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Elephan habi a , use and ex inc ion his o y in he canaan
egion (Jo dan, Is ael, Lebanon and Sy ia): A zoological and
o es y su ey
Khandake Mu sheda Fa hana
*1
, Kazi Abdul Mannan
2
1
Depa men o Sociology and An h opology, Shan o
-
Ma iam Uni e si y o C ea i e Technology,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
2Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, Shan o-Ma iam Uni e si y o C ea i e Technology,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
A icle published on May 08, 2025
Key wo ds:
Elephan ex inc ion, Mega auna, Ecological memo y, Habi a loss, His o ical ecology,
Fo es y su ey
Abs ac
This s udy examines he his o ical p esence, ecological unc ions, and ex inc ion o elephan s in he Canaan
egion, encompassing mode n-day Jo dan, Is ael, Lebanon, and Sy ia, h ough an in e disciplina y zoological
and o es y-based su ey. D awing on a chaeological eco ds, paleon ological indings, his o ical ex s, and
ecological econs uc ions, he esea ch explo es how elephan s once inhabi ed and shaped he Le an ine
landscapes. The pape examines hei ole as keys one he bi o es, hei in eg a ion in o egional cul u es
h ough ade, wa a e, and symbolism, and hei e en ual disappea ance due o clima ic shi s, de o es a ion,
and an h opogenic p essu es. Cul u al memo y o elephan s, p ese ed in eligious sc ip u es and place
names, o e s insigh s in o human–animal ela ions and he ecological consciousness o ancien socie ies. The
s udy highligh s how lessons om he ex inc ion o elephan s can in o m cu en biodi e si y s a egies, o es
managemen , and conse a ion ou each in he Le an . I also p oposes u u e esea ch di ec ions, including
ecological ewilding, public educa ion, and egional conse a ion collabo a ion. By con ex ualising elephan s
wi hin he b oade en i onmen al his o y o he egion, he s udy unde sco es he impo ance o in eg a ing
los mega auna in o mode n ecological na a i es.
*
Co esponding Au ho : Khandake Mu sheda Fa hana d a [email protected]
Jou nal o Biodi e si y and En i onmen al Sciences (JBES)
ISSN: 2220-6663 (P in ) 2222-3045 (Online)
Vol. 26, No. 5, p. 98-105, 2025
h p://www.innspub.ne
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In oduc ion
The Canaan egion—encompassing he p esen -day
e i o ies o Jo dan, Is ael, Lebanon, and Sy ia—has
his o ically been a c i ical in e sec ion o ecological
di e si y, human ci ilisa ion, and zoological
in e ac ion. Among i s los mega aunal inhabi an s,
elephan s played a p ominen ole bo h ecologically
and cul u ally. Once h i ing in he e ile plains and
woodlands o he Le an , elephan s a e now ex inc in
his egion, hei legacy su i ing in ossil eco ds,
ancien ex s, and cul u al symbolism. This pape
seeks o unde s and he his o ical habi a , use, and
e en ual ex inc ion o elephan s in Canaan h ough a
mul idisciplina y zoological and o es y su ey.
The p esence o elephan s in he Le an da es back o
he Pleis ocene, e idenced by ossilised emains
ound a si es such as Ubeidiya (Is ael), La amne
(Sy ia), and he Bekaa Valley (Lebanon) (Tche no ,
1987; Lis e and S ua , 2008). These emains
indica e he coexis ence o Palaeoloxodon an iquus
( he s aigh - usked elephan ) and Elephas maximus
o A ican elephan a ian s, which we e adap ed o
he o es ed and open habi a s ha cha ac e ised he
egion du ing in e glacial pe iods. Thei ex inc ion
has adi ionally been a ibu ed o na u al clima ic
cycles; howe e , inc easing e idence sugges s
signi ican an h opogenic impac , including habi a
des uc ion, hun ing, and ea ly o ms o
en i onmen al modi ica ion (Su o ell e al., 2005;
S ua , 1991).
Cul u ally, elephan s le a s ong imp in on
egional adi ions. They a e e e enced in
his o ical and eligious ex s, including he Heb ew
Bible and he Qu ’an, no ably in s o ies such as he
“A my o he Elephan ” and accoun s o Seleucid
and P olemaic wa a e (Li man, 2009; Al-Taba i,
1987). These e e ences no only poin o he
p esence o elephan s bu also o hei u ilisa ion in
poli ical and eligious na a i es, ade, and
impe ial expansion. By he 1s millennium BCE,
impo ed elephan s we e likely used in mili a y
campaigns, highligh ing hei poli ical signi icance
e en as na i e popula ions dwindled.
Despi e hei his o ical signi icance, li le a en ion
has been paid o he ecological con ex in which
elephan s li ed in he Le an . The egion's ancien
o es s, including hose o oak, pis achio, and
ama isk, suppo ed a di e se a ay o lo a and auna
ha would ha e enabled elephan habi a ion and
mo emen (Zoha y, 1973). Howe e , de o es a ion
esul ing om ag icul u e, se lemen expansion, and
wood ex ac ion has se e ely al e ed he landscape,
con ibu ing o habi a agmen a ion and
biodi e si y loss. These ecological p essu es,
compounded o e cen u ies, ha e c ea ed
unsus ainable en i onmen s o he su i al o
mega auna (Fai h, 2014).
This esea ch add esses he need o a comp ehensi e
analysis o elephan ex inc ion in he Le an by
in eg a ing zoological da a, paleon ological e idence,
a chaeological eco ds, and o es y ecology. I aims
o econs uc he en i onmen al condi ions ha
suppo ed elephan s, unde s and hei in e ac ion
wi h human socie ies, and analyse he cascading
consequences o hei ex inc ion on he egional
ecosys em.
Fu he mo e, he s udy seeks o con ibu e o cu en
conse a ion discussions by e alua ing how his o ical
knowledge o mega auna loss can in o m p esen -day
en i onmen al policy and ewilding ini ia i es. In a
egion equen ly iewed h ough he lens o eligious
and poli ical his o y, highligh ing i s deep- ime
ecological ans o ma ions o e s a b oade
pe spec i e on land use, biodi e si y, and
sus ainabili y.
In doing so, his pape a gues o he inclusion o
his o ical mega auna in egional en i onmen al
memo y and conse a ion amewo ks. Elephan s in
Canaan we e no me ely ic ims o ex inc ion— hey
we e agen s in shaping o es s, dispe sing seeds, and
cons uc ing ecosys ems. Thei loss al e ed no jus
he biological ab ic o he egion bu i s cul u al
consciousness. Reco e ing ha legacy is essen ial o
a holis ic unde s anding o bo h pas and p esen
ecological dynamics.
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Ma e ials and Me hods
This esea ch employed an in e disciplina y
me hodology combining zoological analysis,
paleon ological e iew, his o ical ex ual
in e p e a ion, and o es y ecology. The aim was o
econs uc he dis ibu ion o elephan habi a s,
usage pa e ns by ancien human socie ies, and
ex inc ion pa hways wi hin he Canaan egion. The
s udy spanned bo h p ehis o ic and his o ic pe iods,
elying on p ima y a chaeological sou ces, ecological
econs uc ions, and seconda y schola ly li e a u e,
suppo ed by GIS mapping and s a ig aphic
co ela ions.
Geog aphic scope
The s udy a ea co e ed he b oade Canaan egion,
encompassing mode n-day Jo dan, Is ael,
Lebanon, and Sy ia. These coun ies sha e
ecological and his o ical con inui ies ele an o
elephan habi a ion. Speci ic a chaeological and
paleon ological si es, such as Ubeidiya and Geshe
Beno Ya’aqo (Is ael), La amne and Hummal
(Sy ia), Anja and he Bekaa Valley (Lebanon), and
he Az aq Basin (Jo dan), we e p io i ised o da a
on elephan emains and en i onmen al con ex
(Tche no , 1987; Ba -Yose , 1998).
Paleon ological and a chaeological da a collec ion
Da a on ex inc elephan species we e sou ced om
published exca a ion epo s, museum collec ions
(e.g., Is ael An iqui ies Au ho i y, Na ional Museum
o Damascus), and in e na ional da abases, including
he Paleobiology Da abase. Fossil emains, including
mola s, usks, and pos c anial elemen s, we e
iden i ied and co ela ed wi h species such as
Palaeoloxodon an iquus and Elephas maximus
asu us. Radioca bon da ing and s a ig aphic eco ds
we e used o es ablish empo al con ex s (Lis e and
S ua , 2008; Go en-Inba e al., 2002).
A chaeological da a included e idence o elephan -
human in e ac ion, such as ool ma ks on bones,
li hic ools associa ed wi h bu che y, and
iconog aphy on po e y and insc ip ions. Ancien
elephan emains we e c oss- e e enced wi h
human se lemen maps o analyse spa ial o e laps
indica i e o in e ac ion o con lic .
His o ical and ex ual analysis
The s udy inco po a ed classical ex s, eligious
sc ip u es, and his o ical ch onicles o documen
human uses o elephan s and hei symbolic oles.
Sou ces included he Heb ew Bible (1 Maccabees, 2
Maccabees), G eco-Roman his o ies (e.g., Polybius,
Pliny he Elde ), and Islamic his o iog aphies such as
al-Taba i’s Ta ikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk. These ex s
we e analysed o e e ences o elephan s in wa a e,
oyal p ocessions, and eligious allego ies (Li man,
2009; Al-Taba i, 1987).
Linguis ic e e ences and oponyms associa ed wi h
elephan s o hei habi a s we e ca alogued using
his o ical a lases and dic iona ies o iden i y cul u al
memo y embedded in geog aphic names, such as Bay
al-Fil, meaning “House o he Elephan .”
Fo es y and ecological su eys
Vege a ion econs uc ion was c ucial o e alua ing
habi a sui abili y o elephan s. Palynological s udies
(pollen analysis), cha coal eco ds, and sedimen
co es om lake beds and ca es we e consul ed o map
ancien woodland ypes. Fo es s domina ed by
Que cus callip inos, Pis acia palaes ina, and
Tama ix spp. we e iden i ied as po en ial habi a s o
elephan s based on hei die a y needs and mo emen
pa e ns (Zoha y, 1973; Langgu e al., 2011).
Da a on de o es a ion ends we e ga he ed om
an h opogenic impac s udies, which indica e
woodland deple ion esul ing om ag icul u e,
g azing, and imbe ex ac ion o e millennia.
De o es a ion a es we e compa ed wi h egional
clima e eco ds o assess syne gies be ween human
and na u al o ces in habi a loss.
Analy ical amewo k
The indings we e analysed using a combina ion o
quali a i e and spa ial app oaches. Thema ic coding
was applied o ex ual e e ences, and GIS so wa e
was used o isualise o e laps among elephan ossils,
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o es zones, and ancien human se lemen s. The
ex inc ion imeline was con ex ualised wi hin he
b oade mega aunal decline ac oss Eu asia and
A ica, emphasising an h opogenic impac .
This mul i-scala app oach—spanning ossil biology,
landscape ecology, and cul u al his o y—enabled a
obus unde s anding o elephan ex inc ion as bo h
an ecological and sociopoli ical p ocess. I enables
esea ch o mo e beyond singula explana ions and
ins ead explo e he complex eedback loops be ween
humans, animals, and o es s.
Resul s
The compiled da a om paleon ological, ecological,
his o ical, and a chaeological sou ces yielded a
comp ehensi e pic u e o elephan p esence,
ecological ole, cul u al u ilisa ion, and ex inc ion
pa e ns ac oss he Canaan egion.
Paleon ological and ecological dis ibu ion
Fossil e idence indica es ha elephan s we e
widesp ead h oughou he Le an om he Ea ly
Pleis ocene o he La e Holocene. The emains o
Palaeoloxodon an iquus ( he s aigh - usked
elephan ) we e disco e ed a Ubeidiya and Geshe
Beno Ya’aqo in he Jo dan Valley, da ing back o
app oxima ely 1.4–0.78 million yea s ago (Tche no ,
1987; Go en-Inba e al., 2002). La e indings om
he La e Pleis ocene in he Bekaa Valley (Lebanon)
and Hummal (Sy ia) sugges p olonged su i al in o
he Uppe Palaeoli hic. Ri e ine o es s and open
woodland mosaics cha ac e ised hese egions-
habi a s sui able o megahe bi o es dependen on
ee ba k, lea es, and aqua ic ege a ion.
The ecological eco d om sedimen co es and pollen
analysis e eals ha hese a eas once suppo ed
ex ensi e oak (Que cus callip inos), pis achio
(Pis acia palaes ina), and ama isk (Tama ix spp.)
o es s. Elephan s likely ac ed as ecosys em
enginee s, main aining open o es s uc u es,
acili a ing seed dispe sal, and c ea ing wa e holes.
Thei ex inc ion likely igge ed cascading e ec s,
such as dense unde g ow h, educed dispe sal o
la ge seeds, and changes in he bi o e compe i ion
(Fai h, 2014; Langgu e al., 2011).
Cul u al and symbolic use
His o ical ex s om he i s millennium BCE
onwa d indica e a dual ole o elephan s in he
egion, se ing as bo h mili a y asse s and cul u al
symbols. Elephan s a e p ominen ly ea u ed in
Seleucid and P olemaic mili a y eco ds, no ably in
he Books o Maccabees, which desc ibe he use o
wa elephan s in ba les in Judea (1 Macc. 6:35-46; 2
Macc. 11:11-12). These we e likely impo ed Asian
elephan s, e lec ing ade connec ions wi h he Eas
and Egyp . Howe e , he con inued e e ences o
elephan s in he egion sugges ei he he exis ence o
esidual wild popula ions o he p esence o
domes ica ed specimens p io o hei ull ex inc ion.
The Qu ’anic s o y o he “A my o he Elephan ”
(Sū a al-Fīl, 105:1-15), da ed o he 7 h cen u y CE,
si ua es elephan s in a eligious na a i e associa ed
wi h di ine in e en ion and des uc ion. While
la gely symbolic, he pe sis ence o elephan s in
cul u al memo y cen u ies a e hei ex inc ion
highligh s hei deep- oo ed p esence in he egional
imagina ion (Al-Taba i, 1987).
Addi ional symbolic use appea s in Hellenis ic a ,
Naba aean coins, and Roman mosaics, o en
depic ing elephan s as exo ic o impe ial animals.
These a e ac s sugges he ans o ma ion o
elephan s om ecological ac o s o my hologised
igu es as hey disappea ed om physical landscapes.
Human-elephan in e ac ion and impac
A chaeological e idence shows clea human-elephan
in e ac ions da ing back o he Lowe Palaeoli hic. A
si es like Geshe Beno Ya’aqo and La amne,
elephan bones we e ound wi h cu ma ks indica i e
o bu che y using Acheulean ools, sugges ing ha
ea ly hominins ac i ely hun ed o sca enged
elephan s (Go en-Inba e al., 2002). The equency
o hese in e ac ions appea s o inc ease o e ime,
especially du ing pe iods o o es e ea and
popula ion p essu e.
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Du ing he Neoli hic and B onze Ages, inc easing
de o es a ion esul ing om ag icul u al expansion
and popula ion g ow h educed he iable habi a s o
elephan s. By he I on Age, habi a agmen a ion had
eached c i ical le els, pa icula ly in he cen al and
coas al Le an (Zoha y, 1973). Combined wi h
o e hun ing and he ise o o ganised wa a e using
elephan s, hese p essu es likely led o he local
ex i pa ion o emnan popula ions.
Ex inc ion imeline and legacy
The ex inc ion o na i e elephan s in he Canaan
egion is es ima ed o ha e occu ed in mul iple
wa es. La ge-bodied species such as Palaeoloxodon
an iquus disappea ed by he end o he La e
Pleis ocene (~10,000 BP), likely due o clima e shi s
and human expansion (S ua , 1991). Smalle o
impo ed elephan species may ha e pe sis ed in
cap i i y o isola ed e uges in o he ea ly Common
E a, as sugges ed by his o ical and eligious eco ds.
Following hei ex inc ion, elephan s con inued o be
e e ed as symbols in a ious eligious, impe ial, and
cul u al con ex s. Toponyms such as “Bay al-Fil” and
e e ences in olklo e and poe y main ained hei
p esence in local iden i y. Howe e , he ecological
oid le by hei disappea ance was ne e illed,
con ibu ing o educed biodi e si y and o es
esilience.
Discussion
The indings o his s udy o e c i ical insigh s in o
he complex in e play o en i onmen al,
an h opogenic, and his o ical ac o s ha led o he
ex inc ion o elephan s in he Canaan egion.
Elephan s, once na i e o he Le an ine co ido ,
we e no me ely biological en i ies bu we e
ecologically pi o al and cul u ally signi ican . Thei
disappea ance e lec s a b oade na a i e o
mega aunal decline ha pa allels g owing human
in e en ion in o es ed ecosys ems.
Ecological Impo ance and Habi a Vulne abili y
Elephan s, as keys one species, p o oundly shaped
he landscape. Thei ole in modi ying ege a ion
s uc u e, dispe sing seeds, and acili a ing habi a
he e ogenei y has been well-documen ed in A ican
and Asian con ex s (Haynes, 1991). The ossil and
palynological eco ds in his s udy con i m ha
Pleis ocene-e a elephan s likely played simila oles
in he Le an , pa icula ly in eco ones be ween
Medi e anean woodlands and a id s eppe. The
ecological sui abili y o oak-pis achio woodlands and
ipa ian co ido s along he Jo dan Valley and Bekaa
basin p o ided op imal esou ces o elephan s.
Howe e , as hese o es s eceded due o clima ic
oscilla ions and la e human-induced de o es a ion,
he ca ying capaci y o elephan s declined apidly.
The ecological acuum esul ing om elephan
ex inc ion is likely o ha e al e ed he ajec o y o
o es composi ion and esilience. Wi hou
mega aunal he bi o y and ampling, seed dispe sal
pa e ns would ha e na owed, leading o dense
unde g ow h and al e ed species dominance—a
pa e n obse ed in o he pos -elephan landscapes
(Ripple e al., 2015).
Human p essu e and di ec exploi a ion
F om he Lowe Palaeoli hic onwa d, he e is angible
e idence o human-elephan in e ac ion in he egion.
The a chaeological cu ma ks on elephan bones,
along wi h hei associa ion wi h s one ools, sugges
ha ea ly hominins engaged in hun ing and/o
sca enging ac i i ies (Go en-Inba e al., 2002).
These in e ac ions in ensi ied as human popula ions
g ew and echnology ad anced. Du ing he Neoli hic
and B onze Ages, inc easing seden ism, ag icul u al
expansion, and me allu gical de elopmen led o
agg essi e de o es a ion, se e ely agmen ing he
elephan 's na u al ange.
By he Classical and Hellenis ic pe iods, elephan s
we e no longe pa o he na u al auna; ins ead, hey
we e u ilised as wa machines and symbols o oyal
au ho i y. This ansi ion om wild species o
mili a y commodi y ma ked a undamen al change in
human-elephan ela ionships. His o ical ex s—such
as hose in he Books o Maccabees and G eco-Roman
mili a y ea ises—highligh he exploi a ion o
elephan s impo ed o wa a e, u he ein o cing
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hei loss om na i e ecosys ems (Li man, 2009).
Simul aneously, his also e lec s he elephan 's s a us
as a p es igious animal, associa ed wi h o eign
empi es, powe , and ea .
Symbolism, memo y, and cul u al legacy
In e es ingly, e en a e hei ecological ex inc ion,
elephan s con inued o main ain a s ong cul u al
p esence in he Canaani e and b oade Middle Eas e n
imagina ion. The Qu ’anic su ah Al-Fīl and e e ences in
Jewish and Ch is ian ex s p ese e memo y o hei
g andeu and di ine associa ions. These s o ies may
ha e eme ged in pe iods whe e ac ual elephan
popula ions we e no longe isible in he landscape,
indica ing hei symbolic impo ance ou li ed hei
ecological p esence. Toponyms, o al adi ions, and
a is ic ep esen a ions ha e p ese ed hei image y,
enabling a o m o cul u al con inui y e en in he
absence o a ou able ecological condi ions.
This symbolic endu ance pa allels indings in o he
ex inc mega auna, whe e he loss o he animal
coincides wi h i s ele a ion o my h (W oe e al.,
2013). Elephan s in Canaan, he e o e, se e as bo h
zoological and semio ic subjec s, wi h implica ions o
unde s anding ex inc ion no only as a biological
p ocess bu also as a sociocul u al ans o ma ion.
Regional and global con ex
The ex inc ion o elephan s in he Canaan egion aligns
wi h b oade global pa e ns o mega aunal decline ha
occu ed be ween 50,000 and 10,000 yea s ago,
pa icula ly du ing he La e Pleis ocene and ea ly
Holocene pe iods. Howe e , wha se s his egion apa
is i s ex ended his o ical memo y o elephan s, as
e lec ed in sc ip u al, impe ial, and cul u al
e e ences. The Canaani e ex inc ion s o y o e s a
unique mic ocosm whe e ecology, empi e, and
heology in e sec —a case s udy o unde s anding
an h opogenic ex inc ion as bo h a ma e ial and
symbolic e en (Fai h, 2014; S ua , 1991).
Conclusion
The his o ical and ecological e idence ga he ed in his
s udy e eals ha elephan s we e once in eg al
componen s o he Canaan egion's en i onmen ,
spanning om he Ea ly Pleis ocene o he ea ly
his o ical pe iods. Thei ecological oles as keys one
he bi o es con ibu ed o he main enance o
biodi e si y, seed dispe sal, and landscape
s uc u e, pa icula ly wi hin Medi e anean
woodland and i e ine ecosys ems. Howe e , a
combina ion o en i onmen al changes and
inc easing an h opogenic p essu es— anging om
p ehis o ic hun ing and de o es a ion o la e
mili a is ic exploi a ion—con ibu ed o hei
e en ual ex inc ion om he Le an .
The s udy also highligh s how he disappea ance o
elephan s did no equa e o hei e asu e om
cul u al memo y. Ins ead, hei legacy pe sis ed in he
o m o sc ip u al na a i es, symbolic
ep esen a ions, and his o ical accoun s, sugges ing
ha elephan s con inued o shape iden i y, heology,
and impe ial symbolism long a e hei biological
ex inc ion. This ans o ma ion om ecological ac o s
o cul u al icons is signi ican in unde s anding he
mul i-dimensional impac o species loss.
Mo eo e , he indings suppo he no ion ha he
decline o elephan s in his egion e lec s b oade
pa e ns o La e Qua e na y mega aunal ex inc ions.
Howe e , he Canaan egion p esen s a ib an
example o how ecological, poli ical, and eligious
his o ies can con e ge a ound a single species.
Ul ima ely, his su ey con ibu es o a deepe
unde s anding o he complex in e ela ionships
be ween human ci ilisa ions and wildli e, highligh ing
he long- e m consequences o habi a deg ada ion,
o e exploi a ion, and cul u al ans o ma ion. The
ex inc ion o elephan s in Canaan is no jus a loss o
biodi e si y, bu also a his o ical ma ke o shi ing
landscapes—bo h ecological and ideological— ha
con inues o in luence egional iden i y and
conse a ion hinking oday.
Recommenda ions
Based on he indings o his s udy, se e al
ecommenda ions a e p oposed o u u e
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conse a ion planning, he i age esea ch, and
en i onmen al educa ion in he Canaan egion:
In eg a e paleozoological da a in o conse a ion
s a egies: Unde s anding he his o ical p esence o
elephan s and hei ecological oles can in o m he
es o a ion o deg aded ecosys ems. Rein oducing
unc ionally simila species (e.g., la ge he bi o es)
could help es o e ecological p ocesses dis up ed by
he loss o mega auna.
P o ec and s udy ossil and a chaeological si es:
Many si es con aining aluable ossil and
a chaeological emains a e unde h ea om
de elopmen and e osion. Go e nmen s and
academic ins i u ions should p io i ise hei
p o ec ion and und mul idisciplina y esea ch ha
connec s palaeon ology, a chaeology, and
en i onmen al science.
P omo e cul u al memo y in conse a ion educa ion:
The symbolic and his o ical p esence o elephan s in
egional adi ions o e s an oppo uni y o engage
local communi ies in biodi e si y he i age awa eness.
Inco po a ing such na a i es in o educa ional
p og ams may enhance public suppo o
conse a ion e o s.
Encou age Regional Collabo a ion: Since he Canaan
egion spans mul iple mode n s a es, c oss-bo de
esea ch and conse a ion policies should be de eloped
o ensu e sha ed esponsibili y and da a exchange.
By connec ing ancien biodi e si y wi h mode n
ecological p io i ies, a deepe unde s anding o
en i onmen al change and esilience can be os e ed.
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