IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences
h ps://i asspublishe .com/jou nal-de ails/IJAHSS
ISSN (Online) 3049-0170
This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC license 59
JOURNAL
COVER
PAGE
The Digni y o Wo k and he Silen Voices o he Unemployed You hs
Blazio Mahaso Manobo (PhD)*
Ca holic Uni e si y o Zimbabwe
Co esponding Au ho Blazio
Mahaso Manobo (PhD)
Ca holic Uni e si y o Zimbabwe
A icle His o y
Recei ed: 12 / 09 / 2025
Accep ed: 30 / 09 / 2025
Published: 07 / 10 /2025
Abs ac : The A ican you hs ha e been subjec ed o massi e Eu ocen ic na a i es depic ing
hem as un o una e and des ined o pe ennial li e o wan and pain due o hei colou o skin.
The con inen o A ican has been depic ed in nega i e e ms and he leade ship po ayed as
beyond edemp ion. Young people see hemsel es as un o una e o be bo n in A ica and hence
he skills ligh in o diaspo a. Nei he he missiona y heology o sel -denial in o de o win
hea en no he heological he o ic o he Gospel o p ospe i y ha e he capaci y o sa is y he
21s cen u y you h. F us a ed by he bu den o an educa ion sys em ha no longe p o ides
oppo uni ies o employmen , A ican you hs ha e ound solace in d ug and subs ance abuse,
c ime, sex, and iolence among o he s ices. Using a phenomenological app oach, his pape
jus i ies he adop ion o an A ican spi i uali y o wo k in he pas o al ca e o he unemployed
you hs. We a gue in his pape ha he silen oices o he unemployed you hs is no longe he
p ese e o go e nmen s, p i a e o ganiza ions o lay leade s, bu an in i a ion o eligious
ins i u ions o adop app oaches oo ed in he solid A ican spi i uali y o wo k.
Keywo ds: Human digni y, Digni y o wo k, You h unemploymen , meaning ul wo k.
How o Ci e in APA o ma : Manobo, B. M. (2025). The Digni y o Wo k and he Silen Voices o he Unemployed You hs. IRASS
Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences, 2(10), 59-68.
In oduc ion
The wo ld o wo k has gone h ough massi e
ans o ma ion since he 18 h cen u y Indus ial Re olu ion. In p e-
colonial A ica, wo k was gene ally subsis ence and o ganized
along social classes (M a a, 2011). The Indus ial e olu ion
igni ed he eme gence o capi alism and he comme cializa ion o
labou (Kuma , 1984). Wha used o be a daily ou ine wo k o
subsis ence li ing among people u ned o o ganized labou o a
sala y. A di ision be ween wo k unde employmen and domes ic
wo k de eloped esul ing in p e e en ial alue gi en o wo k unde
employmen . Employe s began o maximize p o i h ough cos
educ ion s a egies like di ision o labou , specializa ion, and span
o con ol (Emiliio and Oma , 2018). Labou as a ac o o
p oduc ion was e icien ly managed wi h li le ega d o he
digni y o he human pe son in ol ed in he p oduc ion p ocess
(Mille , 1953). Ad ances in echnology and scien i ic disco e ies
made p oduc ion easie and imp o ed he quali y o goods and
se ices. Howe e , hese de elopmen s came wi h li le conce n on
he sanc i y o human li e.
I is es ima ed ha Zimbabwe has a you h demog aphic
di idend o abou 76% ou o which 35% (5.4 million) all be ween
he ages o 15 o 35. The Zimbabwe S a is ical Su ey (ZIMSTAT)
esul s showed an expanded unemploymen a e o 41.7% among
you hs be ween he ages 15-35 (ZIMSTAT, 2023). P e alen ices
like d ug and subs ance abuses, obbe ies, p os i u ion, and ea ly
ma iages es i y o he helplessness ha hese young people a e
being subjec ed o due o lack o meaning ul engagemen s
(Maulani & Agwanda, 2020). While acknowledging o he
cons ains a ising om go e nance challenges, economic sanc ions
imposed on he coun y, impac s o neo-colonialism, and
co up ion, he colonial educa ion sys ems adop ed in Zimbabwe
imp essed upon he young people ha he objec o wo k as a job
and a ca ee is emune a ion, p es ige, and exploi a ion o
inancial gains. Now, in he absence o a jus and conduc i e
en i onmen o emune a ed wo k, many you hs a e alling in o a
s a e o dehumanizing hopelessness. The go e nmen 's goal o
a aining Vision 2030 o an Uppe Middle-Income socie y will
mos p obably emain elusi e. The solu ion in my iew lies in he
p ope unde s anding o he meaning o wo k as an end (co-
c ea ion) and no a means. We a gue in his pape ha wo k is
na u al o human beings and ha idleness o unemploymen is a
a es y o human on ology.
This pape looks a how wo k digni ies he human pe son
om he pe spec i es o sou ce and pu pose. I a gues ha
unemploymen ha is ampan among he you hs in Zimbabwe is a
dehumanizing phenomenon. In he absence o conduci e
en i onmen o paid employmen , he pape ad oca es o you h
empowe men g ounded on a change o a i ude h ough a
heological app oach o he meaning o wo k as he basis o you h
minis y. Theologically, wo k is meaning ul in so a as i is
unde s ood as a pa icipa ion in God‟s wo k o c ea ion.
Unemploymen and o ced labou a e an a on on he digni y o
he human pe son.
Concep ual F amewo k
The unde s anding o he concep o wo k is impac ed by
an in ica e and changing social con ex (B ie and No d, 1990).
Di e en socie ies a ach di e en meanings o wo k. Some
de ini ions a e b oad, encompassing he social, psychological, and
spi i ual elemen s o wo k while o he s a e speci ic o con ex s like
wo k unde employmen . The Online Encyclopedia B i annica
(2020) de ines wo k scien i ically as “a measu e o ene gy ha
occu s when an objec is mo ed o e a dis ance by an ex e nal
o ce a leas pa o which is applied in he di ec ion o he
displacemen .” This means, wo k is an ac i i y ha in ol es an
exe ion o o ce and ha esul s in some o m o a change in i s
o iginal s a e o posi ion. Concu ingly, wo k is also de ined as “an
expendi u e o ene gy h ough a se o coo dina ed ac i i ies
in ended o p oduce some hing use ul” (Mo in 2008, p. 1). Budd
(2013, p. 985) de ines wo k b oadly as “pu pose ul human ac i i y
in ol ing physical o men al exe ion ha is no unde aken solely
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
60
o pleasu e and ha has economic o symbolic alue.” O
signi icance in all hese de ini ions is he acknowledgemen ha
wo k b ings abou some hing new, change, meaning, and/o sel -
ac ualiza ion.
Acco ding o he In e na ional Labo O ganiza ion (ILO),
employmen “comp ises all pe sons o wo king age who du ing a
speci ied b ie pe iod, such as one week o one day, we e in he
ollowing ca ego ies: a) paid employmen (whe he a wo k o wi h
a job bu no a wo k); o b) sel -employmen (whe he a wo k o
wi h an en e p ise bu no a wo k).” (ILO 2013). The ILO
de ini ion makes a dis inc ion be ween paid employmen and sel -
employmen whe e paid employmen includes all employees,
ainees, and app en ice. Sel -employmen includes owne s o
businesses, en ep eneu s, in o mal ade s, and hose making
goods o own use. The ILO de ini ion is b oad-based and
encompasses all labo ac i i ies ha has he po en ial o c ea e
alue in he o m o goods o se ices i espec i e o whe he he
indi idual ge emune a ion o no . Howe e , he de ini ion is
o ien ed owa ds o mal engagemen han ask o ien ed. I lea es
ou he wo k pe o med by unpaid domes ic wo ke s and women‟s
ep oduc i e oles which a e essen ial o a socie y‟s con inued
exis ence. (K uppe e al. 2007).
The Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, Bu eau o Labou S a is ics
has de ined unemploymen o e e o an indi idual who “does no
ha e a job, is a ailable o wo k, and has looked o wo k wi hin
he ou weeks” (Appelbaum 2013, p. 907). This de ini ion
esembles he In e na ional Labo O ganiza ion‟s de ini ion ha
de ines an unemployed pe son as one who has eached he age o
employmen acco ding o na ional s a u es, one who has ne e been
engaged o he pas week and has been looking o employmen .
The indi idual mus be a ailable o he job o be conside ed
unemployed. Bo h he Ame ican Bu eau o s a is ics and he ILO
de ini ions sugges ha indi iduals whose ci cums ance do no
allow hem o ac i ely seek employmen canno be ca ego ized
unde unemployed. Nei he is unpaid domes ic wo k alling unde
he ca ego y o unemployed. Unemploymen is a dehumanizing
condi ion (F ei e, 1970). The e o e, Jackson & C ooks (1993)
concluded ha an unemployed pe son does no li e bu me ely
exis s.
Biblical Founda ion o Wo k
The i s chap e o Genesis demons a es he ue oca ion
o human beings as c ea ed in he image and likeness o God. God
is p esen ed as he c ea o and wo k is po ayed as an
indispensable quali y o he human pe son‟s di ine image (Genesis
1:1-28). In he i s 25 e ses o he i s chap e o Genesis, God
began His wo k by calling c ea ion in o exis ence. Con a y o he
me aphysical dualis ic philosophy o ma e and spi i , Holy God
and sin ul wo ld, o good and e il (Wee and Pelcza , 2008), each
ime God comple es an ac i i y, he p oduc o his c ea ion is
quali ied as „good‟ (Genesis 1: 4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25). The ma e ial
wo ld as he p oduc o God‟s imagina i e wo d is „good‟. This
pu s o ques ion he an h opocen ic assump ion ha only human
beings ma e (Ma hews, 2017). The c ea ion na a i e es i ies o
he holiness o he ma e ial wo ld as a delibe a e p oduc o God‟s
c ea i e Wo d.
In he obse a ion o Cosby, “as image bea e s o God,
humani y was made o be sub-c ea o s, o ule, o wo k, and o
wo ship, con inuing he c ea i e p ocess… God wo ks and pai s
His image bea e s wi h he s uc u e o wo k. God wo ks and we
wo k” (Cosby, 2016, p. 2). I can be in ima ed ha he c ea ion
s o y in he book o Genesis a es s o God as a hough ul and
c ea i e wo ke pa excellence (Nelson, 2011, p. 20). I is e iden
ha when God e ealed Himsel in His o y, He e ealed himsel as
a wo ke and His wo k was mani es ed in he ac o c ea ing. A e
c ea ing inanima e ma e , God b ings o h li e, “Then God said,
"Le he ea h pu o h ege a ion: plan s yielding seed, and ui
ees o e e y kind on ea h ha bea ui wi h he seed in i . And i
was so” (Genesis 1:11). The c ea ed eali y is willed in o
coope a ion o b ing o h ui s. The c ea ed inanima e become co-
c ea o s wi h God o b ing o h li e. God calls wha he has c ea ed
o coope a e wi h Him in he wo k o c ea ion.
In e ela o y e ms, he c ea ion s o y demons a es how
he cosmos was called in o being as a mani es a ion o God‟s
c ea i e powe . No hing subsis s ha was no called in o exis ence
by God. Genesis 1:2 says, “The ea h was a o mless oid and
da kness co e ed he ace o he deep, while a wind om God
swep o e he ace o he wa e s”. By His c ea i e wo k, he
imma e ial oid was u ned in o ma e ial subsis ence. This
demons a es ha human and cosmic exis ence is no an acciden al
phenomenon. Nei he is his wo ld a p oduc o chance. Th ough
his c ea i e p ocess, God wo ks o mani es His e y sel h ough
he ma e ial wo ld. He communica es His being h ough His
c ea i e wo ks. The c owning o God‟s wo k is he c ea ion o he
human pe son demons a ed by God when He said, "Le us make
humankind in ou image, acco ding o ou likeness; and le hem
ha e dominion o e he ish o he sea, and o e he bi ds o he
ai , and o e he ca le, and o e all he wild animals o he ea h,
and o e e e y c eeping hing ha c eeps upon he ea h" (Genesis
1:26-28 NRSV)
The Wo k O ien a ion: ‘means’ and ‘ends’
Wo k as an ac i i y o man can be iewed as a „means‟ o
an „end.‟ The choice o which iew o ake shapes one‟s a i ude o
wo k and he le el o meaning ha wo k will b ing o he pe son.
Acco ding o Vic o F ankly, “Man‟s main conce n is no o gain
pleasu e o o a oid pain bu a he o see a meaning in his li e”
(F ankl, 1959, p. 115). As a „means‟, wo k can only be digni ied
when i poin s owa ds meaning ul „end.‟ Ne e heless, meaning is
no synonymous wi h happiness o a wo k can be meaning ul e en
unde sac i icial and pain ul ci cums ances. One can ind he
meaning o li e a e accomplishing a ask wo h a pu pose
(Nielsen 1964). Con e sely, an ac i i y ha ails o accomplish a
choice-wo h pu pose may be conside ed undigni ied.
The e ms „wo k‟ and „labou ‟ a e o en used
in e changeably wi hou paying much a en ion o con ex s. The
dis inc ion be ween wo k and labou has oo s in aliena ion heo y
o Ka l Ma x. Wo k is ha ac i i y ha is ca ied ou in he
ad ancemen o human na u e and whe e humani y ealises i s
po en ial (Ollman 1976, p. 76, McFadden, 2016, p.55). This means
wo k shapes he wo ld and he people in i (McFadden 2016, p.
53). On he con a y, labou om he pe spec i es o Ma x a e
hose ac i i ies unde aken in a capi alis en i onmen and whose
objec is he maximiza ion o p o i . F om a Ma xis pe spec i e,
wo k becomes labou when i is ca ied ou in a comme cial
en i onmen wi h he aim o making p o i .
Meda (2017) iden i ies h ee signi ican ac o s ha
cha ac e ize wo k dimensions which he classi ies as, e hical
dimension, ins umen al dimension, and he exp essi e dimension.
The e hical dimension o wo k a e he ac i i ies ha an indi idual
unde akes as an obliga ion owa ds con ibu ing o socie al needs.
Acco ding o Meda, his dimension is pa icula ly impo an bu
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
61
as wading away. The second dimension which is he ins umen al
dimension o wo k a e he ex insic bene i s ha comes wi h
unde aking an ac i i y. This dimension, o Meda, is he mos
common unde s anding ha indi idual pe cei e wo k oday. The
hi d no ion o exp essi e dimension is a pos -ma e ialis ic
pe cep ion ha conside s wo k as a means o sel - ul illmen . This
dimension is gaining ac ion and se e al s udies ha e shown he
u ili y o sel - ul illmen as he goal o e e y pe son‟s wo k.
Fo his eason, he digni y o he human pe son is bes
unde s ood wi hin he con ex o wo k. The in e sec ion o means‟
and „ends‟ o wo k ind exp ession in Robe Bellah‟s (2012) h ee
wo k o ien a ions o : wo k as a job, wo k as a ca ee , and wo k as a
oca ion. A pe sons‟ wo k o ien a ion shapes he meaning hey
gi e o hei wo k and in luences he kind o jobs hey seek when
hey become unemployed, as well as he gene al alues hey
endo se in li e and wo k (Rosso e al., 2010).
De ining wo k as job en ails pu ing emphasis on he
economic and ex insic bene i s o an ac i i y in he o m o
sala ies, allowances, and good wo king condi ions among o he s
(Naugh on, 1991). This pe spec i e akes job o imply some o m
o employmen whe e he e is an a angemen in which a pe son
pe o m ac i i ies on behal o ano he pe son o company in
exchange o money o ag eed bene i s. The objec o a job is no
he wo k i sel bu bene i s acc uing om he wo k. Consequen ly,
“ he wo k is no an end in i sel , bu ins ead is a means ha allows
indi iduals o acqui e he esou ces needed o enjoy hei ime
away om he Job” (W zesniewski e al, 1977, p. 22). The
adi ional hinking ha inancial ewa ds a e key o employee
mo i a ion is unde a ack as se e al s udies seem o sugges ha
inancial ewa d is no among p ima y employee mo i a o s o job
sa is ac ion (Agbenyegah, 2019).
Wo k as a job add esses he basic needs o an indi idual
bu does no p o ide in insic mo i a ion and has li le meaning o
a pe son‟s on ological exis ence. Gi en a choice, many people
would no op o pu sue wo k as job (Rosso e al, 2010). Wo ke s
can a emp o ind meaning, challenge, and au onomy in inancial
ewa ds like pay, bu in he inal analysis, he wo k will de ea he
wo ke when he mo i a ion is limi ed o inancial bene i alone
(Scha z, 2015). The e is no digni y in a job ha aliena es he
wo ke om he p oduc , p ocess and he common good. To wo k
wi hou ela ing o he wo k being done ela es o well o Ma xis
concep o wo ke exploi a ion
The second ca ego y in Bellah‟s ypology is wo k as a
ca ee . In his ca ego y, he indi idual che ishes he social and
psychological achie emen s b ough by wo k. I ele a es he social
s anding o he wo ke and inc eases he wo ke ‟s sel -es eem. In
u n, he wo ke in es s ime and e o leading o g ea e
p oduc i i y (Bellah e al., 1985, p. 66). In his seminal book Why
We Wo k, Ba y Scha z (2015) claims ha a sa is ied wo ke is
one who eels challenged by his wo k. The wo ke inds wo k
s e ching beyond com o zones and p o ides some un. As
Naugh on (1991, p. 2), obse ed, “wo k as a ca ee ough o
con ibu e o he de elopmen o one‟s psychological heal h by
being c ea i e, au onomous, and ul illing.”
Wo k as a ca ee is di ec ed owa ds a g ea e end which is
he common good. While a aining a psychological objec is good
o a wo ke , a ca ee goes beyond pe sonal sa is ac ion o include
he humanizing e ec o an ac i i y and a con ibu ion o socie y‟s
gene al wel a e (Scha z 2015, Naugh on 1991). A ca ee signi ies
some o m o o al p og ession o an indi idual‟s p o essional li e.
Some imes, a ca ie consis s o a ious jobs ca ied ou o e
se e al yea s and has some o m o long- e m goals. Digni y o
wo k as a ca ee eme ges ou o he ela ionship es ablished
be ween he indi idual and he wo ks‟ p oduc , p ocesses, and he
socie y a la ge. In his ega d, e e y wo k has he po en ial o be
sa is ying and o mo e om being jus a job o being a ca ee and
inally a oca ion (Schwa z, 2015). The di e ence be ween a job
and a ca ee lies in he wo k en i onmen and he indi idual‟s
a i ude owa ds he wo k. Ul ima ely, he digni y o wo k ollows
he indi idual‟s a i ude owa ds wo k and he way he wo k
en i onmen is o ganized.
As a oca ion, wo k goes beyond he ela ionship wi h he
p oduc , p ocess, and he communi y. I anscends he economic,
social, and psychological bene i s o he job and ca ee in o he
essence o he human pe son (Bellah e al., 1985). As a oca ion,
wo k and li e a e insepa able and he objec is ul ilmen o a
highe calling. To a eligious pe son, wo k as a oca ion akes on a
eligious signi icance like, a pa icipa ion in God‟s co-c ea i e
mission he eby ans o ming he “wo ke and he objec he
wo ke p oduces by God‟s g ace” (Naugh on, 1991, p. 3). A his
le el, he wo ke assimila es he di ine in he p ocess o wo k and
ans o m wo k om a means o an end. Acco ding o Op ah
Win ey (2018), some imes a pe son can use a job o ind ou a
oca ion. In his ins ance, he job is used o igu e ou he pu pose
o li e which is one‟s calling. Fo Op ah, once an indi idual has
igu ed ou one‟s pu pose and oca ion, ha pe son migh e en
wo k o no inancial ewa ds.
People whose wo k is a calling do no sepa a e wha hey
do om who hey a e. Seen om a Ch is ian adi ion, wo k is he
oca ion o man since man was c ea ed in he image o God o
ha e dominion o e he whole wo ld and o ela e o God and
o he s (Logan, 2005). Unlike wo k as a ca ee whe e one uses
one‟s skills o accomplish a ask, in a oca ion, a pe son uses
spi i ual gi s ha anscend me e mo al skills. A oca ion is no
like a ask ha a pe son „can‟ do bu one ha a pe son „mus ‟ do.
Acco ding o Allen Pa (2016), Jesus‟ ca ee was o be a ca pen e
while his oca ion was o be a sa iou . Paul‟s ca ee was o be en
make while his oca ion was o be he Apos le o he gen ile.
Wo k as a calling is a pa hway o exp essing one‟s pu pose in
ways ha can make he wo ld be e (Dik, 2016).
A i s highes le el, wo k as a oca ion means ul illing he
pu pose o which God c ea ed an indi idual. I assumes ha when
God c ea ed he wo ld, he had a plan o each indi idual and ha
each pe son‟s li e has meaning o he deg ee ha one coope a es
wi h God in ealizing his plan (A ol e , 2007). As a oca ion,
wo k is an end and demons a es he ull exp ession o he digni y
o he human pe son. I p o ides pu pose and meaning o he
indi idual‟s li e. Naugh on (1991) exclaimed ha , wo k, as a
human ac i i y, is an inhe en ly alue laden ac i i y because in i s
o ganiza ional dimensions, wo k is a o ma i e ac i i y.
Human Digni y and Meaning ul Wo k
In his sec ion, he wo d „meaning‟ is used o unpack he
alue ha human beings a ach o hei wo k. The assump ion o
his sec ion is ha meaning ul wo k is synonymous wi h digni ied
wo k. A meaningless wo k ha is digni ied is a con adic ion in
e ms. His o ically, he digni y o wo k has gone h ough a
ans o ma ion o meanings and inding g ea e a en ion du ing he
indus ial e olu ion‟s emphasis on ou inized and specializa ion
wo k schedules (Donkin 2001, Bald y e al. 2007). The e is an
abundance o li e a u e on how wo k should be o ganized o
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
62
maximum p oduc ion. Se e al esea ch s udies we e ca ied ou o
iden i y and p omo e a wo k en i onmen ha suppo s employee
commi men o maximum p oduc i i y. Li le is documen ed
abou he meaning o wo k ou side employmen . Ne e heless, i
mus be emphasized ha he meaning o wo k is ound in he pa
ha wo k plays in he o ali y o one‟s li e (Bald y e al. 2007).
The belie ha peoples wo k o pay has led employe s o
conside wo k as means o ea n a li ing. Since people wo k o
pay, Adam Smi h ied o inc ease he incen i e mo i e by
o ganizing wo k in o simple, epe i i e ask. F ede ick Tylo wen
u he and designed good compensa ion schemes o employees so
ha hey can inc ease p oduc i i y (Scha z, 2015). This was la e
aken up by he beha iou is Skinne who in oduced he concep
o ewa d and punishmen . All hese a emp s we e aimed a
c ea ing an en i onmen o p oduc i i y bu did no p omo e wo k
meaning ulness. The wo ke emained a „means‟ o he capi alis ‟s
p o i maximiza ion mo i e while lea ing he wo ke aliena ed
om he p oduc , p ocess, species being, and o he s (Ma x, 1844).
The employe ‟s p o i mo i e and he employee‟s incen i e o pay
mo i es ha e downplayed he eal signi icance o wo k.
The meaning o wo k can be explained as “ he signi icance,
belie s, de ini ions and he alue which indi iduals and g oups
a ach o wo king as a majo s eam o human ac i i y” (MOW
1987, p. 13). I ela es o ha which is “bo h signi ican and
posi i e in alence meaning ulness” (S ege , Dik, & Du y, 2012,
p. 2). This means, meaning ul wo k has some hing o o e o he
wo ke and is wo h unde aking. Meaning ul wo k p o ides be e
psychological adjus men , p omo es indi idual well-being, job
sa is ac ion. I becomes meaning ul when is se es a g ea
communal good and gi es a wo ke he eeling ha i is impo an
and is se ing a highe pu pose.
Acco ding o Meda (2017), wo k cons i u e he essence o
humani y. I is a cul u al phenomenon ha is inhe en ly
meaning ul. Th ough wo k, humans can c ea i ely “ ans o m he
wo ld, eo ganize i , make i habi able, lea e hei ma k on i ” (p.
2). I is like he wo k o a ha p oduces o de ou o chaos.
Th ough a , he a is s exp ess who she is and is one wi h he
wo k. Following Pla onic philosophy o a , Paolo F esu con ended
ha a , “pene a es man and he wo ld, wea ing he h eads ha
in e lace he deepes and mos sec e pa s o ou sel es, hus
e e sing he adi ional concep s o seeing and eeling” (F esu
2013, p. 16). In Ma x iew, wo k iewed om he pe spec i e o
a is no longe aliena ing because he wo ke (who is he a is )
and he p oduc (which is he a ) a e uni ed in he p ocess (Ma x
1979).
The cu en challenge o meaning ul wo k is i s
ansmission. Acco ding o Bendassolli and Ta eo (2018, p. 140),
cul u e is he medium by which he alue and digni y o wo k is
ansmi ed om one gene a ion o he o he , “By a p ocess o
unila e al communica ion, symbols, alues, meanings and so on a e
passed om ins i u ions o indi iduals.” Ins i u ions like homes,
schools, chu ches, and colleges a e i al in p o e ing he meaning
and alue o wo k as he essence o humani y. This means, he
meaning and alue o wo k is acqui ed om bo h he socie y and
pe sonal expe ience.
Meaning ul wo k has a social dimension. Wo k is
meaning ul when is se es he common good. This does no mean
all wo k ha has a social dimension like assis ing in social wo k is
meaning ul. As Schwa z obse es, “You don‟ need o be wo king
o an o ganiza ion ha sa es li es o ind meaning and pu pose in
wha you do. You jus need o be doing wo k ha makes people‟s
li es be e ” (Scha z, 2015, p. 16). This sugges s ha wo k is
digni ied when i p omo es he digni y o o he s. Consequen ly, he
lack o wo k may spell meaninglessness o mos people.
Dehumanizing E ec s o Unemploymen
The sec ions abo e ha e analyzed he meaning and
signi icance o wo k o he indi idual. This sec ion seeks o ind
ou wha happens o an indi idual who wan s o wo k bu canno
ge he oppo uni y. I looks a he impac s o unemploymen gi en
he obse a ions ha wo k gi es meaning o li e. The digni y o
wo k goes beyond a good employmen en i onmen which has
been he ocus o many s udies. Sel -employmen , domes ic, and
olun a y wo k a e p esen ed as a enues by which an indi idual
can ind meaning in li e. On he con a y, he impac o
unemploymen , which is he mo i a ion o his sec ion, inds
ele ance when e lec ed om he pe spec i e o indi iduals who
a e willing o ake up employmen o economic, social, o
pe sonal easons, bu ailing o ge one. This ex ends he concep o
unemploymen o such ca ego ies o people based on he
assump ion ha indi idual may be cons ained o engage in paid
wo k due o a ious easons like he 2020-2021 COVID 19
pandemic lockdowns.
The p oblem o unemploymen is no a ecen phenomenon
and cu en p ojec ions sugges ha mo e people will be
unemployed in u u e due o echnology, globaliza ion, and
pandemics (F ay and Osbo ne 2017). This will ha e some ad e se
physical and psychological e ec since employmen which was
adi ionally concei ed o se e la en and dis inc unc ions. The
dis inc unc ion o wo k is he economic p o ision o li ing while
he la en unc ion is “iden i y de ini ion and connec ion o
impo an social ins i u ions and associa ions” (Achdu and Re aeli,
2020, p. 3). The impac o unemploymen can be di ided in o ou
ca ego ies o economic, social, psychological, and spi i ual
impac s. These impac s a ising om lack o wo k, mili a e agains
li ing a li e o digni y.
John Hope B yan (2018, p. 1) de ines a digni ied li e as,
“an oppo uni y o ul ill one‟s po en ial, which is based on ha ing
a human le el o heal h ca e, educa ion, income and secu i y.”
Bo e o (1980) emphasizes he dissimila i y be ween po e y and
unemploymen . A s udy by Thompson, Wells and Coa s (2012),
showed ha he e is a co ela ion be ween unemploymen and
po e y. Unemploymen causes economic ulne abili y which in
u n leads o po e y. Po e y educes access o income esul ing in
inc eased ulne abili y o diseases and o he economic and social
ills.
The Uni ed Na ions Human Righ s Commission has
desc ibed po e y p ima ily as a iola ion o human digni y and
seconda ily as a dep i a ion o economic and ma e ial esou ces
(UNHRC, 2020). Speaking a he 5 h Uni e sal o he Decla a ion
o Humans Righ s o honou he 'Human Righ s De ende s' a Pa is
on he 10 h Decembe 1998, Ko i Annan who was he UN
Sec e a y-Gene al said, "Whe e e we li one soul om a li e o
po e y, we a e de ending human igh s. And whene e we ail in
his mission, we a e ailing human igh s (Uni ed Na ions, 1998).
"When unemploymen leads o po e y, i unde mines he digni y
o he human being. On he con a y, decen wo k c ea es income
ha mi iga es agains po e y, he eby enhancing he digni y o he
human pe son (Baum, 2018).
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
63
A he indi idual le el, he lack o wo k leads o loss o
income o sus ain li e and mee basic needs o he amily. I also
means loss o sense o alue and he indi idual ealizes she has no
con ibu ion o sel , he amily and socie y a la ge. The indi idual
misses ou on pe sonal de elopmen ha comes wi h expe ience
and job skills (Pe inge 2019). A he na ional le el,
unemploymen dec eases he demand le el o an economy due o
he dec easing pu chasing powe o i s ci izens and inally esul ing
dec ease in he economic well-being o he people. When ci izen
canno mee he basic necessi ies o li e, communi y de elopmen
su e s inc easing he po e y o he a ec ed communi y (Ma i i,
2005). Ul ima ely, he communi y en e s collec i e s ess.
Unemploymen means mo e people a e no wo king and
con ibu ing o he economic de elopmen o he communi y.
Among he se e al economic impac s a he na ional le el is; less
go e nmen e enues h ough ax, he loss o human capi al, and
ine icien use o esou ces. I also means less disposable income
ha o en suppo p oduc s and se ices coming o m sel -
employed indi iduals. This inc eases he collec i e po e y o he
communi y. S einmann (2017, p. 4) says, “ o acknowledge inhe en
human digni y, he s a e is p og essi ely equi ed o p o ide
exis en ial minimum li ing condi ions which a e embodied in he
second-gene a ion social and economic human igh s.” I can be
concluded ha wo k does no jus a ec an indi idual‟s in insic
needs, bu ha i s absence a ec s he digni y o bo h indi idual as
well as he communi y.
Communi y is indispensable o he indi idual, especially in
he A ican con ex . The digni y o he socie y is measu ed by he
digni y o i s indi idual membe s. Among he se e al social
impac s o unemploymen ha mili a e agains he digni y o he
human pe son a e “po e y, deb , homelessness and housing s ess,
amily ensions and b eakdown, bo edom, aliena ion, shame and
s igma, inc eased social isola ion, c ime, e osion o con idence and
sel -es eem, he a ophying o wo k skills and ill-heal h”
(McClelland and Macdonald 1998, p. 3). I also impac s nega i ely
on he alues o socie y in e ms o he obliga ion o assis
ulne able indi iduals (Danciulescu and Me geani, 2015). As he
communi y expe ience an upsu ge in uncon ollable su ge in he
numbe o unemployed, i loses he sense o collec i e secu i y.
Unemploymen a ec s an indi idual‟s social ne wo ks
since wo k c ea es oppo uni ies o in e ac ion and socializa ion
wi h pee s. When a pe son ails o join pee s in social ga he ings
o a p olonged ime due o low income, he e is loss o iends
esul ing in isola ion (Fu ake , 2010). A s udy by Duncan, Se ge,
and Sheila (2003) concluded ha he e is close associa ion be ween
po e y and a icious cycle o exclusion. Ano he esea ch by La s
Kunze and Nicolai Suppa (2017) ound ou ha unemploymen has
a di ec impac on he social pa icipa ion o spouses leading o
spousal isola ion as well among social g oups. The e is no digni y
in isola ion as i con adic s he ela ional na u e o huma beings as
c ea ed in he image and likeness o God.
In socie ies whe e he e is high unemploymen , s igma is
low as compa ed o socie ies whe e unemploymen a e is low
(Fu ake , 2010). S igma has been desc ibed by Skinne and
M ecane as esul ing in “disc edi ing and loss o digni y and alue
and ends o label people as being un o una e, in e io depending
on he way i is applied” (Skinne and M ecane 2004, p. 1). The
unemployed su e s bo h economic and social s igma iza ion which
o en esul s in isola ion. I occu s when unemploymen c ea es a
gap be ween who he indi idual hink she is and how o he s see he
(Go man 1963). The unemployed migh eel ha he socie y looks
a he as a ailu e, lazy o o bad cha ac e ha excludes he om
employmen . This o en leads o low sel -es eem, loss o hope,
an isocial beha io , and psychological dis ess.
Unemploymen has also been linked o domes ic abuse,
ma iage b eakdowns and loss o espec (Fu ake 2010). Digni y
abounds whe e human beings ea each o he wi h espec . The
ou b eak o COVID 19 pandemic ha o ced companies,
ins i u ions, and all o ms o ading o suspend ope a ions has
demons a ed he signi icance o wo k as cases o domes ic
iolence inc eased signi ican ly (Kuma , 2020). The pandemic
which has al eady inc eased he numbe o people losing hei jobs
is h ea ening an e en mo e cases o joblessness in u u e (Haq,
Raza, and Mahmood, 2020). The Wo ld Heal h o ganiza ion has
wa ned coun ies o s ay gua d agains domes ic iolence du ing
he COVID 19 pandemic lockdown (WHO, 2020). Se e al
esea che s ha e es i ied o he inc ease in he numbe o domes ic
iolence du ing he lockdowns o he i s hal o 2020 (Ab amson,
2020, Simono ic, 2020, Lance , 2020). This demons a es how
wo k p o ides a enues o socializa ion and in i s absence, he
eeling o meaninglessness inds exp ession in domes ic iolence
among amilies.
Unemploymen a ec s people psychological a he
indi idual, amily, and socie al le els mo e han any hing else.
Employmen is mo e ha a means o mee ing he basic needs o he
indi idual. I can also “sa is y c ea i e u ges, p omo e sel -es eem,
and p o ide an a enue o achie emen and sel - ealiza ion” (Linn
e al. 1985, p. 502). On he con a y, unemploymen p oduces
ad e se e ec s like anxie y, dep ession, lowe sel -es eem, and
weak physical heal h consequences. Like Achdu and Re aeli
(2020) obse ed, loss o job o inabili y o ind a job can a ec
pe son‟s psychological abili y o manage challenges o li e
esul ing in educed well-being. Inno a ion and c ea i i y a e
la en , God gi en po en ials o all human beings c ea ed in he
image and likeness o a c ea i e and Inno a i e God o he Genesis
s o y (Genesis 1-2). Unemploymen is a dep i a ion o a pe son‟s
oca ion o co-c ea e.
The e is gene al endency o indi iduals who a e ou o
wo k o a p olonged ime o de elop a nega i e a i ude owa ds
li e (Achdu and Re aeli 2020). Indi iduals wi h a nega i e a i ude
owa ds li e exhibi des uc i e eelings owa ds hemsel es and
o he s. On he con a y, posi i e eelings b ings con idence in he
indi idual‟s powe o in luence ou comes a ound one‟s
su oundings. Op imis s ha e s ong coping s a egies agains
s ess ul si ua ion (Laza us and Folkman, 1984). They possess a
posi i e pe cep ion o hei abili y o ake cha ge o s ess ul
si ua ion oge he wi h he capaci y o gene a e posi i e ou comes
ha imp o es hei sense o well-being. Unemploymen b ings
abou nega i i y which in u n p e en s hope o a be e u u e. I
is he hope o be e u u e ha lies a he hea o ai h and once i
is des oyed, li e appea s meaningless.
Unemploymen causes po e y and po e y is associa ed
wi h ill-hea h (Wa kins 1992). The eeling ha one ge s om
joblessness is a eeling o helplessness. I is a eeling ha no ma e
how one can y, he si ua ion is beyond one‟s con ol (Goldsmi h
e al. 1996). This eeling pu limi s in o he ex en o one‟s
mo i a ion o ini ia e esponses agains li e‟s nega i e ou comes.
S udies ha e also poin ed ou ha , “when people lose hei jobs,
hey end o expe ience a signi ican de e io a ion in men al heal h,
and when unemployed pe sons ind new jobs, hei men al heal h
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
64
imp o es signi ican ly” (Goodman 2015, p. 4). This sugges ha
unemploymen b ings wi h i psychosoma ic illness, psychological
p oblems and e en spi i ual challenges which a e essen ials o a
li e wi h digni y.
An unemployed pe son de elops eelings o ejec ion since
accep ance by o he people can imp o e e olu iona y i ness. As
no ed by Lea y (2015), when a oused, emo ions exp ess indi idual
pe sonal eelings and d i e o eac in some manne o a h ea o
oppo uni y. A eeling o ejec ion b ings abou humilia ion and
deg ada ion o he indi idual. Hence, Bo e o posi s ha ,
“Humilia ion and deg ada ion is a s a e o mind based on
expe iences o ejec ion and loss o human digni y and sel -wo h.
Unable o ind wo k he unemployed o en eels ejec ed by
socie y, unable o p o ide o he amily and wi nessing hei
su e ing is deg ading and os e s eelings o ange and in e io i y”
(Bo e o 1980, p. 920). Some imes he eeling o ejec ion leads o
suicide (Goldsmi h e al. 1996). Rejec ion is con a y o human
digni y as i e okes eelings o inequali y in he indi idual. The
pe son ejec ed ends up eeling sub-human which is an a on o
he digni y o he human pe son.
Pas o al Implica ions
Chaplain's play a signi ican ole in suppo ing b oken
indi iduals, p o iding counselling unde e y di icul
ci cums ances, and guiding he psycho-spi i ual needs o he s a ,
s uden s, and/o pa ien s. The cu en socio-economic si ua ion o
he coun y cha ac e ized by low disposable incomes has esul ed
in mos s a looking a hei occupa ions as me e jobs o sa is y
hei basic needs. In o he wo ds, mos chaplains minis e o
dissa is ied s a and pa ien s o clien s. Ye , he chaplain mus
p o e wo ds o hope o bo h young people in employmen and ou
o employmen . I is he con en ion o his a icle ha hope o he
young people can be ekindled h ough psychosocial ac i i ies ha
call o a change o a i ude. The e is hope in he heology o wo k
as co-c ea ion.
The Chu ch has a ole o play in he de elopmen o a
con ex ual heology o wo k. The adi ional ene s o gospel o
p ospe i y ounded on he misunde s anding o he ue meaning o
sola g a ia should pa e way o human pa icipa ion in God‟s inne
li e. While i is acknowledged ha we a e sa ed by g ace, i also
impo an o unde s and ha human beings mus coope a e wi h
his g ace o ac ualize i in hei li es. Ou oca ion o li e as
human beings is o coope a e wi h God‟s g ace in sus aining he
beau y o his di inely c ea ed wo ld. F om e e ni y, God has been
wo king and con inues o wo k e e y minu e. I is he du y o he
Chu ch o p esen he ision o wo k as a pa icipa ion in God‟s
c ea i e ac .
Second, he Chu ch mus eclaim i s posi ion as he c adle
o hope o he desponden you hs weighed down by he social and
economic bu dens o his wo ld. The lack o spi i ual suppo
sys ems among he unemployed young people is e idenced by he
ise in d ug and subs ance abuse among o he ices. The e is need
o quali ied and compe en spi i ual counsello s wi hin he
Chu ches capable o add essing he men al challenges a ec ing he
you hs. Being an elde o pas o is no adequa e as he p o ision o
counselling se ices equi e ce ain echnical and p o essional
skills. The Chu ch and all ins i u ions ha o e spi i ual and
psychological se ices mus ensu e i s pas o s o agen s a e
adequa ely p epa ed o his impo an ask. This should be
accompanied by he p o ision o psychosocial se ices.
Thi d, he Chu ch mus p omo e you h olun ee ism ei he
no ma i ely o in solida i y. No ma i e olun ee wo k is biblical
b ings a eeling o sa is ac ion ha comes because o achie ing a
oca ional goal. Volun a y wo k can be mo i a ed by solida i y
which is a p oduc o social in e ac ion and a sense o belonging.
As s a ed by he In e na ional Fede a ion o Red C oss, “ he e is no
highe calling han when a pe son gi es his o he own knowledge,
skills, ime o esou ces o someone in need o help o com o ”
(IFRC, 2011, p. 4). Again, as a calling, olun a y wo k “inc eases
li e sa is ac ion and dec eases dep ession” (Thoi s and Hewi ,
2001, p. 118). I enhances indi idual c ea i i y as a human being.
Unemployed you hs should be induc ed in se ing he communi y
h ough olun ee ism.
Fou h, he Chu ch mus suppo go e nmen e o s in
p omo ing you h empowe men ini ia i es. The mission o Jesus
was no limi ed o p aise and wo ship alone. In Luke 4: 18, we hea
Jesus ou lining his mission: o p each he gospel o he poo , o
heal he b oken hea ed, p each deli e ance o cap i es, eco e
sigh o he blind, and o se he cap i e ee. These a e
empowe men se ices whose ul ima e goal is no jus spi i uali y
bu social and economic emancipa ion. While i is impo an o he
Chu ch o p epa e people o hea en, i is equally impo an o no e
ha in he con ex o a ealized escha ology, he chu ch mus
collabo a e wi h o he playe s in se ing he people socially,
economically, and cul u ally. In his case, he Chu ch can ini ia e
capaci y de elopmen p og ams like skills ainings,
en ep eneu ships aining, and income gene a ing ini ia i es.
Conclusion
This s udy discussed he heo e ical ounda ions on he
digni y o wo k. The s udy ecognized ha wo k is concep ualized
di e en ly depending on he s a e o he indi idual. Th ee
impo an ca ego iza ions we e iden i ied o wo k as a job, wo k as
employmen and wo k as a oca ion. These ca ego iza ions helped
o loca e he mos meaning ul aspec o wo k which is a oca ion.
Discussion on wo k as employmen , wo k unde sel -employmen ,
wo k unde domes ic li e and wo k as a olun a y exe cise helped
o unpack he con ex ual expe iences o wo k by se e al g oups.
The chap e wen u he o look a he meaning o wo k unde
in olun a y, compulso y, and o ced labo and closed wi h an
analysis o he impac o unemploymen on human digni y. The
conclusion o his chap e is ha he e is limi ed esea ch on
people‟s exis en ial unde s anding o wo k. Much o he exis ing
li e a u e a ailable ocus on c ea ing a good wo king en i onmen
om an economic pe spec i e.
Re e ences
1. Ab amson, A. (2020). How COVID-19 may inc ease
domes ic iolence and child abuse. Ame ican
Psychological Associa ion. A ailable a
h ps://www.apa.o g/ opics/co id-19/domes ic- iolence-
child-abuse
2. Achdu , N. and Re aeli, T. (2020). Unemploymen and
Psychological Dis ess among Young People du ing he
COVID-19 Pandemic: Psychological Resou ces and Risk
Fac o s. In e na ional Jou nal o En i onmen al
Resea ch and Public Heal h,
DOI:10.3390/ije ph17197163
3. Agbenyegah, G. 2019. E ec o Financial and Non-
Financial Rewa ds on Employee Mo i a ion in Financial
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
65
Ins i u ion in Ghana. In e na ional Jou nal o Inno a i e
Resea ch and De elopmen , 8(8), pp. 121-132.
4. Alilo ic, D. S., Blecich, A. A. and Blazeco ik, K. 2009.
Sel -employmen : pe sonal cha ac e is ics o he sel -
employed and impac on economic g ow h. C oa ia:
Uni e si y o Osijek P ess.
5. Allain, J. and Bales, K. (2012). Sla e y and i s
De ini ion. A ailable a h ps://www. esea chga e.ne /
(Accessed, 14 Jan
6. Al on, L. 2015. The 5 Mo i a ions Tha D i e People o
Choose En ep eneu ship. Accessed om
h ps://www.en ep eneu .com/a icle/249417
7. A nold, K. A., Tu ne , N., Ba ling, J., Kelloway, E. K.,
& McKee, M. C. (2007). “T ans o ma ional leade ship
and psychological well-being: The media ing ole o
meaning ul wo k”. Jou nal o Occupa ional Heal h
Psychology, 12, 193–203.
8. Applebaum, L. D. (2013). “Unemploymen ”. In V.
Smi h, (ed) The Sociology o Wo k: An Encyclopaedia.
Cali o nia: Sage Publica ions
9. Baum, T. (2018). Sus ainable human esou ce
managemen as a d i e in ou ism policy and planning:
A se ious sin o omission? Jou nal o Sus ainable
Tou ism, 26(6), 873–889.
doi:10.1080/09669582.2017.1423318
10. Bald y, C., Hyman, J., Taylo , P., Bain, P., Schola ios,
D., Ma ks, A., Wa son, A., Gilbe , K., Gall, K. and
Bunzel, D. (2007). The Meaning o Wo k in he New
Economy. London: Pilg a e.
11. Bax e , J. and Tai, T. (2016) “Unpaid domes ic labou ”.
In S. Edgell, H. Go ied, and E. G an e . The Sage
handbook o sociology o wo k and unemploymen .
London: Sage
12. Bendassolli and Ta eo (2018) The meaning o wo k and
cul u al psychology: Ideas o new di ec ions. Cul u e &
Psychology, 24(2,) pp. 135–159
13. Bo e o, M. (1980) "Psychological and Emo ional Impac
o Unemploymen ," The Jou nal o Sociology & Social
Wel a e, Vol. 7(6), pp 916-936.
14. B yan , J. H. (2018). Global Digni y. A ailable a
h ps://johnhopeb yan .com/
15. Bu chell, B., Sehnb uch, K., Piasna, A. and Agloni, N.
2013. The quali y o employmen and decen wo k:
De ini ions, Me hodologies, and ongoing deba es.
Camb idge Jou nal o Economics, Accessed om DOI:
10.1093/cje/be 067
16. Can illon, R. 1755. Essay on he Na u e o T ade in
Gene al. Eng. ans. by H. Higgs, New Yo k: AM
Kelley.
17. Ch is , O. (2015). The concep o aliena ion in he ea ly
wo ks o Ka l Ma x. Eu opean Scien i ic Jou nal, 11(7)
pp. 551-564.
18. Col ane, S. 2000. Resea ch on Household Labo :
Modelling and Measu ing he Social Embeddedness o
Rou ine Family Wo k. Jou nal o Ma iage and Family
66:1246–1259.
19. Coope , B. B. 2017. Meaning ul wo k: wha i is and
how o achie e i . Rescue ime. Accessed om
h ps://blog. escue ime.com/
20. Danciulescu A. G. and Me geani, N. (2015). "The
Indi idual And Social Consequences O
Unemploymen ," The Young Economis s Jou nal, 1(25),
pp. 23-28.
21. Dawson, C., Henley, A. & La eille, P. (2009). Why Do
Indi iduals Choose Sel -Employmen ? IZA Discussion
Pape No. 3974. Accessed om h p:// p.iza.o g/
22. Decla a ion on Fundamen al P inciples and Righ s a
Wo k. Accessed om h ps://www.odi.o g/publica ions/
23. Dekke , P. and Halman, L. 2003. Volun ee ing and
Values: An In oduc ion. A ailable a DOI: 10.1007/978-
1-4615-0145-9_1 (Accessed, 9 Janua y 2021)
24. De an y, J. P. and McMillan, C. (2012). The ILO‟s
Decen Wo k Ini ia i e: Sugges ions o an Ex ension o
he No ion o “Decen Wo k”. Jou nal o Social
Philosophy, 43(4), pp. 386–405
25. Desiage. L. (2010). Wha a e En ep eneu s‟ Objec i es
When S a ing a New Business?. A ailable om
h ps://halshs.a chi es-ou e es. /halshs-00809716
26. Dik, B. 2016. How o ind and li e you calling. TedX
YouTube. Accessed om
h ps://you u.be/G2AMSOA X2s
27. Donkin, R. (2001) Blood, Swea & Tea s: The E olu ion
o Wo k, New Yo k: Texe e.
28. Duncan, G., Se ge, P., and Sheila J. (2003).
Unemploymen , po e y and social Isola ion: Is he e a
icious cycle o social exclusion. A ailable a
h ps://www. esea chga e.ne /publica ion/233235055
29. Eichle , M. and Ma hews, A. (2004). Wha is wo k?
Looking a all wo k h ough he lens o unpaid
housewo k. Accessed om h ps://wall.oise.u o on o.ca/
30. Encyclopaedia B i annica. Wo k. Accessed om
h ps://www.b i annica.com/science/wo k-physics
31. Fanning, W. (1908). The Ca holic Encyclopaedia. New
Yo k: Robe Apple on Company. A ailable a
h p://www.newad en .o g/ca hen/03791a.h m
32. F ankl, V. E. (1959). Man’s sea ch o meaning. Bos on:
Beacon P ess.
33. F ay, C. B. and Osbo ne, M. A. (2017). The u u e o
employmen : How suscep ible a e jobs o
compu e isa ion? Technological Fo ecas ing and Social
Change, 114, pp. 254-280
34. F esu P. (2013). The Impossible Possible, A ailable
om:
h p://www.paolo esu.i /upload/ges ione_ iles/pd /lec io
-magis alis- 1422615519.pd
35. Fu ake , B. (2010). On he social consequence o
unemploymen . B ussels: Eu opean Pa liamen
Publica ions.
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
66
36. Go man E (1963) S igma, oles on he managemen o
spoiled iden i y. NJ p en ice hall, Englewood cli s.
37. Goldsmi h, A. H. Veum, J. R., and Da i y, W. (1996).
The psychological impac o unemploymen and
joblessness. Jou nal o Socioeconomics, 25(3), pp. 333-
358
38. Goodman, N. (2015). The Impac o Employmen on he
Heal h S a us and Heal h Ca e Cos s o Wo king-age
People wi h Disabili ies. A ailable a
h p://leadcen e .o g/ esou ces/ epo -b ie /
39. Haq, W., Raza, S. H., and Mahmood, T. (2020). The
pandemic pa adox: domes ic iolence and happiness o
women. Pee Jou nal, DOI: 10.7717/pee j.10472
40. Highhouse, S., Zicka , M.,&Yankele ich, M.
(2010).Would you wo k i you won he lo e y? T acking
changes in he Ame ican wo k e hic. Jou nal o Applied
Psychology, 95(2), pp. 349–357.
41. Home O ice Ci izenship Su ey (2005), Home O ice
Resea ch: London
42. Ing am, D. 2017. The Di e ences Be ween
En ep eneu ship and Sel -Employmen . Accessed om
h ps://biz luen .com/
43. In e na ional Fede a ion o he Red C oss and Red
C escen Socie ies. (2011). The alue o olun ee s
Imagine how many needs would go unanswe ed wi hou
olun ee s. Gene a: IFRC P ess.
44. In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion. (1944). ILO
Decla a ion o Philadelphia: Decla a ion conce ning he
aims and pu poses o he In e na ional Labou
O ganisa ion. A ailable a h ps://www.ilo.o g/legacy
(Accessed, 9 Janua y 2021)
45. In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion Repo . (1999).
Decen wo k. Repo o he Di ec o Gene al o he 87 h
mee ing o he in e na ional labou con e ence. Gene a:
ILO Publica ions
46. In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (2013). Resolu ion
conce ning s a is ics o wo k, employmen and labou
unde u iliza ion. Accessed om h p://www.ilo.o g/
47. In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (2016). Fo malizing
domes ic wo k. Gene a: ILO Publica ions
48. In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (2018). Guide on
Measu ing Decen Jobs o You h: Moni o ing,
e alua ion and lea ning in labou ma ke p og ammes.
Gene a: ILO Publica ions.
49. Jackson, S. and C ooks, M. (1993) Exis ing bu no
li ing: a esea ch p ojec can assing he aspi a ions and
iews o long- e m unemployed Aus alians, Melbou ne:
B o he hood o S Lau ence,.
50. Ki zne , I. M. (1978). Compe i ion and en ep eneu ship:
Chicago: Uni e si y o Chicago p ess.
51. K uppe, T., Mülle , E., Wiche , L. and Wilke, R. A.
(2007). On he De ini ion o Unemploymen and i s
Implemen a ion in Regis e Da a - The Case o Ge many.
Schmolle s Jah buch 128(3), ZEW Discussion
Pape s 07-041, ZEW - Leibniz Cen e o Eu opean
Economic Resea ch.
52. Kuma , A. (2020). COVID-19 and Domes ic Violence: A
Possible Public Heal h C isis. Jou nal o Heal h
Managemen , 22(2), pp. 192–196.
53. Lance . (2020). The gende ed dimensions o COVID-19.
The Lance , 395, 1168. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/S0140
6736(20)30823-0
54. Linn, M. W., Sandi e , R., and S ein, S. (1985). E ec s
o Unemploymen on Men al and Physical Heal h.
Ame ican Jou nal o Public Heal h, 75(5), 501-506.
55. Locks one, L. A. (2004). Managing he olun ee
wo k o ce: lexible s uc u es and s a egies o in eg a e
olun ee s and paid wo ke s. PhD Thesis. Vic o ia
Uni e si y. A ailable a h p://pu l.o g/au-
esea ch/g an s/a c/LP0219578 (Accessed, 9 Janua y
2021)
56. Logan, M. (2005). Made in he Image o God:
Unde s andings o Genesis 1:26-28. Na ional Council o
Aus alia. Accessed om h ps://silo. ips/
57. Ma i i, M. I. (2005). Socio-economic impac o
unemploymen . A ailable a
h ps:// eposi o y.up.ac.za/handle/2263/27288
58. Maulani, N. & Agwanda, B. (2020). You h
unemploymen and Go e nmen p o-employmen
Policies in Zimbabwe. Jou nal o Social Policy
Con e ences, 78, 229-256
59. Ma golis, D. N. (2014). By Choice and by Necessi y:
En ep eneu ship and Sel -Employmen in he
De eloping Wo ld. IZA Discussion Pape No. 8273.
Accessed om h p:// p.iza.o g/dp8273.pd
60. Ma x, K. (1844). Economic and Philosophical
Manusc ip s o 1844. Accessed a
h p://www.ma xis s.o g/a chi e/.
61. Ma x, k. (1863) Theo ies o Su plus Value. Accessed
om h p://www.ma xis s.o g/a chi e/ma x/wo ks/
62. Ma x, K. (1972). “Economic and Philosophic
Manusc ip s o 1844,” in The Ma x-Engels Reade , ed.
Robe Tucke . New Yo k: W.W. No on and Company
63. Mbhele, T. P. 2012. The s udy o en u e capi al inance
and in es men beha iou in small and medium-sized
en e p ises, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Economics and
Managemen Sciences, 15(1), pp. 94-112
64. McFadden, P. (2016). Wo k, Bodies, and he Eme ging
Poli ics o Aliena ion. PhD Thesis. Accessed om:
h ps://www.academia.edu/
65. Meaning o Wo k In e na ional Resea ch Team [MOW],
(1987). The meaning o wo k. London, UK: Academic
P ess.
66. Méda, D. (2017) The Fu u e o wo k: The meaning and
alue o wo k in Eu ope. ILO. Accessed om
h ps://hal.a chi es-ou e es. /hal-01616579
67. Minne a h, R. (2015). Whe e Does Human Digni y
Come F om? A ailable a
IRASS Jou nal o A s, Humani ies and Social Sciences Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025): 59-68
Vol-2, Iss-10 (Oc obe -2025)
67
h p://www.endsla e y. a/con en /endsla e y/en/publica
ions/ac a_20/minne a h.h ml
68. Mon gome y, J. W. (2007). Sla e y, human digni y and
human igh s. EQ 79(2), pp. 113–131
69. Mo in, E. (2008). The meaning o wo k, men al heal h
and o ganiza ional commi men . Québec: IRSST
Publica ions.
70. Mo ison, L. R. (1980). "The Religious De ense o
Ame ican Sla e y Be o e 1830." Jou nal o Religious
Though , 37(2), pp. 16-29
71. Mo se, N. C., & Weiss, R. S. (1955). The unc ion and
meaning o wo k and he job. Ame ican Sociological
Re iew, 20(2), pp. 191–198.
72. Nadasen, P. and Williams, T. (2020) Valuing domes ic
wo k. Accessed om ww.ba na d.edu/bc w
73. Naude, P. (2013). Human digni y in A ica: Ske ching
he his o ical con ex . Sc ip u a 104, pp. 221-230
74. Naugh on, M. J. (1991). An o ganiza ional wo k e hic
based on Papal Social T adi ion. UMI PhD Thesis.
Accessed om h ps://epublica ions.ma que e.edu/
75. Naugh on, M. J. & Laczniak, G. R. (1993). „A
Theological Con ex o Wo k om he Ca holic Social
Encyclical T adi ion‟. Jou nal o Business E hics, 12(12),
pp. 981-994.
76. Nielsen, K., 1964, “Linguis ic Philosophy and „The
Meaning o Li e‟”, e . ed. in The Meaning o Li e, E. D.
Klemke (ed.), New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 1981:
177–204.
77. No ds öm, P. (2015). The Passion combining
en ep eneu s. PhD Thesis. Accessed om
h p://www.di a-po al.o g/
78. OECD (2017). Is sel -employmen quali y wo k?
Accessed om h ps://www.oecd-ilib a y.o g/
79. Oelz, M. and Rani, U. (2015) Domes ic wo k, wages, and
gende equali y: Lessons om de eloping coun ies.
Gene a: ILO
80. Ollman, B. (1976). Aliena ion: Ma x’s concep ion o
man in capi alis socie y, Second edi ion. Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess.
81. Op ah, W. (2018). Op ah explains he di e ence be ween
a job and a ca ee . You ube. Op ah Win ey Show.
Accessed om h ps://you u.be/opNxqO70smA
82. Pa , A. (2016). Ca ee e sus calling: Wha s he
di e ence. YouTube. Accessed om
h ps://you u.be/Ma7accRoOiE
83. Paull, M. (1999), "In sea ch o olun ee ing: A
p oposi ion", Aus alian Jou nal on Volun ee ing, 4, pp
19-29.
84. Pe inge , T. (2019). Economic cos s o unemploymen .
A ailable a
h ps://www.economicshelp.o g/mac oeconomics/unemp
loymen /cos s/
85. P ince, M. (2016). Inclusi e employmen o Canadians
wi h disabili ies. IRPP S udy, Accessed om
h p://i pp.o g/wp-con en /uploads/2016/08/s udy-
no60.pd
86. Pugh, A. J. (2012). The Social Meanings o Digni y a
Wo k. The Hedgehog Re iew. Accessed om
h ps://hedgehog e iew.com/
87. Rodge s, G., Lee, E., Sweps on, L. and Jasmien, V. D.
(2009). The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion and he
Ques o Social Jus ice, 1919–2009. Gene a: ILO.
88. Rodney, W. (2018). How Eu ope Unde de eloped
A ica. London: Ve so.
89. Rosso, B. D., Dekas, K. H. and W zesniewski, A. (2010).
On he meaning o wo k: A heo e ical in eg a ion and
e iew. Resea ch in O ganiza ional Beha iou , 30, pp.
91–127.
90. Shan z, A., Al es, K. and T uss, C. (2014). Aliena ion
om wo k: Ma xis ideologies and wen y- i s -cen u y
p ac ice. In e na ional Jou nal o Human Resou ces
Managemen , 25(18):2529-2550
91. Schumpe e , J. A. 1934. Capi alism, socialism, and
democ acy. New Yo k: Ha pe & Row.
92. Scha z, B. (2015). Why We Wo k. New Delhi: Ted
Books.
93. Simono ic, D. (2020). S a es mus comba domes ic
iolence in he con ex o COVID-19 lockdowns. Gene a:
Uni ed Na ions O ice o he High Commissione o
Human Righ s.
94. Skinne , D. and M ecane, S. (2004) S igma,
disc imina ion and he implica ions o people li ing
wi h HIV/AIDS in Sou h A ica. Jou nal o AIDS &
Clinical Resea ch, 7(12), pp. 157-164
95. Smi h, H. P. (1899). A C i ical and Exege ical
Commen a y on he Books o Samuel. Edinbu gh: T. & T.
Cla k.
96. Smi h, A. (2002) The Weal h o Na ions. Ox o d,
England: Bibliomania.com L d
97. Smi h, V. (ed.) (2013). Sociology o Wo k: An
encyclopaedia. London: Sage
98. S einmann, R. (2016). "The Co e Meaning o Human
Digni y" Po che s oom Elec onic Law Jou nal, DOI
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.17159/1727- 3781/2016/ 19i0a1244
99. S ege , M. F., Dik, B. J., & Du y, R. D. (2012).
Measu ing meaning ul wo k. Jou nal o Ca ee
Assessmen , 20(3), 322–337 .
100. Sweps on, L. (2014). Fo ced and compulso y labou in
in e na ional human igh s law. Gene a: ILO
Publica ions.
101. Tablan, F. (2013). Human Aliena ion and Ful ilmen in
Wo k: Insigh s om he Ca holic Social Teachings.
Jou nal o Religion and Business E hics, 3(5), pp. 1-22.
102. Taylo , R. F. (2004). Ex ending Concep ual Bounda ies:
Wo k, Volun a y Wo k and Employmen . Wo k
Employmen and Socie y, 18(1), pp. 29-49.
