a scale o 1–5, sco es o 4 and 5
we e ca ego ized as high and sco es o 3 o less we e ca ego ized as
low. Those wi h high sco es on bo h ques ions a e concei ed as
“bicul u al,” and hose wi h high sco es in Mapuche cul u e
main enance and low in Chilean cul u e as “seg ega ed, sepa a ed,”
o e hnic iden i y, hose wi h low esponses in Mapuche cul u e
main enance and high o ien a ion owa d Chilean cul u e as
“assimila ed,” and hose wi h low sco es on bo h dimensions as
“ma ginal.”
The scale o a i udes owa d school educa ion
This scale was de eloped om he model p oposed by Quilaqueo
e al. (Figue oa, 2015), o explo e implici models o he o al social
memo y o his o ical Mapuche collec i i ies ha in con ex s o p esen
ac ion imply pa icula p ac ices a he educa ional le el, bo h om
he adi ional and he p edominan Wes e n model. The scale is
composed o 30 Like - ype i ems wi h i e esponse op ions
(1 = S ongly disag ee and 5 = S ongly ag ee), which inqui e in o i e
dimensions concep ualized om he heo e ical amewo k o double
a ionali y as ollows:
(a) Pe cep ion o cul u al di e ences in knowledge and educa ion
be ween he Mapuche and Chilean cul u es (“In gene al, he
Mapuche cul u e has di e en knowledge and educa ion om
he Chilean cul u e,” “in gene al, Mapuche and non-Mapuche
people di e in he way hey hink,” “in gene al, Mapuche
educa ional logic eaches mo e espec o na u e han school
logic”; α = 0.70; Ω = 0.70);
(b) Impo ance o eaching Mapuche cul u e o in eg a ion o
knowledge and iden i y (e.g., “I hink ha Mapuche knowledge
should be augh a school,” “i would benecessa y o each he
Mapuche language a school o s eng hen Mapuche iden i y”;
α = 0.71; Ω = 0.70);
(c) Pe cep ion o he school as an assimila ing ac o (e.g., “In
gene al, he Mapuche educa ional logic eaches o bemo e
independen han he school’s a ionali y,” “ he school’s
educa ion ansmi s o he Mapuche he idea o being Chilean
and no Mapuche”; α = 0.61, Ω = 0.62);
(d) Jus i ica ion o he double a ionali y, which inqui ies in o he
pe cep ion abou he e ec s o schooling and coexis ence on
he need o assimila ion o he Mapuche, as well as he esilien
e ec o main aining he Mapuche language and cul u al
hinking (e.g., “Wha Ilea ned a school p e en s me om
de eloping my iden i y because Iwas no augh he Mapuche
language,” “when Ispeak in Mapunzugun I hink be e as
Mapuche”; α = 0.66, Ω = 0.62).
(e) Posi i e alua ion o bicul u al p ac ices (e.g., “I would like
child en o be ained in bo h knowledge: Winka and
Mapuche,” “people who ha e Mapuche and non-Mapuche
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 06 on ie sin.o g
FIGURE1
Accul u a ion o ien a ion: ma ginal 21%, assimila ed 17.5%,
seg ega ed 23.5%, bicul u al 39.4%.
FIGURE2
Pe cen age o accul u a ion o ien a ion by u ban and u al con ex .
knowledge a e wise : hey ha e wo wisdoms”; α = 0.59,
Ω = 0.60).
The esul s o he con i ma o y ac o analysis o i e ac o s we e
sa is ac o y: χ
2
(340) = 730.389, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.827; TLI = 0.878;
SRMR = 0.057; RMSEA = 0.050 (90% CI [0.045, 0.054]).
S a is ical analysis
Analysis using c oss abs and Chi-squa e (χ
2
) was ca ied ou
ega ding he ela ionship o accul u a ion ypologies wi h he
sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s, such as u al s.
u ban con ex , educa ional le el, age, and sex. To explo e he
associa ion be ween u ban s. u al con ex , age and sex wi h
dimensions o a i udes owa d school educa ion, Pea son and poin -
bise ial co ela ion analyses we e used o s udy he associa ions
be ween he a o emen ioned sociodemog aphic a iables, and he
dimensions o a i udes owa d school educa ion.
To es H1 and H2, omnibus analysis o a iance o ANOVA was
ca ied ou using Be y’s ca ego ical model (accul u a i e ypologies)
as ixed a iables and dimensions o he dual educa ional a ionali y
model as a dependen a iable. To examine he H3 co ela ion
be ween dual a ionali y scale dimensions and a iables age, u ban,
schooling, and linguis ic luency in Mapunzugun we e ca ied ou .
To examine he speci ic in luence o luency in speaking Mapunzugun
as a p edic o o dual a ionali y dimensions, mul iple eg ession
analysis was ca ied ou — con olling o using as a simul aneous
p edic o age, u ban, schooling, and sex.
Fo a p obabili y o a Type Ie o o α = 0.05 and a p obabili y o
a Type II e o (1–β) o 0.80, and o an e ec size o = 0.20 o
d = 0.40, he sample size is N = 194— o a one-sided es (Rosen hal
and Rosnow, 2008). The sample size is sa is ac o y o s a is ical powe .
Resul s
Typologies o iden i y and cul u e
Rega ding he accul u a ion o ien a ions o he pa icipan s, i
was ound ha a mino i y co esponded o he “ma ginal” p o ile and
he “assimila ed” g oup. The “e hnic iden i y” o “seg ega ed” g oup
was a la ge mino i y. Finally, bicul u al people we e he la ges g oup
(see Figu e1).
Pa icipan s’ answe s o he wo i ems abou hei a i udes owa d
Mapuche cul u e and he dominan cul u e, showed ha he
o ien a ion o main ain he Mapuche cul u e p edomina ed (61.9%
ag eemen ), while he ag eemen wi h he in eg a ion in o he Chilean
socie y was lowe (55.8%).
The analysis was ca ied ou ega ding he ela ionship o hese
ypologies wi h he sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o he
pa icipan s, such as u al s. u ban con ex , educa ional le el, age,
and sex. I was ound ha he e is a signi ican associa ion be ween
u al/u ban con ex and accul u a ion p o ile (χ
2
(3,464) = 15.150;
p < 0.01). Mos o he pa icipan s o he assimila ed, ma ginal, and
e hnic iden i y p o iles belong o u al se ings (71.6, 60.4, and 57%,
espec i ely). In ela ion o he bicul u al ypology, he e is a sligh ly
highe p opo ion o u ban pa icipan s (53.4%; see Figu e2).
Signi ican associa ions we e also ound be ween he
accul u a ion p o iles and he educa ional le el o he pa icipan s (χ
2
(6,464) = 18.439; p < 0.01). I s ands ou ha he p esence o bicul u al
pa icipan s is highe as educa ional le el inc eases and ha e hnic
iden i y and non-iden i ied emain as wo ela i ely s able mino i ies,
while assimila ed dec eases as educa ional le el inc eases. On he
o he hand, a posi i e associa ion was ound be ween age and
bicul u ali y ( = 0.20; p < 0.01). This sugges s ha as age inc eases,
he e is a highe a icula ion o iden i ica ion wi h Mapuche cul u e
and he Chilean majo i y cul u e.
The e a e no signi ican associa ions be ween he sex o he
pa icipan s and he accul u a i e ypology o which hey belong.
Typology di e ences in language luency
To es H1 and H2, ANOVA was ca ied ou using Be y’s
ca ego ical model (accul u a i e ypologies) as ixed a iables and
dimensions o he dual educa ional a ionali y model as dependen
a iables (Table1).
In he luency in speaking Mapunzugun, an omnibus ANOVA
ound signi ica i e di e ences be ween iden i y ypes (F
(3,463) = 19.458; p < 0.001). Bicul u al and e hnic iden i y g oups sco e
highe in luency in speaking Mapunzugun han assimila ed and
ma ginalized g oups.
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 07 on ie sin.o g
Typology di e ences in he pe cep ion o
cul u al di e ences
In he dimension o pe cep ion o cul u al di e ences in
knowledge and educa ion be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e,
esul s showed signi ica i e di e ences (F (3,463) = 19.458; p < 0.001).
Acco ding o pos hoc Duncan es , he bicul u al g oup sco ed highe
(M = 4.07) han he assimila ed (M = 3.66) and ma ginalized (M = 3.41)
g oups. People o e hnic iden i y ypology also a ed highe (M = 3.94)
han he assimila ed and ma ginalized g oups in his dimension. The e
was no di e ence be ween bicul u al and e hnic iden i y g oup
pa icipan s. All g oups sco ed abo e he heo e ical mean, and he
di e ence was g aded a he han ex eme. Taking he ex eme sco es
(4 and 5) as indica o s o s ong ag eemen wi h his scale, i was
ound ha 68.5% o he bicul u al g oup and 51.4% o people wi h
high e hnic iden i y sha ed hese a ings, compa ed o only 39.5% o
assimila ed and 27.1% o ma ginalized people.
Typology di e ences in he impo ance o
eaching Mapuche cul u e
In he dimension o he impo ance o Mapuche cul u al eaching
o he in eg a ion o knowledge and iden i y, signi ican di e ences we e
ound (F (3,463) = 12.547; p < 0.001). Bicul u al people also sco e highe
(M = 4.29) han all he o he g oups. The e we e no di e ences be ween
people o high e hnic iden i y (M = 3.90), assimila ed (M = 3.77), and
ma ginalized (M = 3.64) g oups. Taking he ex eme sco es (4 and 5) as
indica o s o s ong ag eemen wi h his scale, hese we e ound in 77%
o he bicul u al and 58.7% o he high e hnic iden i y people s. 53.1%
o he assimila ed and 49% o he ma ginalized people.
Typology di e ences in he pe cep ion o
school as a ac o o assimila ion
In he ques ions on school as a ac o o assimila ion, signi ican
di e ences we e also ound (F (3,463) = 10.91; p < 0.001). Bicul u al
people also sco e highe (M = 3.44) han he ma ginalized (M = 2.86) and
assimila ed (M = 2.99) g oups while hose o e hnic iden i y (M = 3.26)
sco e highe han he ma ginalized g oup. Taking he ex eme sco es (4
and 5) as indica o s o s ong ag eemen wi h his scale, hese we e ound
in 42.7% o bicul u al and 35% o pe sons o high e hnic iden i y s. only
22.1% o assimila ed and 9.8% o ma ginalized people.
Typology di e ences in he jus i ica ion o
dual a ionali y
Signi ican di e ences we e ound be ween g oups in he
dimension o jus i ica ion o dual a ionali y (FF (3,463) = 17.127; p <
0.001). Bicul u al people sco ed highe (M = 3.70) han ma ginalized
(M = 3.02) and assimila ed (M = 3.30) g oups, and e hnic iden i y
(M = 3.50) sco ed highe han ma ginalized g oups. Taking he
ex eme sco es (4 and 5) as indica o s o s ong ag eemen wi h his
scale, i was ound ha 55.7% o bicul u al people and 26% o
pa icipan s wi h a high e hnic iden i y s ongly jus i y assimila ion as
an e ec o con ac wi h he dominan majo i y and de end he
main enance o Mapunzugun, compa ed o 11.5% o assimila ed and
6.9% o ma ginalized people.
Typology di e ences in he posi i e
e alua ion o bicul u al p ac ices
In he posi i e e alua ion o he bicul u al p ac ices dimension,
omnibus ANOVA ound signi ica i e di e ences (F
(3,463) = 15.895; p < 0.001). Bicul u al g oup sco es we e highe
(M = 3.89) han he Mapuche e hnic iden i y g oups (M = 3.41), he
ma ginalized (3.26), and he assimila ed (M = 3.51) g oups.
Howe e , all g oups sco ed abo e he heo e ical mean, and he
di e ence is g aded and no ex eme. Taking he ex eme sco es (4
and 5) as indica o s o s ong ag eemen wi h his scale, i was
ound ha 52.6% o bicul u al and 30.4% o people wi h high
e hnic iden i y sha e hese ideas, compa ed o 36.7% o assimila ed
and 16.5% o ma ginalized people.
In addi ion, iden i ica ion wi h Mapuche bu also wi h Chileans
co ela es posi i ely wi h all dimensions, sugges ing ha iden i ica ion
wi h e hnic g oup ein o ces ag eemen wi h pe cei ed cul u al
di e ences bu ha na ional iden i y is no an inhibi o y ac o o
ecognize i .2
Co ela ion analysis be ween luency in
speaking Mapunzugun o Mapudungun,
u ban s. u al con ex , and age wi h
a i ude owa d educa ion
To examine H3, co ela ion analysis was ca ied ou . Resul s
showed ha he highe luency in speaking Mapunzugun was
posi i ely associa ed wi h all dimensions o a i udes owa d school
educa ion: pe cep ion o cul u al di e ences in knowledge and
educa ion be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e ( = 0.30; p < 0.001),
alua ion o he eaching o Mapuche cul u e ( = 0. 30; p < 0.001),
pe cep ion o school as a ac o o assimila ion ( = 0.30; p < 0.001),
alua ion o bicul u al p ac ices ( = 0.29; p < 0.001), and he
jus i ica ion o double a ionali y ( = 0.24; p < 0.001).
To explo e he associa ion be ween u ban s. u al con ex s, poin -
bise ial co ela ions we e ca ied ou . The esul s also e ealed ha
belonging o an u ban en i onmen (u ban = 1; u al = 2) was
associa ed wi h a highe pe cep ion o cul u al di e ences in
knowledge and educa ion be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e
( = −0.29; p < 0.001), a highe alua ion o he eaching o Mapuche
cul u e o he in eg a ion o knowledge and iden i y ( = −0.24;
2 Mapuche iden i ica ion co ela es wi h he pe cei ed cul u al di e ence ( = 0.32;
p < 0.001), he alua ion o he eaching o Mapuche cul u e ( = 0.23; p < 0.001), wi h
he pe cep ion o he school as an assimila ing agen ( = 0.24; p < 0.001), he
jus i ica ion o he double a ionali y ( = 0.28; p < 0.001), and he p ac ices ha
in eg a e bo h cul u es( = 0.25; p < 0.001), Chilean iden i ica ion also co ela es wi h
he pe cei ed cul u al di e ence ( = 0.16; p < 0.001), he alua ion o he eaching
o Mapuche cul u e ( = 0.18; p < 0.001), wi h he pe cep ion o he school as an
assimila ing agen ( = 0.13; p < 0.001),), he jus i ica ion o he double a ionali y
( = 0.19; p < 0.001), and he p ac ices ha in eg a e bo h cul u es( = 0.25; p < 0.001).
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 08 on ie sin.o g
p < 0.001), highe pe cep ion o school as a ac o o assimila ion
( = −0.40: p < 0.001), highe jus i ica ion o dual a ionali y ( = −0.21;
p < 0.001), al hough no wi h a highe alua ion o he posi i e e ec s
o bicul u al p ac ices. In addi ion, as he age o he pa icipan s
inc eased, he di e ence in he pe cep ion o he school as an
assimila ing agen ( = 0.37; p < 0.001), he pe cei ed cul u al di e ence
( = 0.27; p < 0.001), he alua ion o he eaching o Mapuche cul u e
( = 0.18; p < 0.001), he jus i ica ion o he double a ionali y ( = 0.18;
p < 0.001), and he p ac ices ha in eg a e bo h cul u es ( = 0.17;
p < 0.001) we e also inc eased. No associa ions we e ound be ween
he sex o he pa icipan s and he dimensions s udied.
Mul iple eg ession analysis o he speci ic
in luence o luency in speaking
Mapunzugun o Mapudungun
To examine H3 on he speci ic in luence o each a iable,
eg ession analyses we e un on he scale dimensions o he
p edic o ’s age, u ban, schooling, and linguis ic luency in
Mapunzugun. Con olling o he in luence o educa ional le el, in
o de o impo ance, pa icipan s luen in Mapunzugun (β = 0.16;
p < 0.001) and o highe age (β = 0.03; p < 0.05), and o a lesse ex en ,
om u ban con ex s (β = −0.19; p < 0.05) pe cei e mo e di e ences
be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e (F (4,467) = 17.698; p < 0.001).
To examine he e ec s o linguis ic luency in Mapunzugun on
each dimension o he scale, eg ession analyses we e un. (β = 0.16;
p < 0.001) and o highe age (β = 0.03; p < 0.05), and o a lesse ex en ,
om u ban con ex s (β = −0.19; p < 0.05) pe cei e mo e di e ences
be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e (F (4,467) = 17.698; p < 0.001).
Simila ly, con olling o he in luence o educa ional le el and
age, people who speak luen ly Mapunzugun (β = 0.22; p < 0.001)
and o a lesse ex en om an u ban en i onmen (β = −0.23;
p = 0.058), alue Mapuche educa ion mo e highly (F (4,467) = 13.862;
p < 0.001).
I is also obse ed ha con olling o he in luence o age,
en i onmen , and educa ional le el, hose who a e mo e luen in
Mapunzugun (β = 0.14; p < 0.001) pe cei e la gely ha he en i onmen
o ces hem o assimila e (F (4,467) = 9.176; p < 0.001). Finally,
con olling o he in luence o educa ional le el, age, and
TABLE1 Means, s anda d de ia ions, and One-Way analyses o Va iance in he dimensions o a i udes owa d school educa ion.
Measu e Accul u a i e ypology N M SD F (3,463) p
Cul u al di e ences in knowledge and educa ion Ma ginaliza ion 96 3.41 0.783 19,458 acd 0.000
E hnic iden i y 109 3.94 0.716
Assimila ion 81 3.66 0.804
Bicul u alism 178 4.07 0.668
To al 464 3.83 0.771
Impo ance o eaching Mapuche cul u e o
in eg a ion o knowledge and iden i y
Ma ginaliza ion 96 3.64 1.085 12,547 ce 0.000
E hnic iden i y 109 3.90 0.976
Assimila ion 81 3.77 0.908
Bicul u alism 178 4.29 0.794
To al 464 3.97 0.957
Pe cep ion o he school as an assimila ing ac o Ma ginaliza ion 96 2.87 0.850 10,910 ac 0.000
E hnic iden i y 109 3.26 0.894
Assimila ion 81 2.99 0.859
Bicul u alism 178 3.44 0.894
To al 464 3.20 0.907
Jus i ica ion o he double a ionali y Ma ginaliza ion 96 3.02 0.756 17,127 ac 0.000
E hnic iden i y 109 3.50 0.721
Assimila ion 81 3.30 0.800
Bicul u alism 178 3.70 0.765
To al 464 3.44 0.798
Posi i e alua ion o bicul u al p ac ices Ma ginaliza ion 96 3.26 0.707 15,895 ce 0.000
E hnic iden i y 109 3.41 0.845
Assimila ion 81 3.51 0.739
Bicul u alism 178 3.89 0.727
To al 464 3.54 0.787
Duncans’ pos -hoc es : asigni ica i e di e ence be ween Ma ginaliza ion and E hnic Iden i y, bsigni ica i e di e ence be ween Ma ginaliza ion and Assimila ion, csigni ica i e di e ence
be ween Ma ginaliza ion and Bicul u alism, dsigni ica i e di e ence be ween E hnic Iden i y and Assimila ion, esigni ica i e di e ence be ween E hnic Iden i y and Bicul u alism, signi ica i e
di e ence be ween Assimila ion and Bicul u alism.
Quilaqueo e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2023.1112778
F on ie s in Psychology 09 on ie sin.o g
en i onmen , people who speak he Mapuche language mo e luen ly
(β = 0.19; p < 0.001) alue bicul u al p ac ices mo e highly (F
(4,467) = 10.933; p < 0.001). Resul s suppo ha luency in he i age
language ein o ces all dimensions o a i udes owa d school.
Discussion
Desc ip i e esul s e ealed ha mos o he pa icipan s p esen ed
a bicul u al p o ile, ep esen ing 39.4% o he o al sample. This
dis ibu ion has been p e iously epo ed in Chile (see, Le Foulon,
2022) o su eys in 2006 and 2016 showing he impo ance o
bicul u al iden i y and in he con ex o Sweden and No way wi h
Sami mino i ies, li ing in hese coun ies, 32% e hnic iden i y, 32%
bicul u al, and 36% assimila ed we e ound (K e nmo and Heye dahl,
1996). In a zone o cul u al con ac , a “blended” cul u e usually
eme ges. Ou da a sugges ha he las one is he mo e p e alen
because double iden i ica ion was he mo e common answe —no
only in ou sample bu also in a gene al su ey. Fo ins ance, membe s
o u ban Mapuche associa ions ended o sel -iden i y as Mapuche
champu ia ( he mix u e o di e en hings wi hou a unique o m in
Mapunzugun) o sha ing an iden i y based on cul u al hyb idiza ion,
e idencing hei cul u al “mes izaje” (B ablec, 2021).
“Champu iado(a”) is a pe son who is pa Mapuche and pa Chilean.
This mixed iden i y is e idenced many imes in he su names
(Mapuche and Cas illian simul aneously). The champu ia is a pe son
who has wo wo lds. I is someone in whom wo cul u es inhabi
(Mo aga, 2021). An impo an mino i y epo s a Mapuche iden i y
o seg ega ed o pu ely e hnic iden i y. As a s a egy o esis ance o
assimila ion, no only u al bu also u ban Mapuche ha e ended o
os e concep ions o e hnocul u al pu i y o de end hei h ea ened
cul u es (B ablec, 2021). Ou esul s a e cong uen wi h indings ha
indigenous mig an s in ci ies a e s ongly o ien ed owa d no only
main aining hei cul u e, con inuing hei indigenous collec i e
iden i y, mainly by bicul u alism bu also by main aining an
indigenous e hnic iden i y (Campos e al., 2018).
Among ou sample, a mino i y hink o hemsel es as sha ing a
Chilean iden i y. In ha sense, hey a e “awinkado,” a pe son who
challenges he Mapuche cul u e and begins o beha e acco ding o
wha he Mapuche concei e as Winka (whi e mes izo Chilean) cul u al
codes (B ablec, 2021). Finally, ma ginal o ien a ion was ela i ely
impo an . In ac , s udies sugges ha a p opo ion o u ban Mapuche
ha e had o lea n o li e as ou side s in bo h u al and u ban wo lds.
They ace p essu e om he non-Indigenous u ban socie y o hide
hei indigenei y and om he u al Mapuche socie y o o igin who
accuse hem o a lack o au hen ici y (B ablec, 2021). In his sample, a
g ea ypological a iabili y could beobse ed wi hin a amewo k o
high iden i y wi h Mapuche cul u e and, simila ly, al hough wi h less
s eng h, iden i ica ion wi h Chilean cul u e.
Resul s suppo ed H1, indica ing ha pa icipan s wi h high
Mapuche e hnic iden i y and bicul u al iden i y we e mo e luen in
Mapuche language. Howe e , i is impo an o beawa e ha luency
in Mapudungun is limi ed since a su ey ound ha among sel -
iden i ied Mapuche esponden s, 76% o u ban Mapuche people and
57% o u al Mapuche people did no speak Mapuche (Le Foulon,
2022). In ac , app oxima ely 10% o he Chilean popula ion belongs
o an indigenous g oup, bu only 1–2% speak Mapunzugun and o he
indigenous languages.
They also suppo ed H2 wi h nuance. Bicul u al and hose
who sha e a Mapuche e hnic iden i y ag ee mo e han he
assimila ed and ma ginalized people in he pe cep ion o cul u al
di e ences in knowledge and educa ion be ween Mapuche and
Chilean cul u e. Bicul u al and e hnic iden i y pa icipan s also
ag ee mo e on school as a ac o o assimila ion, as well as ag ee
mo e wi h he jus i ica ion o dual a ionali y han ma ginal
iden i y—and bicul u al iden i y also sco e highe han assimila ed
in hese wo dimensions. Howe e , on he impo ance o Mapuche
cul u al eaching o he in eg a ion o knowledge and iden i y
and posi i e e alua ion o bicul u al p ac ices, bicul u al
pa icipan s sco e highe han he o he h ee g oups. Bicul u al
pa icipan s show he g ea es numbe o di e ences, in addi ion
o being hose who mos alue bicul u al p ac ices, which is o
beexpec ed and alida es his ypology. Simila ly, hey a e he
ones who mos insis on eaching Mapuche cul u e a school,
showing a mo e p oac i e a i ude han hose wi h an e hnic
iden i y. Weha e been able o obse e ha bicul u al people wi h
double educa ional a ionali y a e hose who mos alue he
knowledge o Mapuche cul u e and hose p ac ices ha seek he
in eg a ion o bo h cul u es. Bicul u al people, om a pe spec i e
o double educa ional a ionali y, assume and alue hei own
Mapuche sociocul u al knowledge, which is con as ed wi h
Chilean cul u e. They do no ejec he knowledge imposed by he
dominan cul u e.
Finally, bo h iden i ica ion wi h Mapuche and Chilean people
we e posi i ely associa ed wi h he pe cep ion o di e ences in
knowledge and educa ion be ween Mapuche and Chilean cul u e, he
alua ion o he eaching o Mapuche cul u e, he pe cep ion o he
school as an assimila ing agen , he jus i ica ion o he double
a ionali y, and he p ac ices ha in eg a e bo h cul u es. The
associa ion was s ong wi h he iden i ica ion wi h Mapuche people
han wi h Chilean people as could be expec ed, bu sugges ha
iden i ica ion wi h a na ional g oup is no an obs acle and e en
ein o ces he pe cep ion o cul u al di e ences and he impo ance
o Mapuche cul u e.
One o he key elemen s in he de elopmen o bicul u al people
who ha e de eloped a double educa ional a ionali y has been he
mas e y o he Mapuche language: Mapunzugun. In ac , he highe
he luency in speaking Mapunzugun, he g ea e he pe cep ion o
cul u al di e ences in educa ional knowledge be ween Mapuche and
Chilean cul u e, he mo e he eaching o Mapuche cul u al elemen s
is alued, he mo e he school is pe cei ed as a ac o o assimila ion,
he mo e bicul u al p ac ices a e alued, and he mo e he con ex is
pe cei ed as o cing adap a ion. Indeed, e en con olling o he
in luence o age and le el o schooling, people wi h highe luency
in he use o Mapunzugun pe cei e mo e di e ences be ween
Mapuche and Chilean cul u e and he school as an assimila ing
agen , which he social con ex o ces hem o adap o, and hey
alue o a g ea e ex en bo h educa ion based on Mapuche cul u e
and p ac ices ha in eg a e bo h cul u es. Suppo ing H3, he
linguis ic ac o , hus, ein o ces bo h belie s and beha io s o sel -
ecogni ion and de ense o his o ical collec i e knowledge, as well as
beha io s ha p oac i ely seek iden i y wi hou ha ming an
o ien a ion owa d bicul u al p ac ices whe e Wes e n knowledge
is p edominan .
Explo a o y analysis o he ela ionships be ween he
sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s and he
