APPROACHES TO MINIMIZING ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF OIL EXPLOITATION IN NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA

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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
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APPROACHES TO MINIMIZING ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS
OF OIL EXPLOITATION IN NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA
TAMUNOMIEIBI MILDRED ENOCH
Ri e s S a e Uni e si y, Nige ia, Depa men o business law.
| Recei ed: 10.08.2025 | Accep ed: 16.08.2025 | Published: 07.10.2025
*Co esponding au ho : TAMUNOMIEIBI MILDRED ENOCH
Ri e s S a e Uni e si y, Nige ia, Depa men o business law.
Abs ac
I is no mo e news ha oil p oduc ion ac i i ies ha e disas ous consequences on human li es and ecology in he Nige Del a
egion a he han en ich same. Oil explo a ion is he majo e enue ea ne in Nige ia’s economy, all hanks o he Nige Del a
egion, which is ichly blessed wi h he black gold in la ge quan i ies. The dependency o he economy on he juicy gains o oil and
gas leading o inc eased explo a ion, mining, e ining, anspo a ion and o he ela ed endea ou s, has had disas ous social and
en i onmen al impac s on he people o Nige Del a and i s en i onmen .
Consequen ly, he Nige ian Go e nmen o e he yea s has esponsi ely e ol ed necessa y legal and ins i u ional amewo ks o
minimize he socio-economic and en i onmen al impac s o oil and gas p oduc ion on he Nige Del a egion. In he ligh o he
abo e, his p ojec examines he a ious legal and ins i u ional amewo k pu in place o minimize he impac s o oil explo a ion
in he Nige del a egion and i is s uc u ed in o i e chap e s. Chap e one is he in oduc ion wi h a b ie his o y and de ini ion
o undamen al e ms. Chap e wo looks a he di e se impac o oil exploi a ion in he Nige Del a egion anging om
en i onmen al o socio-economic issues. Chap e h ee e iews he legal amewo k pu in place o minimize he impac o oil
exploi a ion in he egion. Chap e ou examines he ins i u ional amewo k pu in place o minimize he impac s o oil
exploi a ion in he egion, including he ole o he Judicia y in en i onmen al p o ec ion. Chap e i e concludes he analysis wi h
some ecommenda ions o be e and mo e o ganized app oaches o minimizing he en i onmen al and social impac o oil
exploi a ion in he Nige Del a egion o Nige ia.
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
C ude oil, one o he g ea es blessings God has showe ed on
Nige ia has u ned ou o be a cu se o some so sounding he
dea h knell o such key p inciples o go e nance as democ acy1. I
is no news ha Nige ia is one o he leading oil p oduce s in he
wo ld and ha he Nige Del a egion is he hub o oil and gas
p oduc ion o he na ion.
F om c ude oil alone, Nige ia has gene a ed abou 300 billion U.S.
Dolla s be ween 1970 and 2000, amoun ing o 96% o he
coun y‟s o eign ea nings2.
Gene ally, ins ead o c ude oil se ing as a blessing o Nige ia, he
e e se has a been he case. The si ua ion is much wo se in he
Nige Del a egion, which shoulde s he bu den o oil explo a ion
and exploi a ion on he much limi ed land space. The mos
de as a ing e ec s o oil exploi a ion on he egion a e he
inc easing h ea s o en i onmen al and social damage in he a ea,
which mani es in a ious o ms. Due o incessan oil spillages he
people o he egion ha e been dep i ed o hei main sou ces o
li elihood, which is a ming and ishing. This is because oil spills
ha e in lic ed unimaginable le els o damage on a mlands and
i e s such ha soil nu ien s and aqua ic esou ces could ha dly be
sus ained.3
P emo cap u es he nega i e impac s o oil exploi a ion on he
Nige del a ci izens a he han he easonably expec ed di idends
o black gold when he s a ed hus:
“Wo ld a en ion shi ed o he Nige Del a as oil igs,
wells and explo a ion ac i i ies e oded he e i o y, he
ini ial exci emen ha g ee ed he disco e y o oil in
comme cial quan i y in he modes communi y o
Oloibi i, soon died down. Explo a ion came wi h
exploi a ion and like ea ly colonialis s in o A ica, he
Wes e n oil companies no iced he Eupho ia o he
u al populace. Fo a li le ca o o a e y e minal o
je y, millions o dolla s’ wo h o oil was aken om
hei land. And hen one day, he people woke-up o he
eali y ha a he han peace and joy, he black gold
had b ough so ows and ea s o hei land... hei
d eams died in hei s ides”4.
1.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY
1 Human Righ s Viola ions In es iga ion Commission,
Synop ic O e iew o HRVIC Repo :
Conclusions and Recommenda ions, Abuja: HRVIC,
May 2002.
2 Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi, Soludo, Cha les C and Muh a ,
Mansu , „In oduc ion: The Deb ap in
Nige ia: Towa ds a sus ainable Deb S a egy” T en on,
NJ: A ica Wo ld P ess, 2003, P. 1.
3 Be ween 1976 and 1999 abou 3,000 oil spill inciden s
we e epo ed by he oil companies ope a ing in
Nige ia, which is o e 2 million ba els o oil spilled in o
he coun y‟s ma ine en i onmen .
Agbu, Osi a, “Oil and En i onmen al Con lic s”, in
Saliu, Hassan A. (ed.), Nige ia unde Democ a ic
Rule, 1999-2003, olume 2, Ibadan Uni e si y P ess,
2005,Pp82-83.
4 P emo, D., “Nige Del a Sea ing On a Time Bomb”,
1978.
O e he yea s, gi en he go e nmen ‟s awa eness o he
en i onmen al and social impac s o oil exploi a ion in he Nige
Del a egion and in esponse he e o, legisla i e amewo ks and
ins i u ional s uc u es ha e been pu in place, in o de o minimize
he impac s o oil exploi a ion in he egion.
The legal amewo k includes he Cons i u ion o Nige ia5 which is
he g undno m o he coun y, he Na ional Oil Spill De ec ion and
Response Agency (Es ablishmen ) Ac 6, he Oil in Na igable
Wa e s Ac 7, Pe oleum Regula ions8, En i onmen al Impac
Assessmen Ac 9.
The ins i u ional amewo k o minimizing he impac o oil
exploi a ion include:
The Nige Del a De elopmen Commission, The Minis y o Nige
Del a, The Na ional Oil Spill De ec ion and Response Agency,
Nige ian Ma i ime Adminis a ion and Sa e y Agency, Nige ian
Po s Au ho i y, The Amnes y p og amme o he Fede al
Go e nmen o Nige ia o Nige Del a ac i i ies, among o he s.
1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The Nige Del a egion is aced wi h en i onmen al and social
p oblems as a esul o oil exploi a ion. The egion, which should
easonably display a lo o posi i e socie al bene i s, i onically
seems o be he leas de eloped despi e he ac ha he na ion
depends solely on i o i s weal h.
1.3. OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
The objec i e o his esea ch is o e iew and app aise he
di e en app oaches pu in place o minimize en i onmen al and
social impac s o oil exploi a ion in he Nige Del a egion o
Nige ia.
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The s udy exposes he p oblems associa ed wi h oil exploi a ion in
he Nige del a egion. I will c ea e an awa eness o he laws and
espec i e go e nmen and co po a e s a egies pu in place o he
p o ec ion o he egion om he impac s o oil exploi a ion.
1.5. SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY
The scope o his esea ch e ol es a ound he legal and
ins i u ional amewo k pu in place o minimize he en i onmen al
and social impac s o oil exploi a ion in he Nige Del a egion o
Nige ia.
1.6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. APPROACH
The Ox o d Ad anced Lea ne ‟s Dic iona y10 de ines app oach as
a way o dealing wi h somebody o some hing. I is also de ined as
ideas o ac ions in ended o deal wi h a p oblem o si ua ion11.
B. ENVIRONMENT
5 Cons i u ion o Fede al Republic o Nige ia (as
amended) 1999.
6 Na ional Oil Spill De ec ion and Response Agency
(Es ablishmen ) Ac , 2006.
7 CAP 06, Laws o he Fede a ion o Nige ia LFN 2004.
8 LFN 71 o 1967.
9 CAP E12, LFN, 2004.
10 Ho nby, A.S e al (Ed), Ox o d Ad anced Lea ne ‟s
Dic iona y o Cu en English (Six h edi ion),
Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. 2000, P. 47.
11 <www. eeonlinedic iona y.com>. Accessed 27 h
Ap il,2016.
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The en i onmen has been de ined as he su ounding o condi ions
in which a pe son, animal o plan li es o ope a es.12 I is also
de ined as including wa e , ai , soil, lo a and auna.13 The New
Zealand En i onmen Ac o 1986 de ines he en i onmen as
including:
a. ecosys ems and hei cons i uen pa s;
b. all na u al and physical esou ces
c. he social, economic, aes he ic and cul u al condi ions
which a ec he en i onmen o which a e a ec ed by
changes o he en i onmen .14
C. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
This is he possible ad e se e ec caused by a de elopmen al,
indus ial o in as uc u al p ojec o by he elease o a subs ance
on he en i onmen .15 I is also he e ec ha he ac i i ies o
people and businesses ha e on he en i onmen .16
D. SOCIAL IMPACT
This could be de ined as he e ec o an ac i i y on he social
ab ic o he communi y and wellbeing o indi iduals and
amilies.17
E. MINIMIZE
Acco ding o Ox o d Ad anced Lea ne ‟s Dic iona y, Minimize
means o educe some hing especially some hing bad, o he lowes
possible le el.18
F. OIL EXPLORATION
This is he sea ch by pe oleum geologis s and geophysicis s o
hyd oca bon deposi s benea h he ea h‟s su ace such as oil and
na u al gas.19
G. NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA
The Nige Del a egion is si ua ed a he apex o he Gul o Guinea
on he wes coas o A ica20 and on he Nige ia‟s Sou h-Sou h
12 A ailable a < h p://www.ox o ddic iiona ies
.com/de ini ion/English/en i onmen >. Accessed 27 Ap il
2016.
13 Sec ion 1(2) o he English En i onmen P o ec ion Ac 1990,
de ines he en i onmen as consis ing “o all, o any, o he
(media) he ai , wa e and land, and he medium o ai
includes he ai wi hin buildings and he ai wi hin o he
na u al o man-made s uc u es abo e o below g ound”.
14 Thomas, P. “In e na ional Ba Associa ion (IBA),
En i onmen al Liabili y”. En i onmen al Audi :
Insu ance; Indemni ies and P oposals o Re o m in New
Zealand En i onmen al law, P. 355.
15
<h p://www.businessdic iona y.com/de ini ion/En i onmen a
l -impac .h ml.> Accessed 27 h
Ap il, 2016.
16
<h p://dic iona y.camb idge.o g/dic iona y/english/en i onm
en al impac .> Accessed 27 h Ap il, 2016.
17 <h p://www.Businessdic iona y.com/de ini ion/social-
impac .h ml. >Accessed 27 h Ap il, 2016.
18 ibid p. 747.
19 <h p://en.m.wikipedia.o g/wiki/Hyd oca bon-explo a ion.>
Accessed 27 h Ap il, 2016.
geopoli ical Zone. The Nige Del a, which is home o abou 31
million people,21 occupies a o al a ea o abou 75,000km2 and
makes up 7.5% o Nige ia‟s land mass.
The Region‟s en i onmen can be b oken in o ou ecological
zones: cos al ba ie islands, mang o e swamp o es s, esh wa e
swamps and lowland ain o es s. The ecosys em con ains a high
concen a ion o biodi e si y. I has a able e ain ha can sus ain a
wide a ie y o c ops and economic ees. I also has mo e species
o eshwa e ish han any ecosys em in Wes A ica. The egion
has he la ges mang o e o es s in A ica and he hi d la ges in
he wo ld.
His o ically, he Nige Del a consis s o p esen day Bayelsa, Del a
and Ri e s S a es. Howe e in he yea 2000, he Nige ian
Go e nmen ede ined he Nige Del a Region o include Abia,
Akwa Ibom, C oss Ri e , Edo, Imo and Ondo S a es. The e o e
his egion consis s o nine (9) oil-p oducing s a es namely Abia,
Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, C oss Ri e , Del a, Imo, Ondo and Ri e s.22
The egion is made up o 185 Local Go e nmen A eas, wi h abou
40 di e en e hnic g oups speaking some 250 dialec s.
1.7. HISTORY OF OIL EXPLORATION IN NIGER
DELTA
Oil explo a ion in he Nige Del a egion o Nige ia commenced in
1946 a e Wo ld Wa II and Shell D‟A cy d illed a numbe o oil
explo a o y wells in 1951. A he ini ial s age, Shell D‟A cy (la e
Shell – B i ish Pe oleum) enjoyed a comple e monopoly o oil
explo a ion o a conside able long pe iod (1938-1955). The ea e ,
Mobil P oducing (Nige ia) Limi ed, a subsidia y o Ame ican
Socony – Mobil Oil Company, ob ained license o explo e o oil
and began ope a ions in Nige ia in 1955 unde he name Mobil
Explo a ion Nige ia Inco po a ed (which was la e inco po a ed as
Mobil p oducing Nige ia on June 16, 1969). The i s comme cial
oil disco e y in he egion was disco e ed a Oloibi i, in he
p esen day Ogbia Local Go e nmen A ea o Bayelsa S a e in
Janua y 1956 by Shell D‟A cy and a second oil ield was la e
disco e ed a A am in Ri e s S a e. In Feb ua y 1958, Shell B i ish
Pe oleum (now Royal Du ch Shell) s a ed expo ing c ude oil
p oduced om Oloibi i and A am.23
The Bomu Oil Field which is p esen ly in Khana Local
Go e nmen A ea o Ri e s S a e was disco e ed in 1958. I
p oduces an es ima ed eco e y o 311 billion o ba els (BB) o oil
and a o al o 608 billion o ba els o oil equi alence (BBOE)
including gas.24 Following he dominance o he Nige ian economy
by he pe oleum sec o , he concession policy was abandoned and
20 Dous , H., “Pe oleum geology o he Nige Del a”,
Geological Socie y, London Special Publica ions
1990, p. 365.
21 Tom, O., “Cu se o he black Gold: Hope and Be ayal on he
Nige Del a”.< Na ional Geog aphic online, ngm. Na ional
geog aphic com/2007/02/Nige ian-oil/oneil- ex >. Accessed
28 h Ap il, 2016.
22 Sec ion 30 Nige Del a De elopmen Commission
(Es ablishmen ) Ac 2000.
23 Pea son, S. R., “Pe oleum and he Nige ian Economy”.
S an o d Uni e si y P ess, 1970..
<h p://pubs.Sciepub.com/en /1/4/2> Accessed 27 h Ap il,
2016.
24 Vassiliou, S., “The A o Z o he Pe oleum Indus y”. Sca e
c ow P ess, 2009. <h p://pubs.Sciepub.com/en /1/4/2>
Accessed 27 h Ap il, 2016.
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exclusi e explo a ion igh was in oduced o encou age o he
mul ina ional oil companies aimed a accele a ing pe oleum
explo a ion and p oduc ion. O he mul ina ional oil companies
joined oil and gas explo a ion in Nige ia in 1961, and hese include
Agip, Mobil, Sa ap (now ELF), Texaco and Che on. Some o he
mul ina ional oil companies eco ded conside able successes in oil
and gas explo a ion and p oduc ion in bo h onsho e and o sho e
ields in he Nige Del a.25
1.8. METHODOLOGY
The me hodology is basically esea ch based. The p ima y sou ces
o in o ma ion a e ex books o Nige ian and o eign au ho s,
Newspape s, ele an s a u es, law jou nals, law epo s and
judicial decisions while seconda y sou ces o in o ma ion a e
online a icles.
2.0. INTRODUCTION
Oil explo a ion and exploi a ion has been on-going o se e al
decades in he Nige Del a. I has had disas ous impac s on he
en i onmen in he egion and has ad e sely a ec ed people
inhabi ing ha egion. The oil indus y loca ed wi hin he egion
has con ibu ed immensely o he g ow h and de elopmen o he
coun y bu unsus ainable oil explo a ion ac i i ies has ende ed he
Nige Del a egion one o he i e mos se e ely damaged
ecosys ems in he wo ld. The egion has also been acing social
and ecological isks, which ha e ound exp ession in he people‟s
s uggle and in he iolence ha has cha ac e ized he egion in
ecen imes1.
Oil exploi a ion has a se ious implica ion on he immedia e
en i onmen as i impo e ishes bo h ecological and socio-
economic en i onmen s causing en i onmen al de as a ion,
economic po e y and cons an con lic and so on2; which has
e oded on he quali y o li e o people in he Nige Del a egion.
This chap e e iews he a ious impac s o oil explo a ion in he
Nige Del a egion anging om en i onmen al economic, heal h
and socio-cul u al impac s espec i ely.
2.1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The Wo ld heal h O ganiza ion no ed ha “ he en i onmen is
conside ed pollu ed when i is al e ed in composi ion o condi ion
di ec ly as a esul o he ac i i ies o man so ha i becomes less
sui able o some o all o he uses o which i would be sui able in
i s na u al s a e”.3 En i onmen al impac o pe oleum in es men s
is no iceable in all he phases o oil and gas explo a ion.4 The
speci ic en i onmen al e ec s o oil exploi a ion in he egion is
discussed he e unde :
A. OIL POLLUTION
25 Nige ian Na ional Pe oleum epo , 2005, p.1-2.
1 Ash on – Jones, N.S.A & Douglas O. “The Human
Ecosys ems o Nige Del a”. An En i onmen al Risk
Assessmen (ERA) handbook, Benin Ci y. 1998.
2 Human Righ s Wa ch: “The P ice o Oil Co po a e
Responsibili y and Human Righ s Viola ions in
Nige ia‟s Oil P oducing Communi ies”, London.1999.
3 Fekumo, J. F., “Oil Pollu ion and he P oblems o
Compensa ion in Nige ia”. F & F publishe s,
Po Ha cou , 2001, p.1.
4 Wo ika, I. I., “En i onmen al Law and Policy o Pe oleum
De elopmen ”. Ampez Cen e o En i onmen and
De elopmen , Po Ha cou . 2002, p.36.
Oil pollu ion is a pollu ion caused by a leak o discha ge o oil,
ypically om a ship. Oil spillage is he mos common incidence o
oil pollu ion. Cons i u ional Righ s p ojec de ines oil spills as
uncon olled eleases o any p oduc ela ing o oil p oduc ion
including c ude oil, chemicals o was e caused by equipmen
ailu e ope a ion mishaps, human e o , o in en ional damage o
acili ies.5 Oil spillages occu du ing he d illing o oil wells; as a
esul o oil pipeline leakages, and du ing he loading o oil in o
anke s.6 A epo eco ds ha a o al o 6,817 oil spills occu ed
be ween 1976 and 2001, wi h a loss o app oxima ely h ee million
ba els o oil.7 Massi e oil spills occu ing in he i e ine a eas o
he Nige Del a egion ha e done un old damage o he aqua ic
ecosys em, pa icula ly in he mang o e swamp o es zone.8
The egion has expe ienced a numbe o ca as ophes om oil blow
ou s and examples o oil spillage in he egion include blowou s
and pipeline leakages om he Shell – B i ish Pe oleum Bomu II
well blow ou o 1970 and he Nige ian Agip Oil Company
Oyakama pipeline leakage o 1980.9
Oil spills discha ge in he Nige Del a ha e esul ed in ad e se
e ec s on land, eshwa e swamps and he ma ine en i onmen as
well as po en ial h ea s o human heal h in he a ec ed hos
communi ies.10
De olia ion and mo ali y o he mang o es ha e been obse ed in
swamps a ec ed by oil spills.11 When oil spillage occu s onsho e
o nea sho e, he soil and o he componen s o he e es ial
ecosys em a e ine i ably a ec ed.12
5 Cons i u ional Righ s p ojec (CRP): “Oil and Human
Righ s in Nige ia‟s Del a”, Lagos, 1999.
6 Adewuyi, A. O. “The Implica ions o C ude Oil Explo a ion
and Expo on he En i onmen and Le el o Economic
G ow h and De elopmen in Nige ia”. A pape p esen ed a
Nige ian Economic Socie y
Annual Con e ence. See p oceedings, 2001, Pp 119-145.
7 Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme (UNDP):
Nige Del a Human De elopmen epo Ga ki,
Abuja: UN House, 2006.
8 O ubu, C. O., Odusda, A. and Ehwa ieme, W., “The
Nige ian Oil Indus y: En i onmen al
Diseconomies Managemen S a egies and he Need o
Communi y In ol emen ”. Humani ies and
Ecological, 2004, Volume 16, No.3, Pp 203 – 214.
9 Daniel-Kalio, L. A., and Solomon, A. B., “The Impac o
Acciden al Oil Spill on Cul i a ed and Na u al Vege a ion in a
We land A ea o Nige Del a, Nige ia”. Ambio, 2002 olume
31, No:5, Pp 441 – 442.
10 Anie iok, E. I. e al, “Pe oleum Explo a ion and P oduc ion:
Pas and P esen En i onmen al Issues in he Nige ia‟s Nige
Del a”. Ame ican Jou nal o En i onmen al P o ec ion, 2013,
Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 78-90.
<h p://pubs.Sciepub.com/en /1/4/2/index h ml. > Accessed
May 23, 2016.
11 Linden, O., and Je nele , A., “The Mang o e Swamp: an
ecosys em in dange ”, Ambio (Sweden) 1980, Volume 9,
No:2, Pp 81 – 88.
12 Osuji, L. C., and Opiah, U., “Hyd oca bon Con amina ion o a
Te es ial Ecosys em: The case o Oshi e 2 Oil Spill in Nige
Del a, Nige ia”, The En i onmen alis , 2007, Volume 27, No.
3, Pp – 337 – 340.
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Oil pollu ion ha e disas ous implica ions on he ag icul u al
p oduc i i y o he a ec ed a ea and mul iplie e ec s on he socio-
economic wellbeing o he people o he Nige Del a.13
B. GAS FLARING (ATMOSPHERIC IMPAIRMENT)
Gas la ing is he delibe a e bu ning o na u al gas. Na u al gas is a
na u ally occu ing hyd oca bon gas mix u e consis ing p ima ily
o me hane, bu commonly including a ying amoun s o o he
highe alkanes, and some imes a small pe cen age o ca bon
dioxide, ni ogen, hyd ogen sul ide, o helium.14 The Wo ld Bank
shows ha gas la ing has been known o be he singula highes
con ibu o o he p oblem o global wa ming o global clima e
change.15
Fla ing o associa ed gas mainly emi s ca bon dioxide (Co2),
ca bon monoxide (Co) and a a ie y o ai pollu an s such as
ni ogen oxides (Nox), sulphu dioxide (So2), oxic hea y me als
and black ca bon soo .16 Gas la ing in he Nige Del a egion
con ibu es o a mosphe ic pollu ion in he egion.17
Nige ia has o e 123 la ing si es in he Nige Del a egion and has
been ega ded as one o he highes emi e o g eenhouse gases in
A ica.18 Abou 45.8 billion kilo wa s o hea a e discha ged in o
he a mosphe e o he Nige Del a om combus ion o 1.8 billion
cubic ee o gas e e yday.19
Gas la ing has nega i e impac on he en i onmen as i a ec s
plan g ow h, wildli e and human begins. In he case o GBEMRE
S.P.D.C & ORS,20 JUSTICE C. V. NWOKORIE uled in Benin
Ci y ha he damaging and was e ul p ac ice o gas la ing by all
he majo companies including Exxon Mobil, Che on, Texaco,
To al and Agip, as well as Shell, in Join Ven u es wi h he
Nige ian Na ional Pe oleum Co po a ion, canno law ully
con inue and mus s op.
The sui was b ough by M . Jonah Gbem e, on behal o himsel
and he Iwe ekan communi y in Del a S a e o s op he de endan
companies om la ing gas in he communi y.
Acco ding o he Cou he oxic subs ances ha ha e been emi ed
in he la es o o e 50 yea s, including benzene and pa icula es
13 Osuji, L. C., and Adesiyan S. O., “Ex ac able Hyd oca bons,
Nickel and Vanadium con en s o Ogbodo Isiokpo Oil Spill
Pollu ed Soils in Nige Del a, Nige ia.” En i onmen al
Moni o ing and Assessmen , 2005, Volume 110, No:3, Pp.
129 – 139.
14 < h p://en.wikipedia.o g/wiki/na u al gas>. Accessed
May 23, 2016.
15 Wo ld Bank “De ining an En i onmen al De elopmen o
he Nige Del a”, Wo ld Bank Washing on D. C. 1995.
16 Anie iok, E. I. e al, op ci .
17 Ajao, E. A., Anu igwo, S., “land-based Sou ces o Pollu ion in
he Nige Del a, Nige ia,” Ambio: A Jou nal o he Human
En i onmen , 2002, Volume 31, No:5, Pp 442 – 445.
18 Uyigue, E., Agho, M., “Coping wi h Clima e Change and
En i onmen al Deg ada ion in he Nige Del a o Sou he n
Nige ia”, Communi y Resea ch and De elopmen , Cen e
Benin Ci y, 2007.
19 Agbola, T., and Olu in T., “Land Use and Land Co e Change
in he Nige Del a”, Exce p s om a Resea ch Repo
P esen ed o he Cen e o Democ acy and De elopmen ,
2003.
20 (2005) AHRLR 151.
ha e exposed Nige communi ies o heal h isks and p ope y
damage, wi h a endan human igh s implica ions.
This exposu e is a iola ion o he cons i u ionally gua an eed
human igh s i.e. - he igh o li e21 and igh o digni y o pe son.22
I also iola es he igh s gua an eed in he A ican Cha e on
Human and people‟s Righ s, o ins ance, he igh o e e y
indi idual o enjoy he bes a ainable s a e o physical and men al
heal h23 and he igh o all peoples o a gene al sa is ac o y
en i onmen a o able o hei de elopmen .24
C. LAND DEGRADATION AND DEFORESTATION
Vege a ion in he Nige – del a is comp ised o mang o e o es s,
b ackish swamp o es s and ain o es . The la ge expanses o
mang o e o es s a e es ima ed o co e app oxima ely 5,000 o
8,580km2 o land.25 Mang o es emain e y impo an o he
indigenous people o Nige Del a as well as o he a ious
o ganisms ha inhabi he ecosys ems.
Oil exploi a ion ac i i ies ha e des oyed he ex ensi e mang o e
o es in he Nige Del a egion. I has deple ed biodi e si y and
ex ensi e land deg ada ion and o es de o es a ion a e caused by
oil induced i e and pollu ion on he en i onmen .
A numbe o oil induced i e ou b eak has occu ed in he Nige
Del a leading o de o es a ion and des uc ion o a mland such as
he Jesse i e inciden ha occu ed in Oc obe 17,1998 which no
only des oyed a m lands bu killed people o he communi y.26
Also ano he i e inciden occu ed in Sep embe , 2004 in Ok ika
Communi y, Ri e s S a e which las ed o h ee days des oying
plan s and animals inhabi ing he a ec ed a ea.27
2.2. ECONOMIC IMPACT
The allu ial soil o he Nige Del a egion coupled wi h an
abundan s eam o esh and sal -wa e bodies p o ide he
necessa y li elihoods o he people o he egion who a e mainly,
a me s and ishe men.28 LOUBSER de ined li elihood as he
o ali y o means by which people secu e a li ing, ha e o acqui e
in one way o ano he , he equi emen s o su i al and he
21 Sec ion 33 o Cons i u ion o he Fede al Republic o
Nige ia 1999 (as amended).
22 ibid Sec ion 34.
23 A icle 16 o he A ican Cha e on Human and Peoples
Righ s, CAP 10 LFN 1990.
24 ibid. A icle 24.
25 Oil Spill In elligen Repo “How does i spill”, A ling on, M.
A. U.S.A, 1978 A ailable a <(www.waa.doo.o g).>
26 E egha, P. B., Ikighe, I. R. “Oil Induced En i onmen al
Deg ada ion in he Nige ia‟s Nige Del a: The Mul iplie
E ec s”. Jou nal o Sus ainable De elopmen in A ica, 2009,
Volume 11, No. 4, p. 165.
27 Zabbey, N., “Impac s o Ex ac i e Indus ies on he
Biodi e si y o he Nige -del a Region, Nige ia”. Eleme.
Cen e o En i onmen , Human Righ s and De elopmen .
2005.
28 Zabbey, N., “Impac s o Oil Pollu ion on Li elihoods in
Nige ia” – pape p esen ed a he Con e ence on Pe oleum
and Pollu ion – How does ha Impac Human Righ s? Co-
o ganised by Amnes y In e na ional, Fo um and F iends o he
Ea h, Sweden, S ockholm, 27 h Ap il, 2009, p. 3.

Copy igh © ISRG Publishe s. All igh s Rese ed.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
225
sa is ac ion o needs as de ined by he people hemsel es in all
aspec s o hei li es.29
Acco ding o a epo on Nige Del a Human De elopmen 30, he
en i onmen is e y impo an o he Nige Del a people whe e
mos o he populace depend on he na u al en i onmen whe he
li ing o non-li ing o li elihoods. Following en i onmen al
pollu ion and deg ada ion caused by oil explo a ion ac i i ies such
as d illing, oil spillage and gas la ing, a ming ac i i ies o he
people ha e been disas ously a ec ed. This has esul ed in poo
income e enue yield o he people o he egion.31
A able a mlands ha e been los o oil pollu ion as sizable
a mlands in he egion ha e been ende ed, ba en due o oil
spillage and leakages.32 Cash and subsis en c ops ha e had a ai
sha e o de olia ion as a esul o cons an oil spillage and oxici y
o he soil.33 As a esul o his he ood chain has been pa ially
unca ed by hyb id c ops ha a e an imi a ion o hei o me
sel es.34 Thus, yam ube s ha e become unusually small and e en
swee a ie ies o yam ha e become e e y hing bu swee .35
Aqua ic li e has no a ed much be e , ce ain species o ish ha e
mig a ed and o he s ha e become nea ly ex inc as a esul o oil
spillage and indus ial was e e luen s ha a e indisc imina ely
disposed in he swamps and bodies o wa e in he egion.36
When oil spillage occu s, i has o be cleaned up using some
designa ed chemical, while he use o his chemical is legal,
eckless use o i ende s he soil in e ile o ag icul u al pu pose
and damages c ops and ma ine li e.37 Ex ensi e mang o e a ea in
he egion ha e been con e ed o one o m o oil acili y o he
o he and e en deg aded by oil pollu ion. The egion has he la ges
mang o e in A ica and mang o es in he egion p o ide coas al
communi ies wi h ecosys em goods like sea ood and i e wood.38
29 Loubs e , J. “Sus ainable Li elihoods: a Concep ual
Explo a ion” pape P esen ed a he wo kshop o Ci il
Socie y, Sus ainable Li elihoods and Women in
De elopmen . Malaysia, 6 – 9 No embe , 1995.
30 Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme: Repo on Nige
Del a human De elopmen , Abuja 2006. A ailable a
<Undpi ounda ion.o g/images/ esea ch
epo s/ epo s/Economic – oppo uni ies – Repo s. Pd .>
Accessed 19 h May, 2016.
31 Ogbonnaya, U. M. “En i onmen al Law and
Unde de elopmen in he Nige Del a Region o Nige ia”
In e na ional Mul idisciplina y Jou nal, E hiopia, Volume 50,
No: 22, Oc obe 2011, p. 75.
32 Nick, A. J. e al, “The Human Ecosys ems o he Nige
Del a”. En i onmen al Righ s Ac ion Handbook, Lagos,
1994, p.44. A ailable a < h p://www.essen ial
ac ion.o g/shell issues.H m.> Accessed 19 h May, 2016
33 Oshwo asa, B. O., Anu a, D. E., Aiyedogbo J.
O.,“En i onmen al Deg ada ion and Oil Indus y Ac i i ies in
he Nige Del a Region”. A ican Jou nal o Scien i ic
Resea ch, Volume 9, No. 1, 2012, p. 449.
34 ibid.
35 ibid.
36 ibid.
37 Amadi, S. N. and Tamuno, S. O., “Oil Explo a ion in Nige ia;
I ‟s Socio-Economic Impac on he Oil Bea ing
Communi ies”. Tibe , 1999 Volume 3 No. 1.
38 Zabbey, N. op ci
Mang o es a e s ong li elihood suppo base o he people o
Nige Del a.39
Wi h he des uc ion o he main sou ce o income and p oduc i e
ac i i ies o he egion, one o he economic conce ns o he egion
is he inc eased a e o unemploymen ,40 which has led o
mig a ion.
The e is also a high le el o po e y in he egion. This is because
he means o li elihood o he Nige Del a people, which is
basically a ming and ishing has been se e ely a ec ed he e o e
leading o unemploymen , which means he people canno a o d
basic necessi ies o li e.
Po e y can be de ined as he inabili y o ce ain pe sons o a ain a
minimum s anda d o li ing.41 Po e y means ha signi ican
numbe s o people a e li ing in in ole able condi ions in which
s a a ion is a cons an h ea , sickness is a amilia companion and
opp ession becomes a ac o li e.42
The people in his egion a e poo and hung y no because he e is
no ood bu because hey canno a o d o buy i 43 due o oil
explo a ion ac i i ies.
The cos o li ing in he egion is ela i ely high. A p ac ical
example is Ri e s S a e which has one o he highes cos o li ing
in Nige ia.44
Based on he Wo ld Bank Repo ,45 he GNP pe capi a in he
Nige Del a egion is below he na ional a e age o US $280 which
is desc ibed as poo . The incidence o po e y in he egion has
emendously inc eased a e he oil boom. Po e y has become a
way o li e due o economic s agna ion, malnu i ion poo quali y
o li e, unemploymen as well as unheal hy en i onmen in he
egion.
The e is also he p oblem o unde de elopmen in he egion.
Unde de elopmen can be de ined as:
39 Zabbey, N., “Sh imp Fa ming in Nige ia: Implica ions o
Mang o es and Ru al Li elihood in he Nige Del a”. In ERA
(qua e ly magazine o En i onmen al Righ s Ac ion/F iends
o he Ea h Nige ia) May – Augus 2008, p. 19 – 21.
40 Okoh, R. N. and Egbon, P. C. “Fiscal Fede a ion and e enue
Alloca ion: The Po e y o he Nige Del a in Aigbokan.
Fiscal Fede alism and Nige ia‟s Economic De elopmen
Selec ed pape s o he 1999 Annual Con e ence o he
Nige ian Economic Socie y Ibadan.
41 Wo ld Bank De elopmen Repo , 1995 – A ailable a
<h p://si e esou ces.
Wo ldbank.o g/INTPOVERTY/Resou ces/WDR/S igli z/Odu
o.pd .> Accessed 20 h may, 2016.
42 A ailable a < Uns a s.un.o g/unsd/me hods/po e y/e olu ion
o Thinking-abou . Po e y % 20 Kanbu e % 20 Sep % 20
1999. Pd .> Accessed 20 h May, 2016.
43 E egha, P. B. “The Socio-Economic E ec s o Uni e si y
G adua es in Nige ia”. Unpublished B.Sc (ed) P ojec .
Uni e si y o Ado-Eki i, Nige ia. 2001.
44 A ailable a <www.nai aland.com/1813194/8-mos -
expensi e-ci ies-nige ia> Accessed 20 h May, 2016.
45 Wo ld Bank Repo “De ining an En i onmen al
De elopmen S a egy o he Nige Del a”. Vol. 2, 1995.
A ailable a <www. ocusnig ia.com/nige -del a.h m.>
Accessed 20 h May, 2016.
Copy igh © ISRG Publishe s. All igh s Rese ed.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
226
“Inabili y, ailu e, e usal o s uc u al p e en ion o a
people o use exis ing men al, physical and ma e ial
esou ces a ailable o socie y a a gi en ime and space
o b ing abou bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e
imp o emen in s anda d o hei li es”.46
The Wo ld Bank in i s 1995 Repo , depic ed he heigh o he
peoples' p oblems when i desc ibed he egion in he ollowing
wo ds.
“The Nige Del a has been blessed wi h an abundance
o physical and human esou ces, including he
majo i y o Nige ian’s oil and gas deposi s, good
ag icul u e land, ex ensi e o es s, excellen ishe ies as
well as de eloped labou o ce, and a ib an p i a e
sec o . Howe e , he egion’s emendous po en ials o
economic g ow h and sus ainable de elopmen emains
un ul illed and i s u u e is h ea ened by de e io a ing
economic condi ions ha a e no being add essed by
p esen policies and ac ions.
Educa ion le els a e below he na ional a e age and
a e pa icula ly low o women. While 76 pe cen o
Nige ian child en a end p ima y schools, his le el
d ops o 30% in some pa s o he Nige Del a”.47
The Nige Del a egion pain s a pic u e o a egion su e ing om
ch onic unde de elopmen in he mids o weal h. This si ua ion is
also cap u ed by he Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme in
he ollowing wo ds:
“Li e expec ancy is alling in an age o blockbus e oil
p ices. Ene gy a ailabili y is poo in a egion ha
p o ides one- i h o ene gy needs o he Uni ed S a es.
The e is an almos o al lack o oads in a egion whose
weal h is unding gigan ic in as uc u al de elopmen
in o he pa s o Nige ia and expensi e peace keeping
ac i i ies in o he pa s o A ica”.48
The Nige -Del a egion emains he mos dep i ed egion in he
na ion lacking in basic in as uc u e such as good oad ne wo k,
good schools, po able wa e and heal h ca e acili ies. The lack in
basic social ameni ies o in as uc u e has led o low li e
expec ancy, high in an mo ali y a e, high le el o illi e acy and
unemploymen among he people o he egion.49
2.3. HEALTH IMPACTS OF OIL EXPLOITATION
The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion in 1948, de ined heal h as a s a e
o comple e physical, social and men al wellbeing and no me ely
he absence o disease o in i mi y. In mos adi ional socie ies,
people a e said o be heal hy when hei spi i ual, physical, men al,
social o mo al wellbeing a e p ope ly blended, pe mi ing hem o
46 Ekanem, O., “The Dialec ics o Unde de elopmen and
Ins abili y in A ica”, Calaba jou nal o Poli ics and
Adminis a ion 2001, Volume 1, p. 53.
47 Wo ld Bank Repo “De ining an En i onmen al
De elopmen S a egy o he Nige Del a” 1995. Vol 2,
A ailable a < www. ocusnige ia.com/nige -del a.h m.>
Accessed 20 h May, 2016.
48 Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme: Nige Del a Human
De elopmen Repo , Abuja, 2006. A ailable a
<Unpi ounda ion.o g/images/ esea ch epo s/Economic –
Oppo uni ies – epo s.Pd > Accessed 20 h May, 2016.
49 Ogbonnaya, U. M., op ci
ca y ou hei day o day ac i i ies acco ding o he cus oms and
adi ions o hei communi y.50
The heal h e ec s associa ed wi h oil explo a ion and exploi a ion
ac i i ies include:
 Exposu e o d illing was es;
 Oil spillages; and
 Gas la ing.
A. THE HEALTH IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO
DRILLING WASTES
D illing was e and o he was e p oduc s o oil exploi a ion
ac i i ies ha e been ound o con ain a oma ic hyd oca bons,
including he e ocyclic chemicals ha can mimic ho mones,
bac e icides, soluble ch oma es, me cu y and na u ally occu ing
adioac i e ma e ials commonly ound in unde g ound geologic
deposi s and equen ly b ough o he su ace du ing he d illing o
oil well.51
Heal h impac s o exposu e o he chemicals con ained in d illing
was es include
inc eased isk o spon aneous abo ion,52 inc eased isk o
in e ili y,53 mens ual i egula i ies due o exposu e o endoc ine
dis up e s such as polya oma ic hyd oca bons and alkyl phenols.54
The e is also he inc eased isk o cance .55
B. HEALTH IMPACT OF GAS FLARING
The disposal o na u al gas h ough la ing is disas ous o human
and animal heal h. Gas la ing wi hin he Nige Del a egion
gene a es hea , which is el o e an a e age adius o 0.5km,
he eby causing he mal pollu ion in he egion.56 The high
empe a u es a ound he gas la es si es a e indica ions ha gas
50 Bes O., “The Heal h Impac o Oil Explo a ion and
Exploi a ion in he Nige Del a Region” – A Lec u e deli e ed
a he 2008 Annual Gene al Mee ing o he Na ional
Associa ion o Residen Doc o s o Nige ia, Po Ha cou .
P.20. ISBN 978 – 900 2108.
51 ibid. P. 21.
52 San, S. M., A ms ong M., S ephens C., “Ou come o
P egnancy among Women Li ing in he P oximi y o Oil
Fields in he Amazon Basin o Ecuado ”. In e na ional Jou nal
Occup En i onmen Heal h. 2002. Vol 8, P. 312 -319.
53 Obidike P. R., Maduabuchi I. U., Olumuyiwa S. S., “Tes icula
Mo phology and Cauda Epididymal Spe m Rese es o Male
Ra s Exposed o he Nige ian Qua Iboe B en C ude Oil”.
Jou nal o Ve ina y Science, 2007, Vol 8, P. 1-5
54 Eps ein P. R., Selbe J., Oil “A Li e Cycle Analysis o i s
Heal h and En i onmen al Impac s”. Bos on M. A. The
Cen e o Heal h and he Global En i onmen , Hawa d
Medical School, 2002.
55 Hu ig A. K., San S. M., “Geog aphical Di e ences o Cance
Incidence in he Amazon Basin o Ecuado in Rela ion o
Residency Nea Oil Field”. In e na ional Jou nal o Epidemiol
2002, Vol 31, P. 1021 – 1027.
56 Ikelegbe, O. O., “Pollu ion in Nige ia Causes, E ec s and
Con ol The Case o Del a S a e” Pape p esen ed a he 30 h
Annual Con e ence o he Nige ian Geog aphical Associa ion
held a he Fede al Uni e si y o Technology, Minna, Nige ia
on 18-22 Ap il, 1993. P. 7.
Copy igh © ISRG Publishe s. All igh s Rese ed.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
227
la ing has c ea ed a dis inc mic oclima e.57 Some o he gaseous
pollu an s eleased in o he a mosphe e such as ca bon monoxide,
chlo ine, ni ogen, sulphu oxides, acid ac oss, be yllium a e no ed
o causing headaches, hea p oblems depending on he
pollu an s.58
The leade s o Wa i Women P o es o 2001 aced he p e alence
o espi a o y diseases and eye abno mali ies o un es ained gas
la ing by oil companies in he egion.59 Gas la ing can cause skin
damage, b onchial sys ems in child en and has been implica ed in
he pa hogenesis o skin umou s as well as ch omosomal
diso de s.60
C. HEALTH IMPACT OF OIL SPILLAGE
The discha ge o oil and gas in o he en i onmen o en expose
human popula ion a ound he con amina ed a ea o he Nige Del a
egion o po en ially dange ous oxic subs ances.
Acu e exposu es o a oma ic ca bons, which a e common
cons i uen s o oil, a e known o cause espi a o y symp oms.61
Inc easing e idence mainly om oil spill, sugges s ha human
popula ion exposed o isks may expe ience long e m espi a o y
e ec s and ch omosomal damage.62
Gas la ing can cause skin damage, b onchial symp oms in child en
and has been implica ed in he pa hogenesis o skin umou s as
well as ch omosomal diso de s.
E idence o acu e exposu e o oil spill a ound he wo ld
demons a e he po en ial ad e se heal h e ec s associa ed wi h
pe oleum.
Some hos communi ies like he Ogoni people ha e su e ed om
signi ican en i onmen al deg ada ion and heal h impac s including
inc ease in espi a o y diseases and cance cases.63
Acco ding o Uni ed Na ions En i onmen P og amme,64 he heal h
o se e al Ogoni Communi ies has been se e ely comp omised as
57 Alakpodia, I. J. “E ec s o Gas Fla ing on he Mic oclima e
and Adjacen Vege a ion in Isoko A ea o Bendel S a e”,
(Unpublished M. Sc Thesis, Uni e si y o Ibadan) 1990
58 Kaladumo, C. O. K., “The Implica ions o Gas Fla ing on he
Nige Del a En i onmen ”, Pape p esen ed a he 8 h
In e na ional Semina on he Pe oleum Indus y and he
Nige ian En i onmen , Po Ha cou , 18-21 No embe 1996,
P. 29.
59 Oshwo asa, B. O., Anu a, D. E., Aiyedogbon J. O. op ci .
60 Anie iok, E. I., e al. op ci .
61 Lyons, R. A., Temple, J. M., E ans D., Fone, D. L., and
Palme S. R., “Acu e Heal h E ec s o he Sea Emp ess Oil
Spill” Jou nal o Epidemiology and Communi y Heal h, 1999,
P. 306-310.
62 Zock, J. P., e al “P olonged espi a o y Symp oms in Clean-
up Wo ke s o he P es ige Oil Spill” Ame ican Jou nal o
Respi a o y and C i ical Ca e Medicine, 2007. Pp. 610-616.
63 Blankson, I., “Public Rela ions in Sub-Saha an A ica,”
Global Public Rela ions Spanning Bo de s, Spanning
Cul u es, A. R. F ei ang and A. Q. S okes (eds) London, Pp
178 – 205.
64 Uni ed Na ions En i onmen P og amme En i onmen al
Assessmen o Ogoni Land, Nai obi, Kenya, 2011. A ailable
a < h p//pubs. Sciepub.com/en /1/4/2.> Accessed 29 h
Ap il, 2016.
a esul o su ace and g oundwa e con amina ion associa ed wi h
pe oleum explo a ion and p oduc ion ope a ions.
The e is high p obabili y o a wide ange o oxic esponses in he
egion including beha iou al abno mali ies, espi a o y diseases,
supp essed g ow h, induced o inhibi ed enzyme, ad e se
physiological esponses, blood diso de s, nega i e ep oduc i e
ou comes, educed immuni y o disease and pa asi es and cance s
o he a ious o gans.65
Resea ch has shown ha pollu ion caused by oil spillage does no
end wi h he mopping up o he spilled oil.
Heal h isk is no a e ed by abs inence om ish killed by spilled
oil. Some o he ishes and animals ha escape ins an dea h om
pollu ion a e known o ha e aken in some oxic subs ances, which
in u n ge in o human beings ha ea hem. This will in u n cause
in ec ions on man coupled wi h o he side e ec s, which a e in
o m o gene ic mu a ions.
2.4. SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACT
The Nige Del a Region has expe ienced a mul i ude o con lic s
anging om in a-communi y o in e -communi y as well as
communi ies and oil company con lic s. Social un es is he o de
o he day in he egion and mos o he con lic s lead o loss o
li es and des uc ion o p ope ies o he people.
The egion is also expe iencing a ious o ms o hos age aking o
inancial and poli ical gain which is as a esul o he ise o
a ious mili an g oups, which in hei bid o ob ain a sha e o he
di idends o oil weal h ha e eso ed o ac s o adduc ion, hos age
aking, sabo age agains oil ins alla ions, kidnapping and ex a-
judicial killings.
The appa en dis ega d which g ee ed he eelings o exp ession by
he ci izens eques s o ha e a ai sha e in he oil explo ed and
exploi ed in he egion led o agi a ions by he Nige Del a people.
A i s , he people began wi h peace ul p o es s and
demons a ions, media and publici y and li iga ion.66
Beginning om he 1990s, he s uggle o en i onmen al secu i y
and he de elopmen o he egion began o assume ho endous
magni ude as i was e ec i ely adicalized.67 The Ogoni up ising
championed by he Mo emen o he Su i al o he Ogoni People
(MOSOP) could be aken as he i s majo a emp o adicalize
he s uggle.68 The MOSOP s uggle was p edica ed upon he
Ogoni Bill o Righ s issued in 1990 he main demand o which was
he poli ical con ol o Ogoni a ai s by Ogoni people.69
Also, on Decembe 11, 1998, you hs mee ing a Kaiama, Bayelsa
S a e, o med an Ijaw You h Council (IYC) and adop ed a
decla a ion on he s uggle o he con ol o oil mine al esou ces
65 N iagu, J., “Oil Indus y and he Heal h o Communi ies in he
Nige Del a o Nige ia”, Encyclopedia o En i onmen al
Heal h, O. N. Edi o -in-chie . Je ome, ed. 2011. Pp 240-250.
66 Omo ola, S. J., “Oil and he Li iga ion Issues in Nige ia” in
Jimoh, Ibah H. (ed). Oil and he Nige ian En i onmen , IIo in,
2006.
67 Shola O., “The nex gul ? Oil Poli ics, En i onmen al
Apocalpse and Rising Tension in he Nige Del a”.
Occasional pape se ies: Vol 1, No: 3,2006, p. 12.
68 ibid P. 13.
69 Osaghae, E. E., “The Ogoni Up ising: Oil Poli ics, Mino i y
Agi a ion and he Fu u e o he Nige ian S a e”, A ican
A ai s, Vol 94, No: 376, Pp 323 – 344.
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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
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while asse ing ha he deg ada ion o he en i onmen o Ijaw
Land by T ansna ional oil companies and he Nige ian S a e a ise
mainly because Ijaw people ha e been obbed o hei na u al
igh s o owne ship and con ol o hei land and esou ces.70 This
is known as he Kaiama Decla a ion.
The Nige Del a people ha e seen li le bene i om he e enue
de i ed om he expo o abou wo million ba els o oil a day,
and ye hey ha e su e ed he ad e se consequences o oil
p oduc ion, including en i onmen al deg ada ion,71 his has led o
he eme gence o mili an g oups in he egion.72
The ac i i ies o he mili an g oups ha e been e y iolen . This
iolence has been agg a a ed by he a ailabili y o deadly weapons
such as AK-47 i les.73 In he wo ds o PROFESSOR GEORGE J.
FRYNAS, a specialis on oil and en i onmen al poli ics in Nige ia,
“ he Nige Del a is awash wi h weapons”.74
The egion has also become a ha bou o he p oli e a ion o small
a ms and ligh weapons which he mili an s ha e used on di e en
occasions.
On 24 Janua y 2006, gunmen d essed in police uni o ms killed
nine people in a aid on an oil company‟s o ices in Po
Ha cou ,75 his was ollowed by a demand o huge amoun s o
money as ansom be o e nay hos ages could be eleased.
Ano he dimension o con lic s o iolence in he Region is in e
and in a communi y con lic s. This may ha e esul ed om he
di ide and ule ac ics o he go e nmen o Nige ia in i s a emp
o manage c isis si ua ions.76 This was he go e nmen ‟s app oach
o he Ogoni up ising when i succeeded in pola izing he Ogoni
in o wo, one o and he o he agains he s uggle.77 Fo MOSOP,
hose opposed o he s uggle we e “ ul u es,” “sabo eu s”,
“collabo a o s” and “sell-ou s”.78 Opponen s iewed Ken Sa o-
Wiwa and his MOSOP no as de ende s o “an opp essed people
bu an oppo unis s who a e se ies o go e nmen sinecu es
bela edly championed a cause ha inci ed iolence”.79
This end has no changed and has gene a ed con lic among Nige
Del a communi ies, wi h a lo o dea hs, inju ies and wan on
des uc ion o p ope ies in o he ba gain.80
70 A ailable a <
h p://www.h w.o g/ ep s/1999/Nieg ia2/Ng ia993-02.h m.>
71 Human Righ s Wa ch, “The p ice o Oil: Co po a e
Responsibili y and Human Righ s Viola ions in Nige ia‟s Oil
P oducing Communi ies”, New Yo k, Feb ua y, 1999.
72 Mo emen o he Emancipa ion o Nige Del a, Nige Del a
People‟s Volun ee o ce, Nige Del a Libe a ion Fo ce,
Egbesu Boys o A ica.
73 Shola O., op ci .
74 F ynas, G. J., In e iew wi h BBC‟s Wo ld Today 21s ,
Janua y 2006. A ailable a <h p//www.oca-
online.co.uk/docs/ma sh.> Accessed 21s May, 2016.
75 “Secu i y Risk: Nige Del a”, A ailable a <h p://www.oca-
online.co-uk/docs/ma sh.> Accessed 21s May, 2016.
76 Shola O., op ci .
77 ibid.
78 ibid.
79 Robe s, N. Y., “The S a e, Accumula ion and Violence: The
Poli ics o En i onmen al Secu i y in Nige ia‟s Oil p oducing
A ea”, Nige ian Ins i u e o Social and Economic Resea ch
(NISER), Monog aph Se ies No:17, P.39.
80 ibid.
These ha e led o unp eceden ed mig a ion o he people o o eign
lands as e uges.81 In Ma ch 1996, he UN High Commission o
Re ugees (UNHCR) epo ed ha 1,000 Ogoni‟s had led o Benin
since Ogoni Day. 82
Mig a ion is also caused by he high a e o unemploymen in he
egion. People in he u al communi ies in sea ch o g eene
pas u es ha e mig a ed o majo u ban ci ies.83 O he s a e
sea ching o oppo uni ies o e-es ablish ading ac i i ies as a
esul o he loss o a mland and wa e bodies o oil spill and gas
la ing.
In he wo ds o ADENIYI “Nige ia‟s Oil boom has u ned he
pe oleum p oducing a eas o cen i ugal cen e s o oil doom whe e
people lea e a he han li e.” 84
The e is also he p oblem o displacemen o ce ain illages in he
egion which has se iously a ec ed hei socio – cul u al li es. Fo
example, he o ce ul displacemen o Igolu Village in Isoko land
as a esul o massi e oil spillage in 1973 a Shell‟s loca ion 13 and
18 has posed o he illage s p oblem o social and cul u al
adjus men .85
The egion has also los socie al alues and adi ional au ho i y
s uc u es as mili an g oups now inc easingly challenge adi ional
s uc u es. In 2003, a I i, Isoko local Council in Del a S a e, a
adi ional ule was alleged o ha e comp omised he igh s o he
communi y o Nige ian Agip Oil Company. This spa ked o
iolence.86
Asides, he con lic s, mig a ion, displacemen o pe sons and loss
o socie al alues and adi ional au ho i ies, he e is also an
ala ming e idence o he d op in mo ali y in he egion which
hi he o used a ious aboos o check social misc ean s.87 The
81 ibid.
82 Human Righ s Wa ch/A ica, “Nige ia: Pe manen
T ansi ion”, Human Righ s Wa ch A ica, Volume 8, No. 3,
Sep embe , 1996, P.42.
83 Legbo si, S. P., “The ad e se Impac s o Oil Pollu ion on he
En i onmen and Wellbeing o a Local Indigenous
Communi y: The expe ience o he Ogoni people o Nige ia
2007. A ailable a
<h p”//www.un.o R/esg/unp il/…/wo kshop/PPE
pyagba a.doc.> Accessed 21s May, 2016.
84 Adeniyi, E. O. “En i onmen al and Socio-economic Impac s
o Oil Spillage in he Pe oleum P oducing a eas o Nige ia”
pape p esen ed a he p oceedings o he 1983 In e na ional
Semina on he Pe oleum Indus y and he Nige ian
En i onmen , Lagos.
85 Eniola, O. A., Olusule, R. Agaye, G. “En i onmen al and
Socio-Economic Impac o Oil Spillage in he Pe oleum
Ri e ine A eas o Nige ia”. A pape p esen ed a he
In e na ional Semina on he Pe oleum Indus y and he
Nige ian En i onmen 1983, Lagos, A ailable a
<h p://A eyjo.ne /jou nals/mul idiscipline/ ol-3-num-%
20a – 9.Pd .> Accessed 21s May, 2016.
86 Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme: Nige Del a
Human De elopmen Repo , Abuja, 2006.
87 Vic o , O., Isike, C. A., “Oil Poli ics in Nige ia‟s Nige Del a”.
LAP Lambe Academic Publishing 2006, P. 130.
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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
235
d) Ad ise go e nmen on secu i y issues conce ning he
egion,
e) Liaise wi h ele an go e nmen , non-go e nmen and
p i a e o ganiza ion,
) Fo mula e and co-o dina e policies o en i onmen al
managemen in he egion,
g) Liaise wi h hos communi ies o he enhancemen o he
wel a e o he people and he de elopmen o he egion,
h) Facili a es p i a e sec o in ol emen in he de elopmen
o he egion,
i) Plan and supe ise public educa ion enligh enmen
p og ammes,
j) Liaise wi h oil companies ope a ing in he egion o
ensu e en i onmen al p o ec ion and pollu ion con ol,
k) O ganize human capaci y de elopmen as well as skill
acquisi ion p og ammes o you hs and women, and
l) Take adequa e measu es o ensu e peace, s abili y and
secu i y wi h a iew o enhancing he economic po en ial
o he egion.8
4.3. NATIONAL OIL SPILL DETECTION AND
RESPONSE AGENCY (THE NOSDRA)9
The Na ional Spill De ec ion Response Agency was es ablished as
an ins i u ional amewo k o implemen he Na ional Oil Spill
Con ingency Plan, which was se up in 2006.10 The Na ional Oil
Spill Con ingency plan is a blue p in o checking oil spill h ough
con ainmen , eco e y and emedia ion. I is a s a egy o
p e en ing loss o li es, asse s and na u al sou ces.11
The gene al and special unc ions o NOSDRA include he
ollowing;
a) Responsibili y o su eillance and ensu ing compliance
wi h all exis ing en i onmen al legisla ion and he
de ec ion o oil spills in he pe oleum sec o ,
b) Receip o epo s o oil spillages and coo dina ing oil
esponse ac i i ies h oughou Nige ia,
c) Coo dina ing he implemen a ions o he plan as may be
o mula ed, om ime o ime by he ede al go e nmen ,
d) Coo dina ing he implemen a ion o he plan o he
emo al o haza dous subs ance as may be issued by he
ede al go e nmen .
e) Unde aking su eillance, epo ing, ad e ing, and o he
esponse ac i i ies as hey ela e o oil spillage,
) Encou aging egional co-ope a ion among membe
S a es o Wes A ican sub- egion and in he Gul o
Guinea o comba ing oil spillage and pollu ion in ou
con iguous wa e s,
g) S eng hening he na ional capaci y and egional ac ion
o p e en , con ol, comba and mi iga e ma ine
pollu ion,
8 < h p://www.nige del a.go .ng/index.php/ he-
minis y/his o y-o -mnda>. Accessed 1s June,2016.
9 S.1 o he Na ional Oil Spill De ec ion and Response Agency
(Es ablishmen ) Ac , 2006 es ablished he Agency as a body
co po a e wi h pe pe ual succession and a common seal,
which can sue and be sued in i s co po a e name.
10 ibid S.5.
11 < h ps://cdne .ng.o g/?q=node/3164>. Accessed 1s
June,2016.
h) P omo e echnical co-ope a ion be ween Nige ia and
membe S a es o he Wes A ican sub- egion.12
4.4. NIGERIAN MARITIME ADMINISTRATION AND
SAFETY AGENCY (NIMASA)13
The NIMASA is an agency14 c ea ed by s a u es by he Nige ian
Ma i ime and Sa e y Agency Ac . Wi h espec o he p o ec ion o
he en i onmen in he oil and gas indus y, he p o isions o he
NIMASA Ac g an ed NIMASA ju isdic ion o egula e and
p omo e ma i ime sa ely, secu i y ma ine pollu ion and ma i ime
labou .15
In pu sui o he objec i es o he agency, he Ac p o ides ha he
agency shall among o he s:
a) Es ablish ma i ime aining and sa e y s anda ds,16
b) P o ide di ec ions and ensu e compliance wi h essel
secu i y measu es,17
c) Ca y ou ai and coas al su eillance,18
d) Con ol and p e en ma ine pollu ion,19
e) Inspec ships o he pu pose o ma ine sa e y, ma ine
secu i y, ma ine labou and p e en ion o pollu ion,20
) Gene ally o pe o m any o he du y o ensu ing ma ine
sa e y and secu i y o do all ma e s inciden al o.21
4.5. NIGERIAN SECURITY AND CIVIL DEFENCE
CORPS
The Nige ian Secu i y and Ci il De ence Co ps Ac 22 es ablished
he Nige ian Secu i y and Ci il De ense Co ps. Wi h espec o he
unc ions o he Ci il De ense Co ps ela ing o he p o ec ion o
he en i onmen in he oil and gas indus y, he Ac p o ides ha
he Co ps shall ha e powe o a es wi h o wi hou a wa an ,
de ain, in es iga e and ins i u e legal p oceedings by o in he name
o he A o ney-Gene al o he Fede a ion agains any pe son who
is easonably suspec ed o ha e commi ed an o ence unde his
Ac o is in ol ed in any chemical poisoning o oil spillage o oil
pipelines andaliza ion. 23
4.6. NIGERIAN PORTS AUTHORITY
The Nige ian Po Au ho i y Ac 24 es ablished he Nige ian Po s
Au ho i y (NPA)
The unc ions o he NPA in ela ion o en i onmen al ma e s in
he Nige Del a include:
a) To con ol pollu ion a ising om oil o any o he
subs ances om ships using he po s limi s o hei
app oaches,25
12 ibid S.7(b) – (e).
13 Ac CAP N161 LFN, 2007.
14 ibid. S.3. c ea es he Agency.
15 ibid. S.1(ii).
16 ibid. S.22(1) (d).
17 ibid. S.22(1) (g).
18 ibid. S.22(1) (h).P
19 ibid. S.22 (1) (i).
20 ibid. S.22 (1) (2) (a).
21 ibid. S.22 (2) ( ).
22 CAP N146, LFN, 2007.
23 ibid. S.3 (1) ( ) (ii).
24 CAP N126, LFN, 2004.
25 ibid. S.7 (i).

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b) Du ing loading o discha ge, any leakage o oil
de eloping in he sho es piping sys em shall be epo ed
immedia ely o he chie i e o ice . I he leakage is o
such cha ac e ha in he opinion o he chie i e o ice ,
i cons i u es a haza d. The loading o discha ge shall be
suspended un il epai s ha e been made. 26
c) In he e en o any oil spillage on he wha , immedia e
ac ion shall be aken by he pe son on he sho e who is
loading o discha ging oil o eco e he oil and o
p e en i s escape on he ha bou wa e s; and he ha bou
mas e and he chie i e o ice shall be no i ied
immedia ely any spill akes place27.
4.7. NIGERIA POLICE FORCE
The Nige ia Police is he p incipal Law En o cemen Agency in
Nige ia28. The Nige ia Police Fo ce is es ablished by wo s a u es
namely he Cons i u ion o Nige ia29 and he Nige ian Police Fo ce
Ac 30. The ole o he police includes he de ec ion and p e en ion
o c imes, a es o o ende s and he p o ec ion o law and o de .31
The Police o ce has he powe o a es and p osecu e a pollu e o
wa e o ai by oil o gas.32
The Police a e also o coope a e wi h he NOSDRA in a case o a
majo and disas ous oil spill and o keep o de , and p o ec
p ope y and equipmen a he scene.33
4.8. ROLE OF THE JUDICIARY IN
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The Nige ian Judicia y is an a m o he go e nmen . I is es ed
wi h judicial powe s o adjudica e o e ma e s b ough be o e i
subjec o de ined ju isdic ions as p o ided in he Cons i u ion.34
By i ue o S.257(1) o he Cons i u ion, all ma e s ela ing o
mine als, mines, oil and seismic ope a ions a e wi hin he exclusi e
ju isdic ion o he Fede al High Cou o hea and de e mine same.
This posi ion has been judicially ecognized in EMEJURU .
ABRAHAM,35 he plain i sued he de endan o g ea
des uc ion o his plan s, a mland, ances al land ma ks and
building du ing he laying o gas pipeline by he De endan . The
High Cou in which he ac ion was ins i u ed ound in a ou o
he plain i . Howe e , on appeal, he Cou o Appeal; held ha
he High Cou had no ju isdic ion o y he ma e .
26 Reg. 17, Nige ian Po s Au ho i y Pe oleum Wha (Apapa)
Bye-Laws, a subsidia y legisla ion o he NPA Ac CAP
N126, LFN 2004.
27 ibid. Reg. 18, Reg. 43 and 74 Nige ian Po s Au ho i y (po )
Reg., a subsidia y legisla ion o he NPA Ac CAP N126,
LFN 2004 p ohibi s he discha ge o escape om a ship o a
place on land o oil o any dange ous o o ensi e liquid in o
he wa e s o a po .
28 < h p://www.in epol.in /membe
coun ies/A ica/Nige ia>. Accessed 1s June, 2016.
29 S. 214(1) Cons i u ion o he Fede al Republic o Nige ia
1999 (as amended).
30 S.3 o he Nige ia Police Fo ce Ac , CAP p19, LFN 2004.
31 ibid. S.4.
32 S.245 CCA.
33 Pa ag aph 15(a) & (b) o he Second schedule o he
NOSDRA Ac .
34 S.6(1) o he CFRN 1999 (as amended)
35 (2008) 3 NWLR (PT 1075)
The cou ‟s ju isdic ion wi h espec o en i onmen al p o ec ion
could be in oked ei he by p i a e li iga ion o public li iga ion.
P i a e li iga ion is in wo aspec s;36
a. Ac ions ela ing o inju y o p i a e p ope y and o he
pe sonal igh s and
b. Public in e es li iga ion o ci izen s anding.
Mos o he ac ions in he Nige ian cou s wi h espec o
en i onmen al law wi h pa icula e e ence o oil pollu ion a e
ounded on he inju y o p i a e o communal p ope y and o he
pe sonal igh s. Howe e , he e is an insu icien numbe o public
in e es li iga ion in he coun y. Jus ice Uwais a ibu es his o a
numbe o ac o s as ollows:
“Some o hem because he g ea e p opo ion o he
ci izen y a e ob ious o he en i onmen al damage
su ounding hem especially when he damage is
caused by in angible p ocess. The cos implica ions o
legal ac ion including he cos o p ocu ing echnical
e idence and he emo eness o ins i u ions o ed ess
de e e en hose who a e awa e o damage.
En i onmen al damage pallia i es, which now exis ,
and he belie ha ac ions ins i u ed agains pollu ing
acili ies, in which go e nmen has an in e es , is
pe cei ed as an ac ion agains go e nmen i sel ”37
Public li iga ion is conduc ed by he S a e P osecu o s on behal o
he A o ney Gene al in he en o cemen o en i onmen al laws.38
This is unde aken in he in e es and bene i o he gene al
public.39
I is common knowledge ha Judges in e p e and do no make he
law. Howe e Judges can and do g ea ly shape he essence o he
law in hei in e p e a i e ole. Acco ding o Lo d Denning:
“In heo y he judges do no make law, hey me ely
in e p e i . Bu as no one knows wha he law is un il
he judges in e p e i , i ollows ha hey make i ”40
The goal o he judicia y should be aimed a no jus in e p e ing
he law bu in doing so wi h a iew o achie ing social Jus ice. The
Judicia y is impo an o he peace ul and o de ly de elopmen o
he socie y.41 The Cou s ha e a du y o in e p e and apply
en i onmen al legisla ions o he p o ec ion o he Nige Del a
egion, which has su e ed se ious deg ada ion due o he impac s
o oil exploi a ion ac i i ies in he egion.
In he wo ds o La e Jus ice Chukwudi u Opu a o he Sup eme
Cou o Nige ia (as he hen was):
“Legisla o s make laws in he abs ac bu he cou
deals wi h he day- o-day p oblems o li igan s and
36 Uwais, M., “ Recen De elopmen in Nige ia: S eng hening
Legal and Ins i u ional amewo k o P o ec ing he
En i onmen om damage”, pape p esen ed a he Global
Judges Symposium, Johannesbu g, Sou h A ica, 18-20
Augus , 2002.
37 ibid.
38 S.150 o CFRN 1999 (as amended) .
39 ibid.
40 ibid.
41 Chianu E., “The Ho se and Ass Yoked: Legal P inciples o
Aid Weak in a Wo ld o Unequals” Inaugu al Lec u e se ies,
91, Uni e si y o Benin, Sep embe 20, 2007.
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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
237
a emp o use he laws o sol e hese p oblems in such
a way as o p oduce Jus ice”41
The Cou should p o ec he en i onmen o he Nige Del a
egion om en i onmen al deg ada ion caused by oil exploi a ion
in he egion as en i onmen al abuses a e abuses on he
undamen al human igh s o he people o he egion.
4.9. THE PRESIDENTIAL AMNESTY PROGRAMME
The wo d amnes y is a G eek wo d de i ed om “amnes ia” which
is an ac o g ace by which he sup eme powe in a s a e es o es
hose who may ha e been guil y o any o ence agains i , o he
posi ion o innocen pe sons and i includes mo e han pa don, in as
much as i obli e a es all legal ememb ance o he o ences.42
I has also been de ined as:
“A gua an ee o exemp ion om p osecu ion and
pa don om punishmen o ce ain c iminal, ebel and
insu gen ac ions hi he o commi ed agains he s a e.
I indemni ies a ec ed pe sons in e ms o sa e y and
p o ec ion om puni i e ac ions, e ibu ions and
associa ed losses. An amnes y is usually wi hin speci ic
ime which o ende s admi c ime and akes ad an age
o he gene al pa don”.43
The p esiden ial amnes y p og amme was ini ia ed by he la e
P esiden Ya ‟adua Adminis a ion. In a bid o add ess he
agi a ions o mili an s in he Nige Del a egions o Nige ia, he
la e p esiden g an ed uncondi ional amnes y o he mili an s in he
egions hoping ha he ges u e would e icien ly end he anging
es i eness in he egion. The amnes y p og amme was announced
on 25 h June, 2009 wi h an expi a ion o 60 days pe iod which was
expec ed o un om Augus 6 o Oc obe 4, 2009.44 The
p oclama ion was a chance o mili an s in he egime o emb ace
amnes y and su ende hei a ms and ammuni ion in exchange o
P esiden ial pa don.
The Fede al Go e nmen h ough he P esiden ial Amnes y is o
manage, supe ise and implemen he Amnes y p og amme. A he
end o he 60 days pe iod on Oc obe 4, 2009, a o al o 20, 192
epen an mili an s su ende ed hei a ms and ammuni ions o he
Fede al Go e nmen and accep ed he p og amme.
In No embe 2010, ano he 6, 166 ex-mili an s we e enlis ed in o
he P esiden ial Amnes y p og amme, his cons i u ed he second
phase and b ough he numbe o pe sons enlis ed o 26, 358. In
2012, he Fede al Go e nmen also app o ed he inclusion o 3,
642 ex-mili an s b inging he o al numbe s o ex-mili an s ha
41 10 o Agenda 21 in p inciples 20 o he Rio Decla a ion
1992.
42 Imongan, E.O: “Amnes y P og amme in Nige ia:
Unde s anding Jus ice and equi y in he Nige Del a
Region, In e na ional Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion
and Managemen Resea ch, Decembe 2015.
ol.3, No.2, P.40.
43 Ikelegbe, A.& Umuko o, N. “Exclusion and he
challenges o Peace Building in he Nige Del a: An
Assessmen o he Amnes y p og amme. CPED
Monog aph se ies, 2014, No.3.
44 <h p:// he angua d newspape , Ya ‟adua g an s
mili an s uncondi ional amnes y… F ees Hen y Okah
on June 25, 2009>. Accessed 3 d June, 2016.
ha e emb aced he Amnes y p og amme o 30,000.45 In suppo o
he Amnes y P og amme, he Fede al go e nmen c ea ed
Disa mamen , Demobiliza ion and Rein eg a ion (DDP)
p og amme o as many who accep ed he amnes y on o be o e he
deadline.
 Disa mamen is he collec ion, documen a ion, con ol
and disposal o bo h small a ms, explosi e, ligh s and
hea y weapons om mili an s.46 The p ocess is p ima ily
conduc ed by he Nige ian a my.
 Demobiliza ion in ol es conduc ing biome ics o ex-
mili an s who we e in designa ed camps o he
p og amme. The Amnes y p og amme made a ailable
mon hly s ipends o each mili an .
 Rein eg a ion in ol es he p ocess o ans o ma ional
aining. These aining include oca ional skills,
en ep eneu ial aining and de elopmen , echnical
capabili ies, o mal educa ion and an oppo uni y o
hem o be employed as many ex-mili an s we e o e ed
o wo k as change agen s in a la ge communi y.47
In he ligh o he abo e, he p og amme ga e oppo uni y o hose
who ha e he in e es o going back o do so. I helped abou 711
ex-mili an o pu sue ca ee s in a ious uni e si ies and college
a ound he wo ld. 2,922 ex-mili an s ha e g adua ed om o sho e
cen es. 5,145 ex mili an s had al eady comple ed oca ional
aining wi hin he sho es o he coun y anging om welding boa
building, sea sa e y, sa e y managemen , and in o ma ion
communica ion echnology, oil d illing and ma ine ela ed
cou ses.48
PART II: CORPORATE STRATEGY
4.10. CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Co po a e social esponsibili y (CSR) e e s o a business p ac ice
ha in ol es pa icipa ing in ini ia i es ha bene i socie y.49 I is
also ini ia i es o assess and ake esponsibili y o he company‟s
e ec s on en i onmen al and social wellbeing.50
The inc easing powe o ansna ional co po a ions wi hin he
global economy has b ough wi h i co esponding awa eness o
he need o an in e na ional egime ha places di ec
esponsibili ies on hese companies.51
A he 1997 sha eholde s mee ing o he Shell- B i ish Pe oleum,
he company published he i s annual epo on he ope a ions o
SPDC looking a he issues o en i onmen al s anda ds and human
45 a ailable a < h p://www.p emium imes
ng.com/news/112493-nige ia-enlis s3000-ex-mili an s-
amnes y>. Accessed 3 d June,2016.
46 Egbeme, E., “ Cu bing Mili ancy in Nige ia:
Unde s anding he P esiden ial Amnes y P og amme.
Nex ie policy b ie 2015.
47 Imongon, E.O., opci .
48 ibid.
49 < www.businessnewsdaily.com/4679-co po a e-social-
esponsibili y.h ml>. Accessed 15 h June, 2016.
50 < www.in es opedia-com/ e ms/c/co p-social-
esponsibili y.asp.accessed> 15 h June, 2016.
51 B onwen, M., “Shell in Nige ia: Copo a e Social
Responsibili y and he Ogoni c isis”. A case s udy
published by The Ca negie council on E hics and
In e na ional A ai s, P-8.
Copy igh © ISRG Publishe s. All igh s Rese ed.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
238
igh s, and he i s g oup wide epo on heal h, sa e y and he
en i onmen . A he same ime, Shell ook s eps o in eg a e i s
commi men o “exp ess suppo o undamen al human igh s”
in o i s in e nal managemen p ocedu e equi ing di ec o s o Shell
g oup companies o make annual s a emen o Shell headqua e s
equi ing i s compliance.
Shell has emba ked on di e en p ojec s o ensu e i s co po a e
social esponsibili y.52
Shell has emba ked on schola ship schemes o seconda y school
s uden s and uni e si y unde g adua e s uden s. In he same ein,
Agip Oil Company and Che on has also emba ked on schola ship
schemes o s uden s and you hs o he Nige Del a egions.
Oil companies in he Nige Del a egions ha e also commi ed
i sel o he building o Roads, schools and u al heal h cen es in
he hos communi ies. In o de o employ you hs in he egion,
Shell has ini ia ed he You h De elopmen Scheme which has
ained o e 800 you hs and p o ided hem wi h ools and acili ies
o be sel employed53. Oil companies ope a ing in he Nige Del a
egion ha e come oge he and o med he clean Nige ia
Associa es o comba oil spillage o g ea magni ude.
5.0. RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSION
5.1. RECOMMENDATIONS
F om he indings in he cou se o his legal esea ch wi h espec
o he legal and ins i u ional amewo k in place o add ess he
impac s o oil and gas exploi a ion in he Nige Del a egion,
ce ain ac ions, measu es and imp o emen s a e impe a i e. Those
impe a i e measu es a e p o e ed below as ecommenda ions o
minimizing he impac s o oil exploi a ion in he Nige Del a
egion.
5.1.1. STATUTORY ABSOLUTE LIABILITY FOR
THE OFFENCE OF OIL
Pollu ion in he oil and gas sec o should be made a s a u o y s ic
liabili y o ence in Nige ia. This will aid he eco e y o
compensa ion by ic ims o oil pollu ion easie and will exac clean
up and emedia ion by he pollu e and make oil companies mo e
ca e ul, esponsible and en i onmen al conscious. Also he
plu ali y o de enses, p o ec ions and excep ions a ailing he oil
and gas sec o pollu e in he s a ue books should be epealed o
make a pollu e s ic liable once a spill occu s.
5.1.2. CODIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL
RIGHTS AS ENFORCEABLE
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE
CONSTITUTION.
The igh o a clean pollu ion ee heal hy en i onmen and a
gene ally sa is ac o y en i onmen a ou able o human g ow h
and de elopmen should be en enched as a undamen al human
igh unde Chap e IV o he Cons i u ion as an en o ceable igh
agains any iola ing pa y.
5.1.3. IMPOSITION OF STRICT PUNISHMENT
FOR OIL AND GAS POLLUTION
52 ibid.
53 Shell: Nige ia B ie , The en i onmen (Lagos: Public
A ai s Di ision, 1995).
The go e nmen should impose ines on oil companies o b each
o egula ions and ake measu es o punish he companies
acco dingly.
The go e nmen should also in es iga e he oles ha oil
companies and o he s ha e played and con inue o play in he
en i onmen al pollu ion o he egion and i idly publish he
ou come o any such in es iga ion.
5.1.4. JUDICIAL ACTIVISM FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The judicia y is ega ded as he las hope o he common man. The
Nige ian judicia y should li e up o expec a ions and see i sel as a
p o ec o o he en i onmen . Judicial disposi ion o he
in e p e a ion and applica ion o ele an laws and s a u es ela ing
o he p o ec ion o he en i onmen in he pe oleum indus y in
Nige ia should be e o med, ad anced and socially esponsi e.
S ic liabili y p inciple, oughe penal ies and emblema ic damages
ough o be eso ed o.
5.1.5. HUMAN CAPACITY BUILDING
The minis y o Nige Del a and Nige Del a De elopmen
Commission should wo k hand in hand o b ing abou e en
de elopmen in he Nige Del a egion. Mo e p ojec s should be
emba ked upon o p o ec he en i onmen and gene al well-being
o he ci izens o he egion. These agencies should emba k on
human capaci y building h ough in es men in he educa ion,
heal h and skills o people in his egion.
5.1.6. CONTINUATION OF THE AMNESTY
PROGRAMME
The amnes y p og amme o he ede al go e nmen has no doub
helped he Nige Del a you hs. I has helped o pay s ipends, en oll
ex-mili an s in oca ional aining and en ep eneu ial
de elopmen . I has also helped o cu b you h un es in he egion.
Te mina ion o he p og amme may pose a se ious h ea o he
na ion as he e may be a elapse o he con lic .
5.1.7. REVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
The ele an laws and s a u es pu in place o p o ec he
en i onmen should be e iewed and mo e s ingen ines and
punishmen should be enac ed o add ess en i onmen al c imes
agains he en i onmen and ci izens.
5.1.8. REGULATION OF COMPENSATION
ALLOCATION
Go e nmen and oil i ms should de ise egula o y mechanism o
ensu e ha alloca ion and compensa ion o he oil bea ing
communi ies ac ually ge o he ic ims.
5.1.9. REGULATION OF CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY
The p ac ice o co po a e social esponsibili y should be egula ed
h ough a legal amewo k and he oil companies should be
enjoined o obse e and p ac ice same in all hei dealing along
in e na ional minimum s anda ds.
5.2. CONCLUSION
The Nige Del a oil exploi a ion ale is synonymous o he
apho ism ha goes hus:
The hen lays he golden egg bu no ed, allowed o be in
hunge pe pe ually.
The ci izens o Nige Del a while acing he demand o
de elopmen in hei en i onmen a e also shoulde ing he impac
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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17283702
239
o oil explo a ion in he en i onmen al deg ada ion o he land, he
economy, heal h as well as he socio-cul u al well-being o he
ci izen o he hos communi ies. The si ua ion has induced he
inhabi an s o he hos communi ies‟ emo ional, physical and
psychological us a ion.
The Fede al Go e nmen o Nige ia aking cognizance o hese
ac s ha e c ea ed legal and ins i u ional amewo k o cu b he
impac s o oil exploi a ion in he Nige Del a egion. The Fede al
Go e nmen has se up legal ins umen s o p o ec he
en i onmen and p ese e social well-being o he ci izens o he
Nige Del a a ea. The Associa ed Gas (Reinjec ion) Ac which is
designed o compel companies p oducing oil and gas in Nige ia o
unde ake gas- einjec ion and s op gas la ing in he egion. These
ins i u ional bodies ha e he manda e o o e see he g ow h and
de elopmen o he egion.
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