Ligh -Based IoT-Enabled Ba e y-F ee Ac i e P oduc Moni o ing o
Sus ainable Sma Packaging Applica ions
Amila Pe e a1and Ma cos Ka z1
1Cen e o Wi eless Communica ions, Uni e si y o Oulu, Finland
This wo k has been submi ed o he IEEE
o possible publica ion.
Copy igh may be ans e ed wi hou no ice, a e
which his e sion may no longe be accessible.
Abs ac
P oduc was age due o inadequa e condi ion mon-
i o ing du ing s o age and anspo emains a sig-
ni ican challenge in mode n supply chains, pa ic-
ula ly o pe ishable goods. Con en ional packag-
ing sys ems o en lack eal- ime isibili y and ely
on ba e y-powe ed elec onics, which pose sus ain-
abili y and scalabili y issues. To add ess hese
limi a ions, his wo k p esen s a sus ainable sma
packaging sys em based on Ligh -based In e ne o
Things (LIoT) a chi ec u e, e med LIoT-based Ac-
i e Sma Packaging (LIoT-ASP). The p oposed
solu ion in eg a es Pho o ol aic Ene gy Ha es -
ing (PV-EH) and Op ical Wi eless Communica ion
(OWC) o enable ba e y- ee, ene gy-au onomous
ope a ion o p oduc condi ion moni o ing in e-
ail and logis ics en i onmen s. A p o o ype sys em
was de eloped using comme cially a ailable compo-
nen s, inco po a ing bo h isible ligh downlink and
in a ed uplink channels based on consume de ice IR
p o ocol-inspi ed OWC, adap ed o low-powe ope -
a ion. The bidi ec ional OWC suppo s a da a a e
o 1.1 kbps, su icien o pe iodic sensing and dis-
play upda es in low- h oughpu sma packaging ap-
plica ions. The sys em employs ene gy-awa e con-
ol mechanisms and in e mi en ope a ion s a e-
gies o manage sensing and da a communica ion un-
de a iable indoo illumina ion. Pe o mance o he
LIoT-ASP concep was assessed h ough he de el-
oped p oo -o -concep p o o ype sys em, ollowed by
expe imen al alida ion in a eal-wo ld scena io in-
ol ing empe a u e-sensi i e dai y p oduc s. The
sys em success ully de ec ed and epo ed h eshold
iola ions ia cloud-connec ed mobile ale s, demon-
s a ing eliable end- o-end unc ionali y. These ind-
ings alida e he p ac ical easibili y o deploying
LIoT-ASP sys ems as a sus ainable and scalable so-
lu ion o sma packaging applica ions.
Ligh -based IoT, Sma packaging, Op ical wi e-
less communica ion, Ene gy ha es ing, Ba e y- ee
IoT, Visible ligh communica ion, Sus ainable wi e-
less communica ions.
1 In oduc ion
Wi h he ad ancemen o 6G and nex -gene a ion
communica ion echnologies, sus ainabili y has
eme ged as a undamen al Key Pe o mance In-
dica o (KPI) o u u e In e ne o Things (IoT)
sys ems [1]. In his con ex , IoT senso ne wo ks play
a pi o al ole by acili a ing eal- ime moni o ing
and accu a e da a acquisi ion, which a e essen ial
o achie ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y objec i es
ac oss di e se applica ion domains [2].
In he domain o ood and consume goods, s o -
age and packaging a e c i ical o main aining p od-
uc quali y wi hin accep able pa ame e s h oughou
he en i e li e cycle, while also suppo ing ma ke ing
unc ions. T adi ional packaging me hods ypically
ely on s a ic expi a ion da es, p o iding only app ox-
ima e es ima ions o p oduc condi ion. This absence
o dynamic, eal- ime in o ma ion may expose con-
sume s o ood-bo ne illnesses due o he consump-
ion o unsa e o deg aded p oduc s [3]. In o de o
add ess hese limi a ions, concep s o ac i e and in-
elligen ood packaging ha e been p oposed, wi h le-
gal and sa e y conce ns g adually being assessed and
s anda dized o e ime [4,5].
Sma packaging employs IoT echnologies by in-
co po a ing senso s such as Time-Tempe a u e Indi-
1
ca o s (TTIs) and gas senso s o enable eal- ime
moni o ing, aceabili y, and enhanced sa e y ea-
u es. These senso s acili a e in e ac i e eedback
mechanisms ha dynamically communica e he p od-
uc ’s condi ion h ough he packaging in e ace [6,7].
As a esul , in elligen sys ems a e being de eloped o
con inuously moni o and epo p oduc s a us du -
ing s o age and anspo . These ad ancemen s a e
essen ial in add essing c i ical challenges ela ed o
p oduc in eg i y, consume sa e y, and was e min-
imiza ion ac oss sec o s handling empe a u e- o
condi ion-sensi i e goods. Pa icula ly in ood and
pha maceu ical applica ions, mode n packaging in-
c easingly in eg a es biosenso s, eshness indica o s,
and eal- ime aceabili y pla o ms o enhance sup-
ply chain anspa ency and educe en i onmen al im-
pac [6,8].
Howe e , he majo i y o IoT-enabled sma pack-
aging solu ions cu en ly ely on Radio-F equency
Iden i ica ion (RFID) echnologies, including
ba e y- ee passi e ags, ba e y-assis ed semi-
passi e ags, and ully ac i e ba e y-powe ed RFID
sys ems [9–11]. In la ge-scale RFID deploymen s,
he omnidi ec ional na u e o Radio F equency
(RF) communica ion can cause eade collisions,
whe e o e lapping eade signals lead o in e e -
ence, inc eased la ency, and ag mis eads, he eby
demanding addi ional coo dina ion mechanisms
and inc easing sys em complexi y o mi iga e hese
issues [12]. While widely used o iden i ica ion and
acking, passi e RFID de ices a e gene ally limi ed
o single- unc ion ope a ion and lack suppo o
con inuous sensing o au onomous unc ionali y.
Ba e y-powe ed a ian s, al hough capable o ac i e
sensing, may pe o m sub-op imally in en i onmen s
whe e low empe a u es a ec ba e y e iciency
and eliabili y [13]. A mo e signi ican conce n is
hei limi ed sus ainabili y, as hese sys ems equi e
pe iodic ba e y eplacemen o main enance [11].
This dependence in oduces subs an ial challenges
o la ge-scale consume p oduc applica ions due o
sus ainabili y conce ns linked wi h elec ochemical
ene gy s o age. The widesp ead use o ba e ies
imposes conside able en i onmen al and economic
bu dens, including high ene gy consump ion associ-
a ed wi h aw ma e ial ex ac ion, manu ac u ing,
anspo a ion, and end-o -li e ecycling. Conse-
quen ly, ba e y- elian designs coun e ac he e y
sus ainabili y objec i es ha sma packaging seeks
o suppo [14].
Meanwhile, he de elopmen o ene gy au onomy
in IoT sys ems has inspi ed he de elopmen o Ligh -
based IoT (LIoT) a chi ec u es, which u ilize indoo
illumina ion o bo h Pho o ol aic based Ene gy Ha -
es ing (PV-EH) and Op ical Wi eless Communica-
ion (OWC) [15–17]. These sys ems a e pa icu-
la ly applicable o se ings wi h exis ing illumina ion
in as uc u e, such as supe ma ke s, cold chains,
and s o age acili ies, which a e common en i on-
men s o sma packaging deploymen . By ha es -
ing indoo ligh , LIoT designs elimina e he need
o elec ochemical ba e ies, he eby enabling ze o-
main enance ope a ion and ad ancing sus ainabil-
i y goals. Fu he mo e, OWC enables communica-
ion o e he unlicensed op ical spec um, o e ing
ad an ages such as physical-laye secu i y and im-
muni y o elec omagne ic in e e ence [15]. These
bene i s a e pa icula ly aluable in high-densi y en-
i onmen s whe e con en ional RF communica ion
may encoun e in e e ence and spec um conges ion.
The in eg a ion o OWC in o sma packaging sup-
po s eliable and in e e ence- esilien communica-
ion in such la ge-scale applica ions. In addi ion, he
hyb id in eg a ion o con en ional elec onics wi h
sus ainable echnologies such as p in ed elec onics
u he enhances ecological pe o mance. P in ed
componen s, compa ible wi h low-cos and ene gy-
e icien ab ica ion echniques, a e especially sui able
o la ge-a ea o lexible modules in sma packaging
nodes [15]. This combina ion suppo s scalabili y and
aligns wi h he p inciples o ci cula and sus ainable
p oduc design [18].
This esea ch builds upon ea lie wo k [15–17],
which es ablished he ounda ional concep and ea-
sibili y o LIoT o ene gy-au onomous communica-
ion. The p esen s udy ad ances his ounda ion by
in eg a ing a ba e y- ee LIoT a chi ec u e wi h ac-
i e sma packaging unc ionali y, esul ing in a sus-
ainable and op ically communica ing packaging solu-
ion, e e ed o as LIoT-based Ac i e Sma Packag-
ing (LIoT-ASP). Speci ically, his wo k ex ends p e i-
ously p oposed LIoT designs [16,17] om componen -
le el easibili y s udies o a ully in eg a ed end- o-
end sma packaging sys em ha includes applica ion
based alida ion, eal- ime moni o ing, and cloud
connec i i y. The key con ibu ions o his wo k a e
as ollows:
•De elops a ba e y- ee LIoT-ASP sys em ha
in eg a es PV-EH, OWC, and ene gy awa e in-
e mi en ope a ion s a egy, enabling dynamic
ask scheduling and cloud connec i i y unde
2
a iable indoo illumina ion.
•Valida es sys em pe o mance in a cold-chain use
case wi h empe a u e-sensi i e goods, demon-
s a ing au onomous sensing, obus IR-based
uplink, and licke -sa e VLC complian wi h
s anda ds, building on es ablished IR p o ocols
and LIoT design amewo ks.
The emainde o he a icle is o ganized as ollows:
Sec ion II in oduces he p oposed sys em model;
Sec ion III discusses he design conside a ions and
implemen a ion challenges; Sec ion IV de ails he
p o o ype implemen a ion used o e alua ion; Sec-
ion V p esen s he pe o mance e alua ion; and Sec-
ion VI concludes he pape .
2 Sys em Model
Designing sus ainable IoT sys ems o indoo en i-
onmen s equi es a ca e ul balance be ween ene gy
a ailabili y, communica ion e iciency, and compac
sys em in eg a ion. LIoT o e s a compelling solu-
ion in his con ex by combining PV-EH wi h OWC,
pa icula ly using VLC o downlink communica-
ion. This dual-pu pose app oach enables ene gy-
au onomous ope a ion while simul aneously exploi -
ing exis ing illumina ion in as uc u e o da a com-
munica ion [15–17]. A key conside a ion in he design
o indoo LIoT sys ems is he e alua ion o a ailable
ene gy sou ces and he iden i ica ion o low-powe
communica ion echnologies compa ible wi h indoo
op ical channels. Commonly deployed whi e LED lu-
minai es, o iginally in ended o gene al illumina ion,
ypically o e modula ion bandwid hs in he ange
o 3 o 5 MHz, making hem sui able o suppo ing
low-da a- a e VLC [19]. These da a a es a e su -
icien o applica ions such as sma packaging and
en i onmen al moni o ing, whe e sensing upda es a e
pe iodic and da a payloads a e minimal. In such
scena ios, pa ame e s such as empe a u e, humid-
i y, o spoilage indica o s can be ansmi ed in e -
mi en ly wi hou equi ing con inuous h oughpu .
Wi h he global adop ion a e o LED-based ligh ing
p ojec ed o exceed 90% by 2030 [20], his widesp ead
in as uc u e p esen s a p omising oppo uni y o e-
pu pose exis ing luminai es as Op ical Access Poin s
(OAP) wi hin he LIoT amewo k [15–17]. U iliz-
ing he same ligh ing in as uc u e o bo h illumi-
na ion and communica ion educes ha dwa e edun-
dancy and suppo s sus ainabili y goals by maximiz-
ing he u ili y o al eady-ins alled componen s, align-
ing wi h he en i onmen al equi emen s o nex -
gene a ion ba e y- ee sma packaging sys ems.
The dis ibu ed LIoT nodes in such sys ems mus
be capable o pe o ming sensing, OWC, and PV-
EH unde in e mi en and a iable illumina ion con-
di ions. Thei design aligns concep ually wi h he
”Sma Dus ” ision [21], which en isions ul a-
minia u ized au onomous de ices ha in eg a e sens-
ing, powe managemen , communica ion, and com-
pu a ion wi hin a highly cons ained physical oo -
p in . In applica ions such as ac i e sma packaging,
whe e compac o m ac o , ene gy au onomy, and
in e mi en upda es a e c i ical, hese nodes mus
adhe e o ze o-ene gy ope a ion p inciples. This in-
cludes he use o PV-EH modules, ene gy-awa e op-
ical anscei e s, and ul a-low-powe senso s. The
in eg a ion o hese componen s enables sus ained op-
e a ion despi e luc ua ions in indoo ligh a ailabil-
i y and suppo s in e mi en compu ing when ene gy
esou ces a e insu icien o con inuous ope a ion.
In o de o ensu e scalabili y and deploymen p ac-
icali y, LIoT-ASP node design mus also p io i ize
compac ness, cos -e iciency, and en i onmen al com-
pa ibili y. The use o ecyclable ma e ials, p in ed
elec onics, and e icien ene gy con e sion in e aces
con ibu es o educing en i onmen al impac wi h-
ou comp omising de ice capabili y [15]. In he con-
ex o ac i e sma packaging, such conside a ions
a e i al o achie ing high- olume deploymen wi h
minimal ecological oo p in . A he sys em le el,
he p oposed LIoT a chi ec u e consis s o a cen al-
ized OAP and a ne wo k o spa ially dis ibu ed LIoT
nodes. Each node ope a es independen ly using ha -
es ed ene gy, while he OAP manages coo dina ion,
da a agg ega ion, and se es as a ga eway o ex e -
nal ne wo ks. Fig. 1 p esen s an o e iew o his
a chi ec u e, de ailing he p ima y unc ional blocks
and hei in e ac ions wi hin he ene gy-au onomous
LIoT sys em [15–17].
3 Design Conside a ions and Im-
plemen a ion Challenges
In gene al, he design o LIoT sys ems needs o ad-
he e o he key p inciples es ablished in ou p e i-
ous wo k [15–17], including complemen ing EH a -
chi ec u es, low powe OWC s a egies, and sus ain-
able componen in eg a ion. Speci ically, ene gy au-
onomy can be suppo ed h ough Ha es -S o e-Use
3
Figu e 1: P oposed a chi ec u e o LIoT-ASP: LED
luminai es unc ion as OAPs wi h ga eway connec-
i i y o he b oade ne wo k. The LIoT node in e-
g a es componen s o OWC, PV-EH, and ba e y-
ee ope a ion. The use o compac and sus ainable
PE con ibu es o educed o m ac o and imp o ed
sus ainabili y.
(HSU) p o ocols in conjunc ion wi h mul idi ec ional
PV-EH sys ems, allowing e icien ene gy cap u e
om ambien illumina ion ega dless o spa ial o ien-
a ion. To ensu e eliable communica ion in complex
indoo en i onmen s, he use o mul idi ec ional op i-
cal anscei e s is essen ial, as hey enable omnidi ec-
ional ecep ion and help mi iga e he limi a ions im-
posed by he di ec ional na u e o OWC in weak Line-
o -Sigh (LOS) scena ios. Fo ene gy bu e ing, he
use o sus ainable elec os a ic s o age elemen s, such
as Elec ic Double-Laye Capaci o s (EDLCs), which
ep esen he mos common class o supe capaci o s,
o e s signi ican ad an ages including high cycle s a-
bili y and educed en i onmen al impac [22]. Thei
wide ope a ing empe a u e ange, which is bene i-
cial o applica ions spanning cold-chain logis ics o
wa m indoo en i onmen s, ensu es eliable pe o -
mance o LIoT-ASP sys ems unde a ying ambien
condi ions. Communica ion can be implemen ed us-
ing single-ca ie in ensi y modula ion wi h di ec de-
ec ion (IM/DD) o simila low-complexi y op ical
schemes sui able o ul a-low-powe ope a ion [15].
Fo low-powe ope a ion, i is essen ial o adop a
du y-cycled design whe e he node emains in a low-
powe sleep mode and ansi ions o he ac i e s a e
based on ei he a wake-up igge om he OAP o
a p ede ined du y cycle schedule. The s uc u e o
he LIoT node, comp ising he Ene gy Ha es ing
Uni (EHU) and he Sensing, P ocessing, and Com-
munica ion uni (SPCU), along wi h he OAP, which
includes he main con olle and communica ion in-
e ace, is illus a ed in Fig. 2, as desc ibed in ou
p e ious wo k [15–17]. Fo LIoT-ASP, i is essen ial
o conside he ollowing discussed design app oaches.
3.1 Sus aining Node Ope a ion Unde
Va iable Op ical Ene gy A ailabili y
E ec i e ene gy s o age is a key design conside a ion
in LIoT sys ems o suppo eliable ope a ion du ing
low o luc ua ing indoo illumina ion. When de e -
mining he app op ia e capaci ance alue C o he
LIoT-ASP, se e al ac o s needs o be conside ed o
ensu e con inuous unc ionali y. Depending on he
ope a ional con ex , LIoT-ASP nodes may need o
main ain unc ionali y du ing pe iods when ambien
ene gy is una ailable, such as nigh ime condi ions
when indoo ligh ing is u ned o , o du ing ans-
po scena ios whe e illumina ion may be minimal.
In o de o suppo unin e up ed ope a ion, he en-
e gy s o age uni needs o be capable o sus aining
4
Figu e 2: LIoT design s uc u es: (a) LIoT node a -
chi ec u e, (b) op ical access poin (OAP) a chi ec-
u e [16,17].
he node’s ene gy demands h oughou hese in e -
als. Fu he mo e, he supe capaci o is expec ed o
deli e su icien ene gy o high-demand e en s, such
as sensing ope a ions wi hou causing ene gy deple-
ion. These ope a ional equi emen s es ablish he
pe missible ol age ange o he supe capaci o , ep-
esen ed by [VMin, VMax], o e which ene gy is accu-
mula ed and u ilized. In o de o ensu e eliable ope -
a ion in he absence o PV-EH, he minimum equi ed
capaci ance can be app oxima ed as ollows [23]:
CMin ≈
2EPeak
ηEHU,s +PLeakTPeak
V2
Max −V2
Min
,(1)
whe e, EPeak deno es he maximum ene gy equi ed
by he node, ηEHU,s is he ene gy deli e y e iciency
om he s o age elemen o he sys em, PLeak is
he leakage powe associa ed wi h he supe capaci-
o , and TPeak is he maximum du a ion o e which
his ene gy may be consumed. The ene gy a ailabil-
i y condi ion o execu ing a sensing ask a he i h
ins ance is o malized in (2). This exp ession ensu es
ha he node has su icien bu e ed ene gy o com-
ple e he sensing ask wi hou in e up ion [24]:
Esens
i≤Ebu
i−Eope
i+
,(2)
whe e, Esens
ideno es he ene gy equi ed o comple e
he sensing ask, Ebu
i ep esen s he o al bu e ed
ene gy s o ed in he supe capaci o a he ime o ask
e alua ion, and Eope
iaccoun s o he baseline ene gy
equi ed o main ain essen ial node ope a ion du ing
he ask window, such as MCU un ime and pe iph-
e al s andby. This condi ion gua an ees ha he node
does no ini ia e sensing unless he e is a su icien
ene gy ma gin beyond i s ope a ional o e head. By
en o cing his cons ain , unnecessa y powe ailu es
and epea ed es a s o he same ope a ion due o
p ema u e ene gy deple ion a e a oided.
In he con ex o LIoT-ASP sys ems, when a node
is igge ed by he OAP o pe o m sensing ope a-
ions, i mus mee he ene gy a ailabili y condi ion
de ined in (2), based on he bu e ed ene gy Ebu ac-
cumula ed a ha momen . This equi emen en-
su es ha he node has adequa e ene gy o comple e
he ask, he eby p e en ing epea ed execu ion ail-
u es caused by ene gy ou ages [25]. In o de o mi -
iga e such dis up ions, ene gy-awa e con ol s a e-
gies should be employed o e alua e a ailable ene gy
p io o ini ia ing asks wi h high ene gy demand.
The node can assess Ebu by moni o ing supe capac-
i o ol age le els and making in o med decisions on
whe he o p oceed wi h o de e ask execu ion [25].
I he ene gy le el is insu icien , he node may en-
e a low-powe sleep mode o ha es addi ional en-
e gy and esume ope a ion only once he condi ion
in (2) is ul illed. This o ms he basis o an in e -
mi en sensing mechanism, whe e sensing ac i i ies
a e conduc ed only when su icien ene gy is a ail-
able [26, 27]. In e mi en execu ion s a egies can
gene ally be di ided in o wo ypes: bes -e o in e -
mi en and so -in e mi en models [28]. In bes -
e o execu ion, he node powe s on and begins ex-
ecu ing asks immedia ely a e su passing a p ede-
ined ac i a ion h eshold. I con inues ope a ion un-
il he a ailable ene gy alls below a minimum le el,
esul ing in an ab up shu down. On he o he hand,
he so -in e mi en model ini ia es ask execu ion
only when a a ge ene gy h eshold is me and al-
loca es a p ede ined ene gy budge o comple e he
ask. Be o e he ene gy s o age le el d ops below he
c i ical h eshold, he sys em p oac i ely en e s sleep
mode o minimize powe consump ion, he eby accel-
e a ing ene gy accumula ion om ongoing EH.
The ene gy dynamics o hese wo app oaches a e
5
Figu e 3: In e mi en ope a ion models: (a) Bes -
e o in e mi en mode, whe e he node ope a es un-
il ene gy d ops below he u n-o h eshold; (b) So
in e mi en mode, whe e he node pe o ms asks
wi hin a p ede ined ene gy budge and en e s sleep
mode be o e eaching he c i ical ene gy le el.
illus a ed in Fig. 3, based on models in oduced
in [28]. Fo SPCU a chi ec u es ha ely on ola ile
memo y, he so -in e mi en s a egy o e s signi -
ican ad an ages. In con as o bes -e o ope a-
ion, which may lead o loss o execu ion s a e upon
ene gy deple ion, he so -in e mi en app oach al-
lows he sys em o p ese e p og am s a es and un-
ime da a by en e ing a con olled sleep s a e p io
o ene gy exhaus ion. This enhances sys em s abili y
and esponsi eness, pa icula ly in applica ions ha
equi e consis en con ex e en ion ac oss mul iple
powe cycles. As a esul , so -in e mi en execu-
ion is be e sui ed o LIoT-ASP nodes whe e main-
aining execu ion con inui y is essen ial. To mi iga e
he isk o ene gy ou ages caused by s o age deple-
ion, pa icula ly when he capaci o ol age VCap
app oaches he lowe h eshold VMin, implemen ing
ene gy-awa e ope a ional s a egies becomes essen-
ial. Due o hei high powe densi y cha ac e is-
ics, supe capaci o s inhe en ly exhibi ol age luc-
ua ions du ing load execu ion. Consequen ly, eal-
ime moni o ing o he capaci o ol age p o ides a
p ac ical and accu a e me hod o es ima ing he en-
e gy a ailable o he node. I he obse ed ol age
is inadequa e o suppo he execu ion o he desi ed
ask, he node can ansi ion o a low-powe s a e,
such as sleep mode, he eby conse ing ene gy and
accele a ing accumula ion om he ene gy ha es e .
Al hough selec ing he s o age capaci ance based on
(1) ensu es ha su icien ene gy is a ailable when
he capaci o is ully cha ged, his condi ion is o -
en no gua an eed in p ac ical indoo en i onmen s
wi h limi ed o inconsis en ene gy inpu . Unde
such condi ions, ol age-based decision-making acil-
i a es a smoo h ansi ion o in e mi en ope a ion
modes a he han expe iencing a comple e ope a-
ional ou age. This s a egy suppo s sus ained sys-
em eliabili y and p olongs he ope a ional a ailabil-
i y o he LIoT node. A simpli ied ol age- h eshold-
based con ol mechanism is p esen ed in Algo i hm 1
o illus a e his app oach. Facili a ing coo dina ion
be ween he EHU and he SPCU unde con inuous
ene gy in low u he enhances esilience, helping o
minimize se ice in e up ions and enabling adap i e
in e mi en ope a ion o ene gy-cons ained LIoT
sys ems.
Algo i hm 1 Ene gy a ailabili y check based on su-
pe capaci o ol age h esholds
Requi e: VCap (cu en capaci o ol age), VTask (min
ol age equi ed o execu e he ask), VMin (min ol -
age h eshold o main ain node unc ionali y)
1: VCap ←Measu eVol age()
2: i VCap ≥VTask hen
3: e u n ue
4: else i VCap ≥VMin hen
5: En e SleepMode(sho du a ion)
6: else
7: En e SleepMode(long du a ion)
8: end i
9: e u n alse
3.2 Indoo eye iendly Op ical Wi eless
Communica ion Unde Ene gy Con-
s ain s
3.2.1 Low powe OWC equi emen
Consume IR based OWC demons a es obus pe -
o mance in indoo en i onmen s, e en unde he
p esence o ambien noise and in e e ence. The
widesp ead use in emo e con ol de ices o sho -
ange communica ion is p ima ily a ibu ed o he
simplici y, ene gy e iciency, and eliable ope a ion o
he echnology [29]. These cha ac e is ics make con-
sume IR p o ocols pa icula ly sui able o po able
applica ions whe e de ices mus ope a e o e long du-
a ions on limi ed ene gy budge s. In he con ex
6
o LIoT-ASP sys ems, he uplink ypically in ol es
he ansmission o low- olume da a, such as pe iodic
senso eadings. This limi ed da a equi emen aligns
well wi h he capabili ies o consume IR communi-
ca ion, making i a iable e e ence model o ene gy-
awa e uplink communica ion. In hese p o ocols, he
ansmi e encodes a bina y da a s eam in o modu-
la ed op ical pulses using an IR ca ie wa e, ypically
wi hin he 30 o 60 kHz equency ange. The mod-
ula ed signal is hen ansmi ed using an IR LED
emi e , while he ecei e demodula es he incom-
ing op ical wa e o m o e ie e he o iginal bina y
da a [30]. Consume IR sys ems gene ally employ
Ampli ude Shi Keying (ASK) o modula ion, wi h
da a ep esen a ion schemes including pulse dis ance,
pulse wid h, pulse posi ion, and Manches e encod-
ing [29]. The da a ame o ma in ypical consume
IR p o ocols consis s o a synch oniza ion heade , ad-
d ess bi s, and a payload ield. The add ess ield
allows di ec ed communica ion be ween speci ic de-
ices, while he payload ca ies commands o sen-
so da a. Al hough OWC p o ides inhe en physi-
cal laye secu i y, ulne abili ies may exis a close
p oximi y. In o de o enhance da a in eg i y and
con iden iali y, op ional enc yp ion and au hen ica-
ion mechanisms such as message in eg i y codes can
be in eg a ed, albei wi h added compu a ional com-
plexi y and longe ame leng hs [30].
Se e al consume IR s anda ds a e applicable o
LIoT OWC design. Fo example, he RC-5 p o ocol
u ilizes Manches e encoding wi h a 36 kHz ca ie
and a concise 14-bi ame [31]. The NEC p o o-
col employs Pulse Dis ance Encoding (PDE) wi h a
38 kHz ca ie and suppo s a 32-bi ame s uc-
u e [32]. Sony’s SIRC and Panasonic p o ocols im-
plemen pulse wid h and PDE, espec i ely, wi h ca -
ie s in he ange o 38 o 40 kHz [33, 34]. These
s anda ds demons a e eliable and ene gy-e icien
ope a ion in eal-wo ld indoo scena ios, p o iding
p o en amewo ks o LIoT-ASP OWC implemen-
a ions. The e o e, exploi ing exis ing consume IR
communica ion p o ocols o e s a p ac ical and low-
powe solu ion o LIoT sys ems. Thei minimal
complexi y, eliable pe o mance unde ypical indoo
ligh ing condi ions, and compa ibili y wi h ene gy-
cons ained ope a ion make hem well-sui ed o he
OWC equi emen s o LIoT-ASP applica ions.
3.2.2 Eye iendly downlink communica ion
Sa e and isually com o able ligh ing is a undamen-
al equi emen in indoo VLC en i onmen s o en-
su e use well-being. The IEEE 802.15.7 s anda d
add esses his equi emen by inco po a ing dimming
capabili ies and ensu ing licke - ee ope a ion, e en
unde low-dimming condi ions [35,36]. Flicke , cha -
ac e ized by apid empo al changes in luminance,
can ad e sely a ec human pe cep ion and pe o -
mance. In o de o mi iga e his, he s anda d in-
oduces he concep o a Maximum Flicke Time
Pe iod (MFTP), wi hin which b igh ness a ia ions
mus be con ined o emain impe cep ible [36]. IEEE
802.15.7-2018 ecommends he use o isibili y pa -
e ns and idle pa e n ansmission o p ese e con-
s an illumina ion du ing non-communica ion (in e -
ames) pe iods. Idle pa e ns may include in-band
signals ha a e de ec able by he ecei e o ou -o -
band signals such as a s eady DC bias [36]. Com-
plemen a y o his, IEEE 1789 [37] ou lines ec-
ommended p ac ices o modula ing high-b igh ness
LEDs o mi iga e heal h isks associa ed wi h empo-
al ligh modula ion. The s anda d de ines Pe cen
Flicke (PF), a key me ic in assessing isual com o
and sa e y, as ollows:
PF = 100 ×Lmax −Lmin
Lmax +Lmin
,(3)
whe e Lmax and Lmin a e he maximum and minimum
ligh in ensi ies, espec i ely. Since he luminous in-
ensi y o LEDs in hei linea ope a ing egion is ap-
p oxima ely p opo ional o he d i ing cu en [37],
his exp ession can also be in e p e ed in e ms o
cu en modula ion. The ela ionship be ween pe -
cen licke and modula ion equency ( ) is used o
de ine sa e y h esholds, as summa ized in Table 1.
In VLC-based LIoT sys ems, modula ion dep h
di ec ly in luences he signal de ec abili y a he
ecei e . Highe modula ion dep h enhances sig-
nal s eng h and imp o es he signal- o-noise a io
(SNR), he eby lowe ing he minimum equi ed op i-
cal powe o success ul communica ion [38]. In o de
o ensu e obus communica ion in indoo se ings,
he modula ion dep h (m) should be op imized while
conside ing ansmission dis ance, pa h loss, and am-
bien ligh in e e ence. The modula ion dep h is de-
ined as [38]:
m=∆I
I0
,(4)
7
Table 1: Pe cen Flicke Sa e y Limi s Based on IEEE
S d 1789-2015 Recommenda ions [37].
Limi
Type
Condi ion Pu pose
NOEL
(No
Obse -
able
E ec
Le el)
PF <
0.0333 ×
No obse able e ec ;
sa e o all, including
sensi i e indi iduals.
Low-
Risk
Le el
PF <0.08 ×
Low p obabili y o ad-
e se biological e ec s
in he gene al popula-
ion.
Seizu e
Th esh-
old
PF <5% o
≥90 Hz
Reduces isk o
seizu es in indi iduals
wi h pho osensi i e
epilepsy.
whe e I0is he LED bias cu en and ∆Iis he am-
pli ude o he modula ed cu en signal.
4 P o o ype De elopmen
The p ima y aim o he de eloped p o o ype was o
moni o he in e nal empe a u e o a con aine and
ansmi he acqui ed da a o he end use . In ad-
di ion o sensing unc ionali y, he sys em suppo ed
downlink communica ion o dynamically upda ing
in o ma ion on in eg a ed p oduc displays, including
pa ame e s such as quali y indica o s and b anding
elemen s. Du ing he componen selec ion and de-
sign phase, p io i y was gi en o comme cially a ail-
able ha dwa e ha suppo s low-powe ope a ion and
gene al-pu pose ene gy-e icien pe o mance.
The implemen ed LIoT node was equipped wi h
a empe a u e senso o moni o ing ambien con-
di ions. Senso da a was ansmi ed o he OAP
ia an IR-based uplink, while display upda es we e
deli e ed h ough a isible ligh downlink channel.
The p o o ype is illus a ed in Fig. 4. The OAP
was esponsible o managing bidi ec ional commu-
nica ion wi h he node and was in e aced wi h he
in e ne h ough a Wi-Fi module. This se up enabled
eal- ime da a ansmission o a cloud-based se ice
(ThingSpeak), allowing use s o emo ely moni o he
con aine ’s condi ion using any in e ne -enabled de-
ice. The g aphical use in e ace o bo h he web-
based dashboa d is shown in Fig. 5.
4.1 LIoT-ASP: OAP Design
The OAP was de eloped using a comme cially a ail-
able able lamp housing and s anda d low-powe com-
ponen s, as shown in Fig. 6. A USB-powe ed DC
adap e was employed o supply powe o he sys-
em, enabling a plug-and-play se up ha simpli ies
on-si e deploymen and es ing.
4.1.1 Main Con olle : P ocessing Uni and
LED D i e
The main con olle uni in eg a es wo MCU pla -
o ms o unc ional pa i ioning. A Raspbe y Pi
Pico wi h Wi-Fi suppo se es as he in e ne ga e-
way, handling emo e communica ion and use in e -
ace in e ac ion. An A duino Nano is used o signal-
le el p ocessing, including da a encoding and mod-
ula ion o op ical ansmission, as well as ecep ion
and decoding o incoming signals. These wo MCU
communica e o e a se ial in e ace, enabling coo -
dina ion o da a ans e and con ol commands be-
ween he cloud pla o m and he LIoT node. Fo
op ical signal modula ion, a Se ies Swi ch Modula o
(SSM) con igu a ion was implemen ed, ollowing he
app oach ou lined in [39]. The LED d i ing unc ion-
ali y was ealized using an IRF520-based N-channel
MOSFET module, which p o ided as and ene gy-
e icien cu en swi ching.
4.1.2 Communica ion Uni : Illumina ion
Sou ce and uplink Recei e
In o de o ensu e compa ibili y wi h bo h EH
and human isual com o , wo ypes o phospho -
con e ed whi e LED a ays we e e alua ed as down-
link ansmi e s: wa m whi e (3000 K) and cool
whi e (5000 K). These Chip-on-Boa d (COB) LEDs
we e di ec ly d i en using he modula ed ou pu om
he SSM ci cui . Fig. 7 p esen s he spec al powe
dis ibu ions o bo h LED ypes, measu ed unde a
s anda d indoo illumina ion le el o 500 lux. The
esul s indica e ha cool whi e LEDs emi a b oade
sho -wa eleng h spec um, o e ing a highe pho-
on ene gy densi y, which may bene i PV-EH pe -
o mance. Fo uplink ecep ion, an Op ical Signal
De ec o (OSD) module based on he KY-022 IR e-
cei e was in eg a ed in o he OAP. This module em-
ploys a TSOP1833 PIN pho odiode wi h in eg a ed
ampli ica ion and il e ing ci cui s o ensu e obus
de ec ion o modula ed in a ed signals. The TTL-
compa ible ou pu o he OSD was di ec ly in e aced
8
Figu e 4: Implemen ed PoC LIoT-ASP p o o ype o sma con aine applica ions in supe ma ke , e ail,
and s o age en i onmen s: (a) P o o ype LIoT-ASP OAP and node, (b) LIoT-ASP node, (c) Con ollable
p in ed-elec onics-based display uni s o indica ing p oduc quali y index and logo, (d) GUI displayed on
a sma phone o wi eless con ol o he OAP.
Figu e 5: ThingSpeak-based web in e ace displaying
ansmi ed empe a u e in o ma ion accessible ia
he in e ne (ThingSpeak Dashboa d).
Figu e 6: P o o ype implemen a ion o he OAP in-
co po a ing he main con olle and communica ion
uni based on he p oposed LIoT a chi ec u e.
wi h he A duino Nano, acili a ing e icien uplink
da a acquisi ion om he LIoT node.
4.1.3 OAP: Ope a ing algo i hm
The ope a ing algo i hm o he PoC OAP is ou lined
in Algo i hm 2. In his implemen a ion, he Rasp-
be y Pi Pico MCU ini ially ecei es use commands
ia Wi-Fi. These commands a e hen o wa ded o
he A duino Nano MCU, which handles communica-
ion wi h he LIoT node.
9
Figu e 16: Measu ed and ansmi ed empe a u e
a ia ion o he LIoT-ASP con aine holding dai y
p oduc s ou side he e ige a o .
condi ions.
6 Conclusion
This wo k p esen ed he design, implemen a ion, and
e alua ion o a sus ainable sma packaging solu ion
based on LIoT a chi ec u e, e e ed o as LIoT-ASP.
The p oposed sys em in eg a es ba e y- ee ene gy-
au onomous ope a ion, low-powe OWC, and eal-
ime cloud connec i i y in o a compac and deploy-
able o m ac o sui able o p oduc condi ion moni-
o ing. A comple e PoC p o o ype was de eloped us-
ing comme cial componen s, ea u ing a ba e y- ee
node wi h PV-EH and a dual-mode OAP ha sup-
po s licke - ee illumina ion and bidi ec ional OWC.
Expe imen al esul s e i ied he sys em’s abili y o
eliably communica e unde a ying indoo illumina-
ion condi ions while main aining compliance wi h
licke sa e y guidelines. The use o consume -g ade
IR communica ion p o ocols and licke - ee VLC
demons a ed compa ibili y wi h ene gy-cons ained
en i onmen s, achie ing e ec i e FDRs and e icien
powe u iliza ion. Fu he mo e, he p o o ype was
alida ed in a eal-wo ld use case in ol ing pe ishable
goods, whe e empe a u e de ia ions we e success-
ully de ec ed and epo ed ia an in e ne -connec ed
in e ace. While OWC inhe en ly elies on LOS
condi ions, which may limi he applicabili y o he
LIoT-ASP concep in scena ios in ol ing occlusion
o s acked i ems, he p oposed sys em is well-sui ed
o deploymen s whe e LOS is a ailable, such as on
e ail shel es o open p oduc displays. In such en i-
onmen s, LIoT-ASP can complemen exis ing ech-
nologies, maximizing sus ainabili y bene i s h ough
ba e y- ee ope a ion and ene gy-au onomous ac i e
sensing. These esul s highligh he p ac ical easi-
bili y o deploying LIoT-ASP sys ems in eal-wo ld
applica ions, including sma packaging, e ail moni-
o ing, and cold-chain logis ics. As u u e wo k, low-
powe , IoT- iendly OWC p o ocols can be u he
op imized o enhance communica ion obus ness by
inco po a ing ligh weigh e o de ec ion mechanisms
such as Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC), pa i y
bi s, o checksums. Addi ionally, o mi iga e chal-
lenges a ising om non-LOS scena ios, he easibil-
i y o using Op ically Recon igu able In elligen Su -
aces (O-RIS) can be explo ed as a po en ial solu-
ion. Fu he mo e, he eliance on con en ional elec-
onic componen s can be educed by u ilizing exis -
ing PV cells o bo h EH and OWC ecep ion, en-
abling a mo e compac and ene gy-e icien node a -
chi ec u e. To u he imp o e in eg a ion and educe
ha dwa e complexi y, he EHU and he SPCU can
be consolida ed in o a Sys em-On-Chip (SoC) pla -
o m, enhancing o e all sys em e iciency and com-
pac ness while u he minimizing he use o con en-
ional elec onic componen s. In addi ion, de elop-
ing a middlewa e managemen laye ha in e aces
be ween dis ibu ed LIoT-ASP nodes and acili y-
le el con ol sys ems could enhance scalabili y, in-
e ope abili y, and eal- ime decision-making. Such
a laye would acili a e seamless in eg a ion o LIoT-
ASP in o exis ing cold chain and e ail in as uc u e,
enabling dynamic op imiza ion o ope a ions based
on LIoT-ASP insigh s. This can suppo ene gy-
awa e acili y managemen , educe ope a ional cos s
such as elec ici y usage, and s eng hen sus ainabil-
i y ac oss he supply chain. O e all, he p oposed
LIoT-ASP design and amewo k p esen s a easible
and scalable app oach o sus ainable IoT sys em de-
sign, enabling ba e y- ee, ligh -powe ed ac i e mon-
i o ing h ough sma packaging. This app oach e-
duces p oduc was e, enhances supply chain isibili y,
and p omo es en i onmen ally esponsible p ac ices
in nex -gene a ion IoT-enabled packaging and logis-
ics applica ions.
Acknowledgmen
This wo k was suppo ed by 6G Flagship (G an
Numbe 369116) unded by he Resea ch Council o
Finland, and he SUPERIOT p ojec s. The SUPE-
RIOT p ojec has ecei ed unding om he Sma
16
Ne wo ks and Se ices Join Unde aking (SNS JU)
unde he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope esea ch
and inno a ion p og amme unde G an Ag eemen
No 101096021, including op-up unding by UK Re-
sea ch and Inno a ion (UKRI) unde he UK go -
e nmen ’s Ho izon Eu ope unding gua an ee. Views
and opinions exp essed a e howe e hose o he au-
ho s only and do no necessa ily e lec hose o he
Eu opean Union, SNS JU o UKRI. The Eu opean
Union, SNS JU o UKRI canno be held esponsible
o hem.
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