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A0701
Enhancing Ammonia Powe Gene a ion: A S udy on
In eg a ed Sys em Designs Using PEMFC and O he
Technologies
An onin B uneau* (1,3), Du Wen (2), Xinyi Wei (1,2), A is Ma oonian (3),
Jan Van He le (1)
(1) G oup o Ene gy Ma e ials (GEM), Ecole Poly echnique Fédé ale de Lausanne,
1950 Sion/Swi ze land;
(2) IPESE, EPFL Valais Wallis, 1950 Sion/Swi ze land;
(3) Neology Hyd ogen SA, 1095 Lu y/Swi ze land;
*Con ac co esponding au ho s: www.EFCF.com/Con ac Reques
Abs ac
Ammonia is ecognized as a non-ca bon al e na i e o hyd ogen s o age and anspo ,
no ed o i s e iciency, cos -e ec i eness, and sa e y. A he hea o u ilizing ammonia in
powe gene a ion h ough uel cells is he ammonia c acking p ocess (ammonia o hyd ogen
o powe ), which equi es empe a u es abo e 500°C o elease hyd ogen. This s udy
explo es he in eg a ion o ammonia c acke s wi h di e en powe gene a ion echnologies,
including adi ional in e nal combus ion engines (ICE), low- empe a u e p o on exchange
memb ane uel cells (PEMFC), and high- empe a u e solid oxide uel cells (SOFC). Th ough
modelling and sys em le el op imiza ion in ASPEN and AMPL, his s udy models and e ines
how each echnology, combined wi h an ammonia c acke , pe o ms, inco po a ing
componen s like hyd ogen ca aly ic bu ne s, memb anes, and hea exchange s o assess
each scena io’s bene i s and limi a ions. This app oach highligh s he bene i s o u ilizing
ammonia c acke s in an "ammonia- o-hyd ogen- o-powe " pa hway compa ed o a mo e
di ec "ammonia- o-powe " ou e wi hou c acking.
While indings indica e ha SOFC o e s he mos e icien in eg a ion, achie ing a global
e iciency o 76.9%, albei wi h a need o ca e ul empe a u e con ol s a egies, PEMFC
can achie e a global e iciency o 54%, when ca e ully selec ing he echnology h ough
sys em op imiza ion. The s udy p oposes a new sys em layou ha no only u ilizes
ammonia—a clean, non-ca bon uel—bu also enhances e iciency h ough compac
PEMFC design solu ions. This app oach o e s p omising pa hways o deploying ammonia
in a a ie y o ene gy sys ems using PEMFC, highligh ing i s po en ial o cos -e ec i e
scalable, clean powe gene a ion.
Figu e 1. Sys ems con igu a ions
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1. In oduc ion:
The global eliance on ossil uels unde mines long- e m ene gy secu i y and sus ainabili y.
Since ca bon uels domina e, sou cing mus be eassessed. Al hough enewable hyd ogen
p oduc ion is expanding, many egions lack he esou ces o gene a e i e icien ly. Ammonia
(NH₃) eme ges as a p omising hyd ogen ca ie due o i s high ene gy densi y, exis ing
in as uc u e, and easie anspo . C acking impo ed ammonia p o ides hyd ogen wi hou
cos ly lique ac ion, enabling a global hyd ogen economy. This expands supply chains,
enhancing ene gy secu i y. De eloping ammonia c acking echnologies is hus essen ial—
no only o unlock clean hyd ogen, bu also o enable dispa chable powe gene a ion. When
in eg a ed wi h elec ici y p oduc ion, hese sys ems can s abilize g ids and se e as backup
du ing ou ages, o e ing a ca bon- ee al e na i e o diesel gene a o s. Unlike ba e ies,
ammonia-based sys ems a e scalable and sui able o la ge-scale applica ions, making
hem key asse s o achie ing ca bon neu ali y.
This supply chains, enhancing ene gy secu i y. Howe e , ammonia equi es con e sion ia
c acking. A a ie y o ammonia- o-powe con e sion echnologies ha e been in es iga ed,
including con en ional sys ems, in e nal combus ion engines (H2ICE), as well as eme ging
echnologies like solid oxide uel cells (SOFC) and p o on exchange memb ane uel cells
(PEMFC). This s udy analyzes ammonia-based ene gy con e sion, assessing e iciency,
cos , and iabili y o guide u u e esea ch and indus y applica ions.
1.1 Ammonia c acking o hyd ogen p oduc ion
The ansi ion om ossil uels is essen ial o long- e m ene gy sus ainabili y. Hyd ogen is
a p omising clean uel due o i s high ene gy densi y and ze o emissions [1], bu s o age and
anspo challenges limi i s adop ion. Ammonia, a hyd ogen ca ie , o e s ad an ages in
s o age and economic easibili y. Lan e al. analyzed hyd ogen-ammonia ene gy con e sion,
inding hyb id s o age mos cos -e ec i e, wi h an NPV o 39.31 million USD and LCOE o
0.81 USD/kWh [2].
E icien hyd ogen ex ac ion om ammonia is c ucial. Cho e al. s udied ammonia c acking,
showing ha Ru ca alys s imp o ed eac ion kine ics and achie ed 99.99% hyd ogen pu i y
[3]. Makhlou i e al. analyzed la ge-scale ammonia decomposi ion, achie ing 68.5% he mal
e iciency and p ojec ing hyd ogen cos s o d op o 3 USD/kg by 2040 [4]. Ad ancemen s in
ca alys s, hea eco e y, and p ocess in eg a ion emain key o scaling ammonia c acking
o hyd ogen supply.
1.2 Hyd ogen pu i ica ion in ammonia c acking
Ammonia c acking p oduces hyd ogen- ich gas con aining esidual impu i ies, equi ing
pu i ica ion be o e use. Common sepa a ion me hods include PSA and memb ane
sepa a ion, each balancing pu i y, eco e y, and scalabili y.
Memb ane sepa a ion o e s con inuous pu i ica ion wi h lowe ene gy demands. Jo e al.
de eloped a Pd/Ta memb ane eac o , achie ing 99.9% hyd ogen pu i y a 450 °C unde
6.5 ba ammonia eed, imp o ing ammonia con e sion e iciency o 99.5% [5].
1.3 Ammonia-based powe gene a ion echnologies
Ammonia-de i ed hyd ogen can uel powe gene a ion sys ems. Roy e al. de eloped a
luidized bed eac o o ammonia decomposi ion, op imizing condi ions a 2 ba and 550 °C
o enhance hyd ogen yields o gas u bines, whe e lean combus ion (H2 < 20%) imp o ed
e iciency [6]. Zhang e al. highligh ed ha in e nal combus ion engines (ICEs) equi e lowe
hyd ogen pu i y han uel cells, making onboa d ammonia c acking cos -e ec i e (4.50
USD/kg s. 6.66 USD/kg o liquid hyd ogen) [7]. Wang e al. s udied ammonia/hyd ogen
uel mix u es in ICEs, showing ha a 30% hyd ogen blend a 476K imp o ed combus ion
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s abili y bu excess hyd ogen (>50%) inc eased NOX emissions, necessi a ing op imized
blending s a egies [8].
Solid oxide uel cells (SOFCs) can ope a e di ec ly on ammonia, le e aging high-
empe a u e decomposi ion (600–1000 °C) in o hyd ogen and ni ogen. Wan e al. ound
ammonia- ed SOFCs achie ed up o 57% e iciency, compa able o hyd ogen- ed SOFCs,
bu anode deg ada ion om nickel ni ide o ma ion emains a challenge [9].
Elmu asim e al. epo ed ha SOFCs achie ed hei highes powe densi y a 650°C, wi h
hyd ogen spillo e imp o ing eac ion kine ics, al hough nickel ni ida ion limi s pe o mance
[10]. Sánchez e al. compa ed di ec ammonia- ed SOFCs wi h hyd ogen ca ie s, inding
ha di ec use led o highe con e sion losses and ma e ial deg ada ion, wi h elec ici y
p oduc ion cos s a 1200 EUR/MWh [11].
Mukelabai e al. examined a powe - o-ammonia- o-powe (P2A2P) sys em, in eg a ing
e e sible solid oxide cells ( SOC) wi h he Habe -Bosch p ocess, achie ing a ound- ip
e iciency o 41–53% and powe - o-hyd ogen e iciency o 80% [12]. These s udies highligh
SOFCs’ po en ial o ammonia-based ene gy solu ions, hough e iciency imp o emen s and
ma e ial op imiza ions emain key challenges.
P o on exchange memb ane uel cells (PEMFCs) o e a iable op ion o ammonia-de i ed
hyd ogen use, equi ing high-pu i y hyd ogen bu p o iding lowe ope a ing empe a u es
and as e s a up han SOFCs. Thei s udy ound ha p oducing hyd ogen om ammonia
(0.54 USD/kg) was signi ican ly cheape han s o ing pu e hyd ogen (14.95 USD/kg),
ein o cing ammonia's ole in a ci cula hyd ogen economy.
Ra ho e e al. compa ed SOFC and PEMFC, highligh ing ha SOFC can di ec ly use
ammonia, achie ing 50% e iciency, su passing gas u bines (31%) and in e nal combus ion
engines (21%) [13]. Howe e , SOFC aces ma e ial deg ada ion due o ammonia
decomposi ion by-p oduc s, necessi a ing anode s abiliza ion s a egies. PEMFCs, despi e
equi ing hyd ogen sepa a ion, o e lexibili y and apid esponse, making hem be e o
decen alized applica ions, while SOFCs a e mo e sui ed o s a iona y powe gene a ion
wi h highe e iciency bu g ea e deg ada ion isks.
1.4 Gaps and con ibu ions
Ammonia is a p omising ene gy ca ie due o i s ease o s o age, anspo , and di e se
p oduc ion pa hways, bu i s economic easibili y a ies by egion [14, 15]. P io s udies ha e
no ully add essed he impac o echnology selec ion on sys em e iciency and cos s. This
s udy o mula es ammonia- o-powe (A2P) pa hways, e alua ing di e en c acking,
pu i ica ion, and powe gene a ion echnologies, including, H2ICE, PEMFC, and SOFC.
Ins ead o iden i ying a single op imal pa hway, i highligh s ade-o s based on echno-
economic pe o mance, p o iding insigh s o indus y decision-making. Addi ionally, i
examines how echnology eadiness le els (TRL) and scalabili y a ec ammonia’s ole in
u u e ene gy sys ems. Key con ibu ions include assessing ammonia’s compe i i eness,
op imizing A2P sys em e iciency, and iden i ying majo ac o s in luencing he le elized cos
o elec ici y (LCOE).
2. Ma e ials and me hods
This sec ion i s de ines he scope and bounda ies o he wo k. Then, i in oduces he
echnologies in ol ed and he speci ic de ails needed o cons uc p ocess models. Finally,
in he scena io analysis, all con igu a ions a e e alua ed using key pe o mance indica o s.
2.1 Sys em desc ip ion
Figu e 1 illus a es he schema ic diag am o Ammonia- o-Powe (A2P) pa hway. Ammonia
is impo ed om coun ies ha o e compe i i e p ices o g een ammonia because o hei
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abundan enewable ene gy esou ces and capabili ies o la ge-scale anspo a ion. A
pump aises he liquid ammonia o he desi ed p essu e be o e i is apo ized and hea ed o
each he necessa y empe a u e o c acking in o hyd ogen and ni ogen. A he exhaus o
he c acke , a gas sc ubbe emo es un eac ed ammonia using wa e , wi h he s ipped
ammonia ei he eco e ed o ea ed as was ewa e . The esul ing hyd ogen and ni ogen
a e hen sepa a ed using memb ane echnology. The e en a e low is bu ned in an
a e bu ne o supply hea . The p oduced hyd ogen can be used in in e nal combus ion
engines (ICE) o uel cells (PEMFC o SOFC) o gene a e elec ici y and hea . While
hyd ogen pu i y equi emen s a e less s ingen o SOFCs, un eac ed ammonia mus be
educed o pa s pe million le els be o e en e ing PEMFCs o p e en ma e ial deg ada ion.
The o -gas is hen di ec ed o he a e bu ne o u he combus ion. The selec ion o
speci ic echnologies depends on hei empe a u e and p essu e equi emen s, ensu ing
op imal pe o mance wi hin he sys em.
2.2 Sys em modeling
2.2.1 Ammonia c acke
Impo ed ammonia a 25 °C and 10 ba is i s p essu ized using a pump o mee he equi ed
sys em p essu e. I is hen hea ed o 600 °C and di ec ed o he ammonia c acke , whe e
ca aly ic decomposi ion o ammonia occu s acco ding o Equa ion (1).
2𝑁𝐻3→ 𝑁2+3𝐻2, Δ𝐻∘=92.44 kJ/mol (1)
This endo he mic eac ion is highly empe a u e-dependen and equi es ele a ed
empe a u es o ensu e e icien con e sion. Ammonia con e sion inc eases signi ican ly in
he medium empe a u e ange o 250–450 °C, wi h con e sion app oaching a pla eau
beyond 450 °C [16]. A such high empe a u es, eac ion kine ics become he dominan
ac o o achie ing nea -comple e con e sion. The de ailed eac o con igu a ion and
ca alys selec ion a e beyond he scope o his s udy. Ins ead, an RGibbs eac o model
wi hin ASPEN Plus V.11 [17] is employed o ep esen he maximum o wa d eac ion
p og ess. Expe imen al esul s om e e ence [18] con i m ha equilib ium con e sion is
achie able abo e 450 °C.
To ensu e maximal con e sion while main aining a easonable empe a u e, he simula ion
is pe o med a 600 °C. In addi ion, he eac o p essu e is adjus ed acco ding o each
scena io, depending on he use o a memb ane o he p essu e equi emen s a he inle o
he powe con e sion sys em.
2.2.2 Hyd ogen sepa a ion and pu i ica ion
A memb ane model is cons uc ed based on Ceche o model [19]. Due o di e ences in
p essu e and concen a ion, he eed low is p essu ized and en e s he memb ane, whe e
i di ides in o pe mea e low and e en a e low. An analy ical model has been de eloped o
de e mine he pe mea e and e en a e lows using Eq. (2)-(4). Assuming he ideal selec i i y
o hyd ogen o e ni ogen and ammonia. I was decided ha he minimum pa ial p essu e
di e ence be ween he e en a e and he pe mea e should be 1 ba , based on his he pa ial
p essu e a he exhaus o he e en a e has been assessed, and hen used o compu e he
hyd ogen eco e y ac o .
𝐻𝑅𝐹 = 𝐻2,𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝐻2,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒
(2)
𝑃𝐻2,𝑟𝑒𝑡
𝑜𝑢𝑡 =(√𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚 +√2−1)2 (3)
𝐻𝑅𝐹 =1−(1
𝑋𝐻2
𝑖𝑛 −1)𝑃𝐻2,𝑟𝑒𝑡
𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑡−𝑃𝐻2,𝑟𝑒𝑡
𝑜𝑢𝑡 (4)
Fu he mo e, he equi ed memb ane su ace a ea is calcula ed based on he hyd ogen lux
in he pe mea e, he p essu e di e ence ac oss he memb ane, and he memb ane’s
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pe meance, as shown in Eq. (5). He e he pe meance is o 2.8e-4 mol. m−2.Pa−0.5, and he
p essu e in he e en a e has been chosen o be 50 ba .
𝐴= 𝐻2
(√𝑃 e −√𝑃pe m)⋅Π (5)
2.2.3 Hyd ogen powe gene a ion
PEMFC, SOFC, and H2ICE a e conside ed o powe gene a ion. Analy ical models
simula e he p ocess, wi h he PEMFC model based on e e ences [20, 21]. The e e sible
o e po en ial is es ima ed using he Ne ns equa ion:
𝐸𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 = 𝐸0+𝑅𝑇𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶
2𝐹 ln(𝑃𝐻2√𝑃𝑂2
𝑃𝐻2𝑂) (6)
𝐸0=1.299−0.000846(𝑇𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 −298.15) (7)
whe e 𝐸𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 is he e e sible o e po en ial, 𝑇𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 is he wo king empe a u e, and
PH2,PO2,PH2O a e pa ial p essu es. O e po en ial losses a ec he ac ual ol age, and powe
gene a ion is de e mined as:
𝑃𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 =(𝐸𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 −𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠)𝐽𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶𝐴𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 (8)
𝐽𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶𝐴𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 =2𝐹𝑁𝐻2 (9)
whe e 𝐽𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 is cu en densi y, 𝐴𝑃𝐸𝑀𝐹𝐶 is memb ane a ea, and NH2is hyd ogen
consump ion a e. A single-pass uel u iliza ion a e o 83% is assumed. The SOFC model
ollows a simila analy ical app oach [22], wi h no s ic hyd ogen pu i y equi emen . Cooling
wa e and swep ai egula e empe a u e, and 80% o exhaus gas is ecycled. The
o e po en ial loss o he PEMFC is 0.42V and he one o he SOFC is 0.16V. Fo H2ICE,
high-pu i y hyd ogen is p essu ized o 20 ba s and injec ed in o he combus ion chambe ,
achie ing an op imal b ake he mal e iciency o 40% [23].
2.2.4 Ene gy eco e y
The ammonia c acke ope a es a high empe a u es (600 °C), p oducing gases wi h
signi ican eco e able ene gy. Was e hea om SOFC, bu ne s, ICE is also u ilized o
imp o e e iciency. This s udy applies a hea exchange ne wo k (HEN) o op imize hea
managemen , based on a amewo k om a p e ious s udy [24]. A mixed-in ege linea
p og amming (MILP) model is de eloped o minimize ene gy consump ion and de e mine
he op imal u ili y ne wo k using hea cascade equa ions and pinch analysis. The amewo k
i s assesses was e hea , con e ing i in o usable ene gy [25].
2.3 Scena io analysis
Table 1 ou lines he di e en sys em con igu a ions conside ed in his s udy. The well-
es ablished PEMFC echnology is compa ed wi h he eme ging SOFC al e na i e. PEMFCs
equi e high-pu i y hyd ogen and minimal ammonia con amina ion, making a sc ubbe
necessa y be ween he c acke and he uel cell. In con as , SOFCs a e mo e ole an o
a ia ions in inle gas composi ion bu a e gene ally mo e expensi e han PEMFCs. The
s udy also conside s hyd ogen in e nal combus ion engines (H₂ICE), whe e hyd ogen is
bu ned in a combus ion chambe . These sys ems o e he ad an age o being e o i ed
om exis ing in as uc u e
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Scena io
name
Hyd ogen o powe
con e sion echnology
Memb ane
Bu ne
S1
ICE
No
No
S2
ICE
Yes
Yes
S3
PEMFC
No
Yes
S4
PEMFC
Yes
Yes
S5
SOFC
No
Yes
S6
SOFC
Yes
Yes
Table 1. Di e en con igu a ion o ammonia o powe pa hway
Technical and economic key pe o mance indica o s a e u ilized o iden i y op imal
con igu a ions and a e compa ed wi h compe i o s in he ma ke :
Ene gy e iciency:
η𝑒𝑙𝑒 =𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑚NH3LHVNH3 (10)
Whe e η𝑒𝑙𝑒 is he sys em ene gy e iciency when p oducing hyd ogen; 𝑚𝑁𝐻3 is he mass low
a e o he consumed ammonia, 𝑘𝑔.𝑠−1; LHV𝑁𝐻3 is he lowe hea ing alue o ammonia,
𝑀𝐽.𝑘𝑔−1. 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is he elec ici y p oduced, kW.
Le elized cos o elec ici y (LCOE):
𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸 =𝐶𝐶𝐴𝑃𝐸𝑋𝐶𝑅𝐹+𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑋
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ (11)
𝐶𝑅𝐹 = 𝑖(1+𝑖)𝑛
(1+𝑖)𝑛−1 (12)
whe e 𝐶CAPEX is he capi al expendi u e o he sys em, USD;
𝐶𝑅𝐹 is he capi al eco e y ac o ; 𝐶OPEX is he ope a ional expendi u e o he sys em, USD;
ℎ is he annual ope a ing hou , h; 𝑖 is he discoun a e; n is he li e ime o he sys em.
All he alue used in o he LCOE calcula ion a e p esen ed in able 2.
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Name
Value
Uni
Re .
Ope a ing hou pe yea
5246
h
[-]
Discoun a e
6
%
[-]
Main enance and manpowe
5% o CAPEX
[-]
PEMFC sys em cos
1200
USD/kW
[26]
Li e ime o PEMFC
10000
h
[27]
SOFC sys em cos
10000
USD/kW
[28]
Li e ime o SOFC
40000
h
[28]
ICE cos
1000
USD/kW
[29]
Li e ime o ICE
80000
h
[30]
Memb ane cos
20000
USD/kW
[31]
Li e ime o memb ane
3
y
[32]
Ca alys cos
4000
USD/kg
[33]
Li e ime o Ca alys
5
y
[-]
Reac o F ame cos
10000
USD/kgH2/h
[-]
Li e ime o eac o ame
25
y
[-]
Ammonia supply sys em
1000
USD/kgNH3/h
[-]
Li e ime o ammonia supply sys em
15
y
[-]
Ammonia p ice
1.32
USD/kg
[34]
Table 2. Used alue o LCOE calcula ion
3. Resul s and discussion
Figu e 2 p esen s he ene gy con e sion e iciencies o each scena io (calcula ed in
acco dance wi h Equa ion 10), along wi h he con e sion echnology employed ICE o
Scena ios S1 and S2, PEMFC o S3 and S4, and SOFC o S5 and S6. The able also
includes he ammonia consump ion pe kWh o elec ici y p oduced.
I is e iden ha he scena ios in ol ing SOFC echnology exhibi signi ican ly highe
e iciencies compa ed o he o he cases. Scena io S6, in pa icula , achie es an e iciency
o 76.5%, which is ma kedly supe io o he alues a ainable wi h al e na i e echnologies.
This pe o mance can be a ibu ed o wo p ima y ac o s: he inhe en ly highe e iciency o
he SOFC compa ed o he PEMFC (74.5% s. 65.0%), and he ele a ed ope a ing
empe a u e o he SOFC (750°C). This high- empe a u e ope a ion enables he eco e y
and alo iza ion o he mal losses wi hin he sys em—speci ically, by u ilizing he a ailable
hea o d i e ammonia c acking a 600°C—an app oach ha is no easible wi h he lowe -
empe a u e PEMFC sys ems.
Fu he mo e, i is no ewo hy ha in scena ios in ol ing SOFCs, he ammonia- o-powe
e iciency exceeds ha o he hyd ogen- o-powe pa hway (76.5% s. 74.5% in S6),
unde sco ing he bene i o in eg a ing hyd ogen p oduc ion di ec ly wi hin he powe
gene a ion sys em.
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Con e sely, he scena ios based on ICEs a e he leas ene gy-e icien , wi h e iciencies o
30.8% and 25.5% o S1 and S2, espec i ely. This is consis en wi h he gene ally low
con e sion e iciency associa ed wi h in e nal combus ion engines.
Among he PEMFC-based scena ios, S3 achie es a highe e iciency han S4. In S3, he
absence o a memb ane esul s in lowe uel cell e iciency and educed hyd ogen
consump ion (as gas eci cula ion is no easible). Howe e , he unconsumed hyd ogen is
ou ed o he a e bu ne , whe e i is combus ed o p oduce hea ha can be u ilized
elsewhe e in he sys em— hus enhancing he o e all sys em e iciency. In con as ,
Scena io S4 in ol es nea ly comple e hyd ogen consump ion wi hin he PEMFC, lea ing
less esidual hyd ogen a ailable o hea eco e y. As a esul , addi ional elec ical ene gy
mus be used o supply he hea equi ed o ammonia c acking, leading o a educ ion in
o e all sys em e iciency.
Figu e 2. Ammonia consump ion, Ammonia and hyd ogen o powe e iciency
Figu e 3 illus a es he Le elized Cos o Elec ici y (LCOE) o each scena io. A no able
obse a ion is he a ying con ibu ion o capi al expendi u es (CAPEX, shown in blue) and
ope a ional expendi u es (OPEX, shown in yellow) ac oss he di e en echnologies. ICE-
based scena ios (S1 and S2) exhibi lowe capi al cos s and longe ope a ional li e imes, bu
his is coun e balanced by hei low e iciency, which leads o highe ammonia consump ion
(as shown in Figu e 2) and hus highe OPEX. The esul ing LCOE alues a e 1.113
USD/kWh o S1 and 0.977 USD/kWh o S2.
Fo PEMFC scena ios, he imp o ed e iciency educes OPEX, and al hough he
echnology's limi ed li espan inc eases CAPEX, he o e all LCOE emains a o able. The
LCOE o S3 is 0.655 USD/kWh, while ha o S4 is 0.848 USD/kWh.
In he case o SOFC-based sys ems, he high e iciency yields a low OPEX. Howe e , he
high capi al cos and sho e li e ime o SOFC componen s signi ican ly impac he CAPEX.
Consequen ly, he LCOE alues a e 0.744 USD/kWh o S5 and 0.731 USD/kWh o S6.
S1 S2 S2 p ime S3 S4 S5 S6
NH₃ consump ion kg/kWh 0.733 0.655 0.655 0.358 0.426 0.272 0.252
Ammonia o powe e iciency 0.255 0.308 0.308 0.548 0.451 0.714 0.765
Hyd ogen o powe e iciency 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.514 0.650 0.665 0.745
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
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Figu e 3. Le elized cos o elec ici y o he di e en scena io
4. Conclusions
The cos s o PEMFC and SOFC echnologies can be educed, and hei ope a ional
li espans ex ended h ough ongoing esea ch and de elopmen . These ad ancemen s
would lowe capi al expendi u e (CAPEX) and, in u n, educe he le elized cos o elec ici y
(LCOE). Howe e , bo h uel cell echnologies s ill ace limi a ions in e ms o ma u i y and
ma ke a ailabili y, which cu en ly hinde hei la ge-scale deploymen . Today, uel cells
ypically do no exceed powe ou pu s o 200 kW, making in e nal combus ion engines (ICE)
mo e ele an o highe powe applica ions. In con as , hyd ogen in e nal combus ion
engines (H₂ICE) ha e eached a high echnology eadiness le el (TRL) and bene i om
widesp ead a ailabili y, making hem a p agma ic sho - e m solu ion despi e hei lowe
e iciency.
Each echnology o e s dis inc ad an ages depending on he use case. SOFCs p o ide high
e iciency and a e ideal o con inuous, s able powe gene a ion, hough hey su e om
long s a up imes and limi ed load lexibili y. PEMFCs espond quickly and manage dynamic
load changes well, making hem sui able o sys ems wi h in e mi en o a iable powe
demands. ICE sys ems, while less e icien , o e apid s a up and high esponsi eness o
load a ia ions, making hem sui able o backup o luc ua ing demand scena ios.
Ul ima ely, he p io i y should no lie in selec ing one speci ic echnology, bu in deploying
sys ems ha a e mo e cos -e ec i e han diesel, o suppo a iable ene gy ansi ion. While
SOFCs and PEMFCs hold g ea e long- e m po en ial o highe e iciency and lowe cos s,
H₂ICE emains a aluable nea - e m op ion, especially in egions whe e ammonia is
a o dable and highe powe ou pu s a e equi ed.
Ra he han iden i ying a single “bes ” echnology, he eal objec i e is o combine all iable
solu ions—SOFC, PEMFC, and H₂ICE—depending on applica ion needs. Used oge he ,
hey o e a lexible and obus pa hway o eplace diesel gene a o s and signi ican ly educe
g eenhouse gas emissions.
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Le elized cos USD/kWh
Main enance
NH3
SOFC
PEM
ICE
Bu ne
Memb ane
Reac o F ame
Ca alys
NH3 supply sys em
