sus ainabili y
A icle
To Buy o No o Buy: How Beha io al Habi s A ec he
Repu chase In en ion o Cob anded Wea able
Fi ness Technology
Sa da Mohammadi 1, Hossein Abdolmaleki 2,* , Sholeh Khodadad Kashi 3, Aina a Be nal-Ga cía4
and Pablo Gál ez-Ruiz 5
Ci a ion: Mohammadi, S.;
Abdolmaleki, H.; Khodadad Kashi, S.;
Be nal-Ga cía, A.; Gál ez-Ruiz, P. To
Buy o No o Buy: How Beha io al
Habi s A ec he Repu chase
In en ion o Cob anded Wea able
Fi ness Technology. Sus ainabili y
2021,13, 6499. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/su13116499
Academic Edi o : Les e Johnson
Recei ed: 17 Ap il 2021
Accep ed: 24 May 2021
Published: 7 June 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
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ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Depa men o Spo Managemen , Uni e si y o Ku dis an, Sanandaj 66177-15175, I an;
sa da [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Spo Managemen , Ka aj B anch, Islamic Azad Uni e si y, Ka aj 31499-68111, I an
3Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Spo Sciences, K.N. Toosi Uni e si y o Technology,
Teh an 19697-64499, I an; [email p o ec ed]
4Depa men o Spo and Compu e Science, Uni e sidad Pablo de Ola ide, 41013 Se ille, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
5Facul y o Law and Social Sciences, Valencian In e na ional Uni e si y, 46002 Valencia, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +98-9124993544
Abs ac :
Luxu y spo s p oduc s and b ands in gene al ha e seen a signi ican inc ease in hei
sales, highligh ing he high consump ion o sma spo s wa ches. The pu pose o his s udy is o
in es iga e he media ing ole o cob anding, sel -p esen a ion, sel -exp ession, and symbolic alues
in he ela ionship be ween he consume ’s need o uniqueness and he in en ion o epu chase
luxu y sma spo s wa ches. The sample consis ed o a o al o 217 use s o sma spo s wa ches.
An online ques ionnai e was used o da a collec ion (24 i ems om 6 scales) and Sma PLS-SEM
so wa e was used o con i ma o y ac o analysis and o es a s uc u al equa ion model. The
indings p o ide an insigh in o he impo ance o cob anding on sel -exp ession, sel -p esen a ion,
and symbolic alue. Speci ically, in he case o in en ion o epu chase, he esul s show ha symbolic
alue is he a iable wi h he highes p edic i e alue. This s udy p o ides an impo an ad ance
in he academic li e a u e ela ed o luxu y p oduc s in he spo s sec o , and he esul s acili a e a
be e unde s anding o he consume ’s in en ion o epu chase.
Keywo ds:
cob anding; luxu y; sel -exp ession; sel -p esen a ion; spo s consume beha io ; sym-
bolic alues; uniqueness; wea able i ness echnology
1. In oduc ion
In he wo ld o ma ke ing, s i ing o cus ome sa is ac ion is undamen ally impo -
an because he cus ome is he main elemen o he li e o he o ganiza ion. Howe e , he
a i ude owa ds luxu y p oduc s is di e en om o he goods and equi es a e y p ecise
app oach o ma ke ing [
1
]. Cu en ly, he s udy o luxu y spo s p oduc s and b ands has
a ac ed he a en ion o many ma ke e s and academic esea che s. In addi ion, d ama ic
changes in he ecep ion o luxu y spo s p oduc s and b ands and a signi ican inc ease
in hei sales can be seen a ound he wo ld [
2
]. Rela ed o his, he ma ke o luxu y
spo s p oduc s such as spo s ca s, spo swea , and spo s equipmen , in 2018 shows
sales o mo e han 1.2 illion eu os [
3
]. Addi ionally, despi e ea s o luc ua ions and
ecession, 2019 was a good yea o he luxu y indus y, which eached a u no e o abou
$1.4 illion globally [4].
The e is usually no single, cohe en de ini ion o he concep o luxu y among academic
esea che s; howe e , he e m is mo e o p oduc s, se ices, and b ands ha ha e a high
p ice, an exclusi e ma ke posi ion, excellen quali y, and unique beau y o c ea e a sense
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su13116499 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 2 o 16
o pleasu e [
5
]. Luxu y p oduc s a e di e en om p oduc s ha a e bough on a daily
basis because hese p oduc s, in addi ion o being needed daily, also mee social needs
such as social p es ige, and buye s show hei pe sonali y by buying luxu y p oduc s [
6
].
Be hon e al. [
7
] conside a luxu y p oduc o ha e quali y, known o m and epu a ion,
and limi ed a ailabili y. Acco ding o hem, a luxu y p oduc has he h ee dimensions o
unc ional alue (main ad an age and p oduc quali y), expe imen al alue (expe imen al
and en e ainmen modes and p esence in he consump ion o luxu y b ands), and symbolic
alue (abili y o he p oduc o exp ess he pe sonal moods o he owne ) [
7
]. Luxu y b ands
show mo e han jus p ac ical applica ion, enabling he consume o eel pe sonally in line
wi h ha b and and o conside hemsel es equal o ce ain people [8].
Today, as consume p e e ences ha e di e si ied and hei desi e o sel -exp ession
and uniqueness has inc eased, he popula i y o luxu y and special y p oduc s has in-
c eased signi ican ly [
9
,
10
]. In his ega d, Ko le [
11
] s a ed ha consume s need o be
unique in dis inguishing hemsel es om o he s so ha hey can de elop and enhance
hei social image [
12
]. On he cause o his, Wang and Lin [
13
] belie e ha consume s
like luxu y goods, among o he easons, because i c ea es social ela ionships o hem.
Sel -exp ession h ough luxu y p oduc s also encou ages consume s o use hese p oduc s
o exp ess hei pe sonali y ai s. Thus, buying luxu y p oduc s inc eases consume s’ pe -
sonal iden i y by sa is ying hei need o be unique [
14
]. Fu he mo e, he uniqueness o he
p oduc i sel makes i possible o di e en ia e be ween hem and o he cus ome s [
15
]. On
he o he hand, business expe s oday ecommend s a egic pa ne ships as a undamen al
s a egy o s eng hen compe i i eness. One o hese s a egies is cob anding, which occu s
when he owne s o wo o mo e b ands decide o pu oge he hei b ands o o e a mo e
powe ul and aluable p oduc o se ice o hei cus ome s han hey could o e alone;
his should be in a way ha b ings he maximum bene i o he consume .
Recen de elopmen s in echnology ha e ans o med he sales s uc u e o luxu y
spo s p oduc s based on deep adap a ion, ailo ed o he wishes and as es o cus ome s. In
oday’s compe i i e ma ke , o gain a oo hold in he minds o consume s, a slow and loyal
us in he company is o g ea impo ance [
16
]. In I an, due o he dis us o domes ic
spo s p oduc s, cus ome s na u ally buy o eign spo s p oduc s [
17
]. In ecen yea s, he
desi e o spo s ans and a hle es o buy luxu y spo s p oduc s has inc eased. E idence
om p e ious esea ch [
17
] sugges s ha o some, p ice is no impo an bu a he he
model and design o luxu y spo s p oduc s. Due o cu ency luc ua ions and economic
p oblems, he abili y o buy luxu y spo s p oduc s o socie y has dec eased; howe e ,
e idence om p e ious esea ch [
18
] sugges s ha a pa o socie y ha has mo e a o able
economic condi ions s ill ends o buy luxu y spo s p oduc s [
19
]. The esul s o s udies
such as Roux e al. [
20
] and Shen e al. [
12
] emphasize ha inc easing he p ice o luxu y
b ands, dis ibu ion es ic ions, and, consequen ly, hei sca ci y can be a ool o con ey
he need o be unique and o show o . The e o e, consume s wi h high sel -es eem end o
spend mo e esou ces on buying p oduc s ha a e less a ailable o o he s. This c ea es a
sense o uniqueness, os en a ion, and sel -exp ession in hem [
19
]. Maybe his di e ence
in p ice gi es hem an iden i y and, he e o e, hese cus ome s wan o gain p es ige and
ad an age by spending money on luxu y spo s p oduc s. In ac , he consump ion o
luxu y p oduc s is signi ican ly a ec ed by psychological componen s [
21
], a phenomenon
ha is e y common in ou socie y oday.
On he o he hand, in en ion is a concep ha is widely s udied by esea che s in
ma ke ing, and he in en ion o buy is ac ually a plan o buy a pa icula p oduc o se ice
in he u u e o he likelihood ha he cus ome will buy a de e mined p oduc o se ice
in he u u e. In en ion o epu chase is he decision o indi iduals o pu chase selec ed
se ices om a s o e om which hey ha e pu chased some hing [
18
]. The in en ion o
epu chase can also be o pu chase new se ices om he same company, and, in his
sense, epu chasing cus ome s con ibu e o he success and p o i abili y o companies and
b ands. In ac , cus ome e en ion has ecei ed a lo o a en ion in ecen yea s because i
means gaining a compe i i e ad an age, and some s udies ha e examined he a iables
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 3 o 16
ha de e mine he epu chase in en ion. In en ion o epu chase e e s o he in e es o
people who wan o epu chase in he u u e [
5
]. Pas s udies ha e shown ha he endency
o epu chase is assessed in e ms o he need o be unique [
2
,
4
,
22
–
26
]. Cus ome s espond
o some o hei inne needs by pu chasing luxu y spo s b ands; hence, hey will look o
b ands ha can be e mee hose needs. Meanwhile, companies‘ neglec o his issue can
se e ely a ec hei ma ke sha e; he e o e, he main issue o his s udy is o in es iga e
he media ing ole o cob anding, sel -employmen , symbolic alue, and os en a ion in he
ela ionship be ween he consume ’s need o uniqueness and he desi e o buy luxu y
spo s p oduc s.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
In de eloping he concep ual model, he s udy d aws on ecen de elopmen s in
he li e a u e, including s udies on cob anding, e.g., [
27
,
28
], sel -exp ession, e.g., [
29
],
sel -p esen a ion, e.g., [
30
], and symbolic alue, e.g., [
31
]. Howe e , he heo e ical oun-
da ion o he concep ual model is based on key o e a ching heo y, namely, he heo y o
uniqueness, e.g., [32].
2.1. Need o Be Unique
Indi iduals a e mo i a ed o see one’s sel as di e en and dis inc i e om o he s
o meaning ul sel -iden i ica ion. The heo y o uniqueness a gues ha when he need
o eel di e en om o he people is a oused and in e en s whe e he sel -pe cep ion o
uniqueness is unde mined, he need o eel di e en compe es wi h o he mo i es o p o ec
and enhance such uniqueness [
32
,
33
]. Following on om he uniqueness heo y, consume s’
need o uniqueness should e lec indi idual di e ences in consume coun e -con o mi y
mo i a ion— he mo i a ion o di e en ia ing hemsel es ia consume goods. The isual
display o hese goods in ol es he oli ional o will ul pu sui o di e en ness, ela i e o
o he s, as an end goal [34].
Cus ome s a y in hei deg ee o uniqueness, bu mos o hem s i e o be unique
in socially app o ed ways, and only a ew a e exposed o social no ms. One way o
achie e uniqueness is h ough consump ion [
35
]. Consume s’ need o uniqueness is
demons a ed in h ee ypes o consume beha io : (1) c ea i e choice coun e -con o mi y,
(2) unpopula choice coun e -con o mi y, and (3) a oidance o simila i y. In he i s ype o
beha io , c ea i e choice coun e -con o mi y, consume s pu chase goods ha exp ess hei
uniqueness ha a e also accep able o o he s. Consume s iden i ied as ma ke ma ens [
36
]
a e pa o his g oup. Thus, b and names ha can o e some dis inguishing a ibu es
(e.g., unique ea u es, exclusi i y, p es ige) appeal o consume s who demons a e his ype
o consume beha io . O he consume s willingly isk social disapp o al o es ablish hei
uniqueness by selec ing p oduc s ha de ia e om g oup no ms hough unpopula choice
coun e -con o mi y consume beha io . In e es ingly, hei isky beha io may ul ima ely
inc ease hei sel -image. These consume s a e no conce ned abou c i icism om o he s;
in ac , hey end o make pu chase decisions ha o he s migh conside biza e in con as
o consume s who make pu chase decisions o con o m o pee p essu e. The inal g oup o
consume s is in en on he a oidance o simila i y o goods ha a e pa o he mains eam.
Consume s in his g oup end o selec p oduc s o b ands ha a e no likely o become oo
popula bu will dis inguish hem om o he s. To a oid simila i y wi h o he s, consume s
may de elop a a ie y o s a egies. Fo ins ance, hey may pu chase discon inued s yles,
shop in in age s o es, o combine appa el in unusual ways. The need o uniqueness can
ha e a signi ican e ec on a consume ’s pu chase decisions [
37
]. Consume s who pu sue
he need o be unique exp ess i h ough b ands and p oduc s o di e en ia e hemsel es
om o he s [
38
], and, o his eason, consume s’ desi e o buy a p oduc o se ice e lec s
hei unde s anding o he pu chase.
Yu e al. [
39
] a gued ha p oduc quali y is one o he de e minan s o consume s’ sub-
jec i e judgmen abou o e all b and alue and supe io i y. Aside om quali y, p e ious
s udies ha e shown ha he epu chase decision is la gely in luenced by consume s’ need
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 4 o 16
o a p oduc o se ice o be unique. Kelle [
40
] ound ha uniqueness as a ype o b and
alue has a posi i e e ec on consume willingness o pay highe p ices.
Roux e al. [
20
] s a ed ha uniqueness a ec s loyal y o luxu y b ands. S a hopoulou
and Balabanis [
35
], in hei esea ch, epo ed he impac o uniqueness on he consume
pe cep ion o he b and. Rehman e al. [
26
] also s a ed ha he need o uniqueness has
a posi i e e ec on B i ish consume s o buy global b ands. Abosag e al. [
32
] acknowl-
edged ha he need o uniqueness can inc ease b and equi y, which, in u n, leads o
consume sa is ac ion.
On he o he hand, Pa k e al. [
41
] s a ed ha now, as consume p e e ences ha e
di e si ied and buye s’ desi e o exp ess hei uniqueness has inc eased, he popula i y
o join p oduc s has inc eased signi ican ly. This is because sha ed b anding mee s an
indi idual’s needs and as es [
41
]. Ta iq and Iqbal [
42
] also ound a posi i e ela ionship
be ween he need o uniqueness and he cob anding o o eign spo swea . S i as a a
and Balaji [
43
] s a ed ha globaliza ion and he need o be unique de e mine he a i ude
o consume s in eme ging ma ke s owa ds common global b ands. Howe e , Knigh
and Kim [
37
] s a ed ha he need o be unique p e en s simila pu chases om o he
people and s imula es c ea i e and uncon en ional pu chases. In his way, he endency o
epu chase duplica e p oduc s is educed. On he o he hand, Shen e al. [
12
] acknowledged
ha consume s’ need o uniqueness a ec s he pe cep ion o buying common ashion
b ands. Kauppinen-Räisänen e al. [
22
] also s a ed ha he need o be unique s eng hens
he c ea ion o unique b ands h ough collabo a ion be ween wo companies. The e o e,
acco ding o he indings o p e ious esea ch, he ollowing hypo hesis is exp essed:
Hypo hesis 1.
The need o uniqueness has an e ec on he cob anding o luxu y spo s p oduc s.
2.2. Cob anding
Cob anding is a powe ul ma ke ing s a egy: i can a ac new cus ome s o p od-
uc s, e esh a s ale b and image, inc ease ma ke sha e, and help companies de elop
echnologies h ough knowledge exchange. The concep o cob anding has been de ined
in a numbe o ways. Acco ding o Leu hesse e al. [
28
], cob anding in ol es combining
wo o mo e well-known b ands in o a single p oduc and is an al e na i e o de eloping
new p oduc s. Bou en e al. [
44
] de ined cob anding as a s a egy ha allows a b and o
inno a e wi h he suppo o a pa ne b and.
A sha ed b anding s a egy o e s new oppo uni ies o in luence and alue c ea ion.
To c ea e a hyb id b and, i is e y bene icial and cos -e ec i e o bo ow knowledge
om ano he b and ha is al eady known in his ca ego y o p oduc ins ead o in es ing
hea ily in esou ces. Addi ionally, because people in compe i i e ma ke s esis b ands,
he common b and mus be di e en a some le el because consume s in such compe i i e
ma ke s usually buy om a pa icula b and. On he o he hand, al hough cob anding can
be conside ed a di e en ia ion s a egy when en e ing a b and alliance, i is di e en ia ed
om i s compe i o s, and he combina ion o wo unique b ands becomes a special and
p ominen b and. This can be due o he need o cus ome uniqueness [
45
]. How compa-
nies pe cei e hei b and a i udes de e mines he cha ac e is ics, iden i y, and pe sonali y
o he b and. Sha ing simila alues can acili a e cob anding and public ela ions ac i i ies;
he e o e, each b and is cons an ly s eng hening i s ma ke pa ne b and [46].
In his ega d, Bake e al. [
47
] s a ed ha in ecen yea s, spo s has become one o he
a eas in which global b ands end o p esen hemsel es in his ma ke because cus ome
loyal y in his a ea is di e en om loyal y o o he p oduc s.
Kauppinen-Räisänen e al. [22]
also s a ed ha he c ea ion o a join luxu y spo s b and h ough he coope a ion o wo
companies c ea es oppo uni ies o consume s o sel -p esen and exp ess hemsel es,
he eby s eng hening b and loyal y. On he o he hand,
Fujak e al. [48]
s a ed ha in
ecen yea s, some non-spo s luxu y b ands, in coope a ion wi h spo s b ands, ha e been
ying o pene a e his ma ke . This collabo a ion has led o p oduc s ha can inc ease he
likelihood o epea pu chases by sa is ying consume s’ os en a ion and sel -exp ession [
48
].
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 5 o 16
Shen e al. [
12
] s a ed ha consume s end o show hemsel es di e en ly om o he s by
buying common luxu y b ands, and common luxu y spo s b ands sell quickly among
consume s. Howe e , he impo an poin is ha bo h b ands ha pa ne wi h each o he
mus be special, and he new p oduc mus be a e in he ma ke o c ea e a sense o
uniqueness in he cus ome a e pu chase. Based on he abo e, he ollowing hypo heses
a e o med:
Hypo hesis 2. Cob anding has an e ec on he sel -exp ession o luxu y spo s p oduc s.
Hypo hesis 3. Cob anding a ec s he symbolic alues o luxu y spo s p oduc s.
Hypo hesis 4. Cob anding has an e ec on he display o luxu y spo s p oduc s.
2.3. Sel -Exp ession
Belie s abou onesel a e called “sel -exp ession”, which consis s o he sel ( eal o
ideal) and he social image o he sel ( eal o ideal) [
49
]. B ands whose image is consis en
wi h he consume s’ pe sonal image a e mo e likely o be p e e ed and posi i ely e alua ed
by hen consume s [
29
]. They also lean owa ds b ands ha allow hem o inc ease hei
social iden i y in social exchanges. Because o hei symbolic ole, b ands can help people
de ine, p omo e, and ela e o hemsel es and o he s. Acco ding o iden i y heo y, sel -
exp ession can be seen as he consume ’s pe cep ion o he abili y o he p oduc o
se ice o exp ess he dimensions o pe sonal iden i y [
50
]. Bidmon [
51
] and Huang [
52
]
showed ha he e a e no many b ands ha ha e a high deg ee o sel -exp ession; howe e ,
hese b ands can play an impo an ole in shaping cus ome iden i y by c ea ing posi i e
emo ions o he b and, which c ea e he g ound o loyal y, symbolism, and sel -exp ession
as well as s ong emo ional bonds such as b and lo e.
Sel -p omo ion o luxu y spo s b ands encou ages people o use hem o exp ess hei
pe sonal cha ac e is ics so ha common luxu y spo s b ands may in luence sel -exp ession
a i udes owa ds luxu y spo s b ands. Abosag e al. [
32
] s a ed ha people display
consume goods in o de o c ea e o p omo e hei social and pe sonal image. Acco ding
o Cano [
53
], people exp ess hemsel es in a ious social si ua ions o con ey an image o
hemsel es o o he s. In addi ion, consume s wi h s ong sel -exp ession a e expec ed o be
e y in e es ed in exp essing hemsel es wi h p oduc s ha dis inguish hei pe sonali y
ai s, hus, inc easing he desi e o p oduc s ha make hem eel special. Hence, hey go
o b ands ha ha e been c ea ed in collabo a ion wi h wo o mo e companies, c ea ing a
speci ic spo s p oduc . Addi ionally, when consume s ealize ha luxu y join en u es a e
compa ible wi h hei co e cha ac e is ics and e lec hei in insic alue, he endency o
epu chase inc eases [
54
]. In his ega d, Kim and Jun [
30
] s a ed ha sel -exp ession does
no di ec ly a ec cus ome s’ buying beha io ; in con as , Fakoo e al. [
54
] s a ed ha
sel -exp ession has a signi ican e ec on cus ome s’ buying beha io . Sel -exp ession also
plays a media ing ole in he ela ionship be ween he need o uniqueness and pu chasing
beha io [54]. In his ega d, he ollowing hypo hesis is p esen ed:
Hypo hesis 5. Sel -exp ession a ec s he in en ion o epu chase luxu y spo s p oduc s.
2.4. Sel -P esen a ion
Go man [
55
] i s in oduced he concep o os en a ion. He a gued ha people adjus
hei p esen a ion depending on social condi ions and in e ac ion wi h o he s, claiming
ha people a e goal-o ien ed and s i e o achie e hei goals. The pu pose o showing o
is o p esen a posi i e image o o he s and make a posi i e impac on hem by di ec ing
he low o pe sonal in o ma ion [56]. The e o e, he os en a ious a i ude owa ds luxu y
spo s b ands can be de ined as a con ex o displaying a social image using luxu y
spo s b ands. Howe e , i can also be de ined as an o ien a ion o show indi idual
iden i y and unde lying alues using luxu y spo s b ands and o sha e co e belie s wi h
an indi idual [43].
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 6 o 16
A i udes ha a e used as os en a ion o social in e ac ion ha mee he expec a ions
o o he s help consume s o ele a e hei social s a us and os en a ion [
22
]. Cob anding
can enhance people’s os en a ion by in e ac ing wi h he consume ’s pe sonali y ai s, so
he consume buys p oduc s wi h a special luxu y join b and, which leads people o ha e
a high sense o os en a ion. By buying a unique b and ha is he esul o he coope a ion
o se e al companies, hese people wan o p o e o o he s ha hey ha e bough a ce ain
p oduc ha many people in he communi y do no ha e and sel -p esen in some way. In
his ega d, he s udies o Lee and Choo [
25
] ha e shown ha cob anding has a posi i e
e ec on he a i ude o he indi idual owa ds he pu chase o luxu y p oduc s. On he
o he hand, Fakoo e al. [
54
] s a ed ha os en a ion has a signi ican e ec on cus ome s’
shopping beha io and os en a ion also plays a media ing ole in he ela ionship be ween
he need o be unique and shopping beha io . In con as , Khei i and Fa hali [
23
] s a ed
ha os en a ion has no e ec on he in en ion o buy. The e o e, he ollowing hypo hesis
is p esen ed:
Hypo hesis 6.
Sel -p esen a ion has an e ec on he in en ion o epu chase luxu y spo s p oduc s.
2.5. Symbolic Values
Symbolic alue is conside ed a key ac o in consume s’ pu chase o a
p oduc [31,57]
.
Symbolic alue ep esen s he pe sonal and social moods and cha ac e is ics o he con-
sume . Human social needs include dis inguishing onesel om o he s, adap ing onesel
o o he s, and showing onesel openly. This alue has wo dimensions: he alue o sel -
exp ession and social alue [58]. The consume uses he alue o sel -exp ession o assess
he ex en o which he e is a pe ec i be ween he luxu y spo s b and and he pe sonal
image o he pe son in ques ion [
24
]. In ac , sel -exp ession e e s o he unde s anding o
he inne aspec s o pe sonal cha ac e is ics.
Social alues a e ela ed o pe sonal issues, wan s, and needs, displaying social alues
and moods. Today, some consume s buy luxu y p oduc s o in luence o he s [
24
]. In
his case, he social alues a e ela ed o wha o he s say and e lec he indi idual’s
p esence in socie y and in public (ex e nal image o he indi idual) [
59
]. Thus, as long
as he consump ion o luxu y p oduc s depends on social s a us, he di e ence in social
alues among people is an impo an and e ec i e ac o in he consump ion o luxu y
p oduc s [
60
]. In o he wo ds, i expensi e luxu y spo s p oduc s a e conside ed high social
symbols, some consume s may buy hese p oduc s because o his. In p e ious esea ch,
symbolic alues ha e had di e en meanings. Wiedmann e al. [
61
] ound isibili y and
p es ige alues ha in luence he e alua ion and willingness o buy luxu y p oduc s.
Jain [
62
] s a ed in a s udy ha a i udes and men al no ms media e he ela ionship be ween
pe cei ed alue and he in en ion o epu chase luxu y b ands. Kim and Jun [
30
] also
epo ed ha symbolic alue has a signi ican ole in he in en ion o buy luxu y b and
clo hing, while di e en s udies [
4
,
59
,
63
] ha e shown ha symbolic alue has a posi i e
and signi ican e ec on he alue pe cei ed by he cus ome and he cus ome ’s a i ude
owa ds he luxu y p oduc [
4
,
59
,
63
]. In con as , Ting e al. [
64
] s a ed ha symbolic alue
has no e ec on he alue pe cei ed by cus ome s. The e o e, acco ding o he con adic o y
esul s, he ollowing hypo hesis is o med:
Hypo hesis 7. Symbolic alue a ec s he in en ion o epu chase luxu y spo s p oduc s.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Pa icipan s
Da a we e collec ed o es he hypo heses using a su ey in Decembe 2020. A p io i
powe analysis using Powe Analysis and Sample Size So wa e Ve sion 15 (PASS, 2018),
wi h alpha se o 0.05 and a powe o 0.80, was conduc ed and indica ed ha a sample size o
200 was needed. Wi h a 10% p obabili y o non esponse o pa icipan s, a o al o 222 use s
o a sma spo s wa ch om Teh an pa icipa ed in he s udy; 217 people we e p ocessed
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 7 o 16
in he inal analysis, lea ing ou he dis o ed ques ionnai es (1.11%). The s udy ocused on
he consume segmen o young people. The eason o choosing hese people o esea ch
is ha hese people, conside ing he ea u es o his sma wa ch ( a ious applica ions, EC
moni o , hea a e senso , calo ie coun ing, connec ion o indoo spo s equipmen , speed
ale s, mo e accu a e exe cise acking, au o pause, wa e p oo capabili y, s ai coun ing
and heigh analysis, display o daily mo emen s wi h h ee c i e ia o mo emen ), a e mo e
likely o buy and use such wa ches in spo s ac i i ies.
The s udy was conduc ed online using Google o ms (link o he ques ionnai e: h ps://
docs.google.com/ o ms/d/e/1FAIpQLS Nk63hyMDTIIypUcsuOG-38EFDB42kuHYonA eh9
BG 8Kk5w/ iew o m?usp=s _link (accessed on 1 May 2021). The ques ionnai e was in
he Pe sian language, and pa icipa ion was comple ely olun a y. A e he pa icipan s
ag eed o pa icipa e in he esea ch, hey we e gi en ins uc ions on how o ill ou he
ques ionnai e in he elemen a y sec ion. This da a collec ion p ocess las ed wo mon hs,
and i should be no ed ha no gi s o ewa ds we e gi en o hose who comple ed he
ques ionnai e. Table 1shows he demog aphic in o ma ion o he pa icipan s.
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o pa icipan s.
F equency Pe cen
Age
Unde 20 3 1.4
21–30 91 41.9
31–40 70 32.3
41–50 41 18.9
Mo e han 50 12 5.5
Gende Female 88 40.6
Male 129 59.4
Le el o s udies
Diploma and
unde 22 10.1
Bachelo 66 30.4
MSc 99 45.6
PhD 30 13.8
Field o s udies Spo sciences 182 83.9
O he 35 16.1
F equency o buying luxu y spo s
p oduc s (in he las 3 yea s)
Less han 3 yea s 62 28.5
3–4 yea s 69 31.8
Mo e han 4 yea s 86 39.6
To al 217 100.0
No e: MSc = Mas e o Science; PhD = Doc o o Philosophy.
Acco ding o Table 1, 59.4% o he pa icipan s we e men, and 40.6% we e women.
Wi h ega d o age, 3 pa icipan s we e unde 20 yea s (1.4%), 91 (41.9%) we e be ween
21–30, 70 (32.3%) we e be ween 31–40, 41 (18.9%) we e be ween 41–50 yea s, and he
emaining 12 pa icipan s we e mo e han 50 yea s (5.5%). The low esponse a e o women
in his s udy is simila o he s udy o Melnick and Wann [
65
] and Dos San os e al. [
66
] and
simila o he highe esponse a e o men in he s udy o Mene ee and Caspe [
67
]. Gi en
he p e ailing a mosphe e in I an and he p e alence o co ona i us, he g ea e in e es o
men in esponding o his ype o su ey was no unexpec ed and is also consis en wi h
he esea ch o Wann e al. [68].
3.2. Measu es
The esea ch ool was ob ained om scales p e iously used and alida ed in o he
s udies on consume beha io . Thus, he ques ionnai e was made up o a o al o 24 i ems
om 6 scales, and all o hem used a 5-poin Like - ype scale, whe e 1 is e y low and 5
is e y high. Fo he adap a ion o he scales o he Pe sian language, we ca ied ou he
back- ansla ion echniques indica ed in he li e a u e [
69
,
70
] wi h a g oup o
15 expe s
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 8 o 16
in he ield o spo s ma ke ing, who, a e he p ocess, epo ed ha all i ems we e
app op ia e in e ms o he psychological cha ac e is ics in p e ious s udies. To mea-
su e he need o uniqueness, ou i ems measu ing his cons uc we e adop ed om
Abosag e al. [
32
], and cob anding i ems a e adop ed om Shen e al. [
12
]. We also used
ou i ems o sel -p esen a ion and ou i ems o sel -exp ession used in he s udy o
Kauppinen-Räisänena e al. [22]
. Las ly, ou i ems o symbolic alue and ou i ems o
in en ion o epu chase we e aken om Kim and Jun [30].
3.3. Da a Analysis
PLS-SEM so wa e was used o measu e and i he s uc u al model. We chose his
so wa e as he es ima ion me hod because i is sui able o in es iga ions ha include
o ma i e cons uc s and because i wo ks e icien ly wi h a lowe numbe o obse a-
ions [
71
]. On he o he hand, i is also a good echnique because i is no sensi i e o he
assump ion o da a no mali y [
72
] and has a high s a is ical powe compa ed o CB-SEM o
smalle samples [
71
]. Howe e , he numbe o samples was conside ed 10 imes acco ding
o he cha ac e is ics o each s uc u e o he ela ionships be ween hem [
73
]. The e-
o e, his sample alue was highe han he minimum s a is ical powe o 80% equi ed
o esea ch [76].
Ou s udy adop ed he classic wo-s ep e alua ion [
74
,
75
]. Fi s , he measu emen
model is e alua ed (ou e model), which allows us o e alua e i he heo e ical concep s
o cons uc s a e measu ed co ec ly h ough he i ems obse ed. Second, he s uc u al
model is e alua ed (inne model), om which he magni ude and signi icance o he causal
ela ions be ween he di e en a iables a e assessed om his model [
76
]. Addi ionally,
con e gen alidi y and eliabili y we e de e mined by assessing composi e eliabili y (CR)
and a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE). Acco ding o Hai e al. [
77
], CR alues highe han
0.70 and AVE sco es o e 0.50 a e conside ed good.
4. Resul s
All cons uc s a e conside ed composi e measu emen s wi h e lec i e design ap-
p oxima ion, whe e all indica o s and dimensions ep esen di e en ace s, al hough
co ela ions do exis among hem [
78
]. Acco ding o ou esul s, he measu emen model
was comple ely sa is ac o y. Fi s , in he case o he composi e model cons uc s, all
ac o loadings we e g ea e han he cu o alue o 0.70, he eby showing indica o
eliabili y [
77
], excep I em 3 o he cob anding a iable, I em 1 o he need o uniqueness
a iable, and I em 4 o he in en ion o epu chase a iable. A e emo ing hese i ems,
we again ca ied ou he es ima ion o he model and subsequen ly e alua ed he mea-
su emen model o he model composi e (Table 2); he i em’s indi idual eliabili y was
app op ia e [79].
Wi h espec o he in e nal consis ency o he measu emen scales, i is no ed ha
composi e eliabili y (CR) was o e 0.70. We can s a e ha he i ems o mani es a iables
eally measu e each o he la en a iables [
80
,
81
]. The a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE)
alues ep esen he p opo ion o a iance o he cons uc ha can be explained by i s
indica o s, and i is e i ied ha his coe icien is o e 0.50 o all o he cons uc s, which
suppo s con e gen alidi y. Las ly, he a iance in la ion ac o (VIF) was calcula ed,
ob aining, in all cases, alues lowe han 3.3, which indica es ha he i ems ha e no
p oblems o mul icollinea i y [82].
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 9 o 16
Table 2. Measu emen model composi es: loadings, cons uc eliabili y, and con e gen alidi y.
Fac o s and I ems Mean (SD) λCR AVE -Value α
Cob anding (CoB ) CoB 1 0.838 (0.030) 0.838 0.850 0.655 9.064 0.738
CoB 2 0.822 (0.034) 0.826 9.722
CoB 3 0.761 (0.048) 0.762 8.004
Need o Uniqueness (N U) N U2 0.703 (0.077) 0.712 0.813 0.593 3.567 0.670
N U3 0.832 (0.044) 0.831 6.654
N U4 0.753 (0.064) 0.762 6.099
In en ion o Repu chase
(RePu ) RePu 1 0.773 (0.031) 0.778 0.841 0.639 11.709 0.722
RePu 2 0.804 (0.034) 0.808 12.652
RePu 3 0.811 (0.037) 0.812 13.611
Sel -Exp ession (SelEx) SelEx1 0.863 (0.023) 0.864 0.924 0.753 14.107 0.891
SelEx2 0.878 (0.017) 0.878 17.677
SelEx3 0.872 (0.024) 0.873 17.382
SelEx4 0.853 (0.027) 0.856 16.857
Sel -P esen a ion (SelP e) SelP e1 0.867 (0.020) 0.869 0.932 0.773 14.138 0.902
SelP e2 0.899 (0.017) 0.900 14.142
SelP e3 0.889 (0.019) 0.888 14.409
SelP e4 0.858 (0.030) 0.860 11.028
Symbolic alue (SyVa) SyVa1 0.855 (0.022) 0.856 0.911 0.718 11.948 0.869
SyVa2 0.781 (0.039) 0.784 7.241
SyVa3 0.842 (0.029) 0.844 10.703
SyVa4 0.900 (0.013) 0.902 13.315
No e: SD = s anda d de ia ion; λ= ac o loading; CR = composi e eliabili y; AVE = a e age a iance ex ac ed; α= C onbach’s alpha.
Table 3shows he analysis o disc iminan alidi y be ween he cons uc s ia he
calcula ion o he He e o ai –Mono ai (HTMT) coe icien s [
83
] and he Fo nell–La cke
c i e ion [
84
]. The esul s show ha all cons uc s a ained disc iminan alidi y, ollowing
bo h c i e ia; hus, all cons uc s a e measu ing di e en aspec s.
Table 3. Measu emen model composi es: disc iminan alidi y.
Fo nell–La cke C i e ion He e o ai –Mono ai Ra io (HTMT)
CoB N U SelEx SelP e SyVa RePu CoB N U SelEx SelP e SyVa RePu
CoB 0.79
N U 0.33 0.79 0.38
RePu 0.48 0.33 0.79 0.61 0.40
SelEx 0.42 0.55 0.55 0.86 0.49 0.64 0.66
SelP e 0.41 0.52 0.56 0.72 0.81 0.49 0.62 0.68 0.84
SyVa 0.34 0.26 0.67 0.45 0.45 0.76 0.44 0.31 0.82 0.54 0.56
No e: Fo nell–La cke c i e ion: diagonal elemen s (bold) a e he squa e oo o he a iance sha ed be ween he cons uc s and hei
measu es (AVE: a e age a iance ex ac ed); o -diagonal a e he co ela ions among cons uc s. Fo disc iminan alidi y, diagonal
elemen s should be la ge han o -diagonal elemen s.
Table 4shows he pa h coe icien s ( o al e ec s). To e alua e he signi icance o he
pa h coe icien s, we used a boo s apping p ocedu e wi h 5000 subsamples o gene a e
-s a is ics and con idence in e als [
85
]. The esul s suppo he se en hypo heses ela ed
o he main e ec s (o di ec e ec s). Need o uniqueness has a signi ican and posi i e
e ec on cob anding (
β
= 0.336, p< 0.001), hus suppo ing hypo hesis H1. Likewise,
cob anding has a signi ican and posi i e e ec on sel -exp ession (
β
= 0.424, p< 0.001),
symbolic alue (
β
= 0.349, p< 0.001), and sel -p esen a ion (
β
= 0.412, p< 0.001), which,
in u n, suppo hypo hesis H2, H3, and H4. Hypo hesis H5 is also suppo ed acco ding
o he signi ican and posi i e e ec s ob ained om he in luence o sel -exp ession on
in en ion o epu chase (
β
= 0.177, p< 0.05). Hypo hesis H6 is also suppo ed acco ding
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 6499 16 o 16
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