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EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
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Page 1
Deli e able 6.1: Re iew o ea men and
condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
unde de elopmen o challenging was es
Wo k Package STREAM
Co- unded by he Eu opean Union unde G an Ag eemen n°101166718
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
unde de elopmen o challenging was es
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Documen in o ma ion
P ojec Ac onym
EURAD-2
P ojec Ti le
Eu opean Pa ne ship on Radioac i e Was e Managemen -2
EC g an ag eemen No.
101166718
Wo k Package Ti le
STREAM – Sus ainable T ea men and Immobilisa ion o
Challenging Was es
Deli e able No.
D6.1. S a e o he a epo (ini ial)
Deli e able Ti le
Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials
a ailable o unde de elopmen o challenging was es
Lead Bene icia y
CIEMAT
Con ac ual Deli e y Da e
Ma ch 2025
Ac ual Deli e y Da e
June 2025
Dissemina ion le el
PU
Au ho s
Elena To es Ál a ez (CIEMAT), Michael G acey, Ma k Cowpe
(NWS), Quoc T i Phung (SCK CEN), Bo ys Zlobenko (SIIEG·NASU),
Fede ica Panco i, Ma alda Gue a (SOGIN), Mä en Kala, Janno
To op, Alan Tkaczyk (UTa u)
To be ci ed as:
To es Ál a ez E., G acey M., Cowpe M., Phung Q., Zlobenko B., Panco i F., Gue a M., Kala M.,
To op J., Tkaczyk A. (2025): Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable
o unde de elopmen o challenging was es. Final e sion as o 06/06/2025 o deli e able D6.1 o
he Eu opean Pa ne ship EURAD-2. EC G an ag eemen n°:101177718
Disclaime
All in o ma ion in his documen is p o ided "as is" and no gua an ee o wa an y is gi en ha he
in o ma ion is i o any pa icula pu pose. The use , he e o e, uses he in o ma ion a i s sole isk
and liabili y. Views and opinions exp essed a e howe e hose o he au ho (s) only and do no
necessa ily e lec hose o he Eu opean Union o Eu opean A omic Ene gy Communi y. Nei he he
Eu opean Union no he g an ing au ho i y o he indi idual Colleges o EURAD-2 can be held
esponsible o hem.
Acknowledgemen
This documen is a deli e able o he Eu opean Pa ne ship on Radioac i e Was e Managemen 2
(EURAD-2). EURAD-2 is co- unded by he Eu opean Union unde G an Ag eemen N° 101166718.
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
unde de elopmen o challenging was es
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S a us o deli e able
By
Da e
Deli e ed (Lead Bene icia y)
CIEMAT
31/03/2025
Re iewed (Re iewe s)
Sabah Ben Lagha & Céd ic
Bohe (ORANO)
14/03/2025
José Luis Leganés (ENRESA)
17/03/2025
M.C uz Alonso (CSIC)
25/03/2025
Ve i ied (WP Leade )
Fede ica Panco i (SOGIN)
04/06/2025
App o ed (PMO)
Ma a López (Amphos 21)
04/06/2025
Ve i ied (KM WPL)
Alexand u Ta omi (BGE)
05/06/2025
Submi ed o EC (Coo dina o )
ANDRA
06/06/2025
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
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Execu i e Summa y
This S a e-o - he-A epo p o ides a gene al analysis o he exis ing comme cial o unde -de elopmen
echnologies o he managemen o se e al ypes o common challenging was es, in o de o iden i y
he R&D needs o be add essed wi hin he amewo k o STREAM Wo k package (WP).
The pu pose o his documen is o s ablish a baseline o he h ee echnical asks ( ask 3, 4 and 5) o
a oid o e lapping wi h p e ious p ojec s and o iden i y he emaining challenges and unce ain ies
conce ning he di e en managemen s a egies s udied in his wo k package.
This So A is di ided in se en main sec ions.
1. Scope o WP STREAM
2. Challenges in he ea men and condi ioning o p oblema ic was e s eams
3. Was e ea men and condi ioning p ocesses in use
4. Needs o op imiza ion o ea men s and condi ioning ma ices unde de elopmen
5. Scaling-up and indus ial implemen a ion o new ea men s and condi ioning p ocesses
6. Challenges o new ea men and condi ioning echnologies
7. Gaps o be add essed in STREAM WP
Sec ion 1 con ex ualizes he scope o STREAM wi hin he EURAD oadmap and p o ides an o e iew
o he echnical asks o he wo k package.
Sec ion 2 summa izes he cu en p oblems aced in he managemen o ce ain challenging was e
s eams, including classi ica ion, ea men , condi ioning and disposabili y aspec s, as well as ou lining
he impo ance o compliance wi h exis ing Was e Accep ance C i e ia (WAC).
Sec ion 3 b ie s abou he cu en ea men and condi ioning p ocesses in use o was e managemen ,
highligh ing in e na ional good p ac ices and gi ing an o e iew o he a ailable comme cial ea men s
and con en ional cemen a ion sys ems in use.
Sec ion 4 ocuses on he needs o op imiza ion o ea men s and condi ioning ma ices unde
de elopmen . This chap e aims o p o ide a baseline o ask 3, by de ailing exis ing ea men s and
condi ioning ma e ials bo h, comme cially a ailable and unde de elopmen . In his sec ion, an analysis
o he ad an ages and disad an ages o new me hods o e adi ional p ocesses is done as well as an
assessmen o he sui abili y o he mos common challenging was e s eams.
Sec ion 5 deals wi h he scaling-up and he indus ial implemen a ion o he new ea men s and
condi ioning p ocesses. This chap e b ie ly desc ibes he key aspec s o he upscaling p ocess based
on he p e ious indus y, Was e Managemen O ganiza ions (WMOs) and was e p oduce s’
expe iences.
Sec ion 6 is ocused on he challenges and emaining unce ain ies ha needs o be aced in he cu en
con ex ega ding ea men and condi ioning o challenging was es.
Finally, sec ion 7 p o ides a summa y o he knowledge gaps o be ackled in STREAM, based on he
e iew o he EURAD and PREDIS S a egic Resea ch Agendas (SRAs) and aims o co ela e hem
wi h he p oposed expe imen al wo k and he STREAM ask whe e is going o be add essed.
Keywo ds
T ea men , condi ioning, decon amina ion, low-ca bon binde s, scaling-up, disposabili y assessmen
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Table o con en
Execu i e Summa y ................................................................................................................................. 4
Keywo ds ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Table o con en ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Lis o igu es ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Lis o Tables ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Glossa y ................................................................................................................................................... 9
1. Scope o WP STREAM .................................................................................................................. 13
2. Challenges in he ea men and condi ioning o p oblema ic was e s eams ............................... 16
2.1 Cha ac e is ics o was e s eams s udied in STREAM .......................................................... 16
2.2 Cu en p oblems o cha ac e isa ion, ea men , condi ioning and disposabili y ................. 18
2.3 Compliance wi h WAC ........................................................................................................... 22
WAC de ini ion ............................................................................................................... 22
Gene al equi emen s o Was e Fo ms ........................................................................ 23
3. Was e ea men and condi ioning p ocesses in use ..................................................................... 27
3.1 In e na ional good p ac ices .................................................................................................. 27
3.2 A ailable comme cial ea men s ........................................................................................... 27
3.3 T adi ional OPC-based binde s and con en ional condi ioning sys ems o cemen a ion .... 28
4. Needs o op imiza ion o ea men s and condi ioning ma ices unde de elopmen .................... 30
4.1 T ea men and decon amina ion ............................................................................................ 30
The mal ea men s........................................................................................................ 30
Chemical ea men s ...................................................................................................... 39
Decon amina ion p ocesses .......................................................................................... 41
4.2 No el condi ioning ma ices ................................................................................................... 45
Ad an ages o new condi ioning ma ices o e OPC cemen a ion ............................... 47
Challenges o add ess and compa ibili y wi h di e en was e s eams: ........................ 50
5. Scaling-up and indus ial implemen a ion o new ea men s and condi ioning p ocesses ........... 55
5.1 P e ious expe iences om indus y, WMOs/was e p oduce s .............................................. 55
Examples o he mal ea men s .................................................................................... 55
Examples o chemical ea men s .................................................................................. 57
Was e condi ioning ........................................................................................................ 58
5.2 Upscaling p ocess ................................................................................................................. 61
Key s eps and conside ed ac o s ................................................................................. 61
Challenges o upscaling ................................................................................................ 62
Case s udy a Han o d Si e's Vi i ica ion Plan ............................................................. 63

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5.3 NDT and moni o ing o Quali y Assu ance o was e packages ............................................ 64
Tomog aphic Gamma Scanning (TGS) ......................................................................... 64
Gamma Ray Spec oscopy ............................................................................................ 64
Neu on Coun ing ........................................................................................................... 64
Combined NDA Techniques .......................................................................................... 65
Techniques de eloped and used in PREDIS WP7 p ojec [132] .................................. 65
Digi al wins and was e package moni o ing ................................................................. 68
6. Challenges o new ea men and condi ioning echnologies ....................................................... 70
7. Gaps o be add essed in STREAM WP ........................................................................................ 71
Appendix A. Re iew o ea men and decon amina ion echnologies: indus ially-implemen ed and
unde de elopmen ................................................................................................................................ 76
Re e ences ............................................................................................................................................ 81
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Lis o igu es
Figu e 1 – S uc u e o STREAM Wo k package ................................................................................... 15
Figu e 2 – Reasons leading o conside a was e as challenging one [2] .............................................. 16
Figu e 3 - Va ious he mal echnologies applied o he ea men o “p oblema ic” was e s eams ...... 31
Figu e 4 - Flow cha o chemical gels echnique [31] .......................................................................... 42
Figu e 5 - Classi ica ion o di e en subse s o AAMs, wi h compa isons o OPC and calcium
sul oalumina e binde chemis y [98]. .................................................................................................... 45
Figu e 6 - View o he o –gas sys em o he incine a o . (Cou esy o Belgop ocess). ........................ 56
Figu e 7 - Schema ic iew o he elimina ion o liquids by plasma in wa e (ELIPSE) p ocess. (Cou esy
o CEA). ................................................................................................................................................. 56
Figu e 8 - Pilo scale Ci cula ing Fluidised–Bed (CFB) gasi ica ion es ig. (Cou esy o VTT). .......... 57
Figu e 9 - On-si e uni o condi ion ion exchange esin using SIAL® geopolyme a Duko any NPP,
Czech Republic (Cou esy o Jacobs). .................................................................................................. 61
Figu e 10.Comple e moni o ing uni consis ing o one SiLiF de ec o and one SciFi de ec o wi h he
ela ed elec onics (le ). A possible a angemen o ou adia ion moni o ing uni s on a cemen ed d um
du ing i s p e-disposal phase ( igh ). ..................................................................................................... 66
Figu e 11 - LoRa adia ion moni o ing amewo k o adioac i e was e d ums .................................... 66
Figu e 12 - AE senso a ached o a was e d um (le ) and placed on op o a conc e e sample o es ing
( igh ) ..................................................................................................................................................... 67
Figu e 13 - A pic u e o he mock-up p oduced by UJV and ins alled in he INFN Pado a Mu-Tom
demons a o . The wo muon de ec o s a e abo e and below he was e d um. ................................... 68
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Lis o Tables
Table 1 - Main cha ac e is ics o he was es unde s udy in STREAM. ................................................ 18
Table 2 - Challenges and unce ain ies in he cha ac e isa ion, ea men , condi ioning and
s o age/disposal o he challenging was es included in STREAM (adap ed om [2])........................... 21
Table 3 - Lis o mos common sa e y ela ed WAC [modi ied a e [28]]. ............................................. 25
Table 4 - Pa ame e s and equi emen s included in Was e Accep ance C i e ia in di e en EU Membe
S a es [28] .............................................................................................................................................. 26
Table 5 - The mal and chemical ea men echnologies o adioac i e was e managemen .............. 30
Table 6 -The main ea u es and limi a ions o he mal ea men me hods ........................................... 38
Table 7 - Compa ison o chemical ea men echnologies ................................................................... 39
Table 8 - The compa ison o di e en decon amina ion echniques [40] .............................................. 45
Table 9 - Al e na i e binde s used o he condi ioning o p oblema ic was es ..................................... 47
Table 10 - Mos ep esen a i e ypes o al e na i e binde s: cha ac e is ics and ad an ages o e
con en ional OPC binde s (modi ied a e [108]). ................................................................................. 49
Table 11- Was e s eams s udied in STREAM and examples o con en ional Po land o mula ions and
al e na i e binde s used o condi ioning [50] ........................................................................................ 51
Table 12 - Incine a o acili ies o ea liquid and solid was e in Eu ope .............................................. 55
Table 13 - Compa ison o chemical ea men echnologies ................................................................. 58
Table 14 - Low-ca bon binde used o condi ioning as an ou come om PREDIS’s su ey ............... 60
Table 15 - Lis o echnologies de eloped and es ed wi hin he WP7 .................................................. 65
Table 16 – Summa y o knowledge and echnological gaps o be illed by STREAM WP.................... 75
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Glossa y
AACs
Alkali Ac i a ed Cemen s
AE
Accous ic Emission
ASR
Alkali-Silica Reac ion
BFS
Blas Fu nace Slag
CAC
Calcium Alumina e Cemen
CBHs
Calcium Bo a e Hyd a es
CBPCs
Chemically-Bonded Phospha e Ce amics
CFB
Ci cula ing Fluidized Bed
COD
Chemical O ganic Demand
COREMIX
Chemical Oxida ion REduc ion using ni ic
pe mangana e and oxalic acid MIX u e
CPC
Calcium Phospha e Cemen
CRP
Coo dina ed Resea ch P ojec
CSAC
Calcium Sulpha e Alumina e Cemen
D&D
Decon amina ion & Decommissioning
DEFAC
DEmili a iza ion FACili y
DI
Domain Insigh
DOE
US Depa men o Ene gy
DT
Digi al Twins
DVB
Di inylbenzene
EBS
Enginee ed Ba ie Sys em
EDTA
E hylenediamine e aace ic acid
ESC
En i onmen al Sa e y caseCase
EU
Eu opean Union
FBSR
Fluidized Bed S eam Re o ming
GAO
US Go e nmen Accoun abili y O ice
IAEA
In e na ional A omic Ene gy Agency
LALNL
Los Alamos Na ional Labo a o y
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2. Challenges in he ea men and condi ioning o p oblema ic
was e s eams
Radioac i e was es a e di e se and a ied in na u e and i encompasses a b oad ange o adionuclides,
hal -li es, ac i i y concen a ions, olumes and physical and chemical p ope ies. O he han
adionuclides, was e may also con ain o he non- adiological con aminan s o conce n.
Due o his a ie y o composi ion, he choice o p ocess(es) o be used o was e ea men and
condi ioning is qui e complex and dependen on he le el o ac i i y, he ype ( o m and cha ac e is ics)
o was e and he o e all s a egy o was e managemen . O he issues, such as each coun y’s nuclea
was e managemen policy o i s na ional egula ions can also in luence he app oach aken [3].
Fo mos common was e s eams, echnologies and p ac ices o was e ea men and condi ioning a e
well-de ined. Howe e , ce ain ypes o p oblema ic was e s eams (Figu e 2) such as, o ganic was es
o eac i e me als, s ill do no ha e op imised managemen ou es [2].
Pas and on-going R&D ac i i ies, and speci ically STREAM WP, ha e been aimed o add ess hese
unce ain ies s ill emaining o de elop new sa e and sus ainable was e managemen ou es o hese
ypes o challenging was es.
Figu e 2 – Reasons leading o conside a was e as challenging one [2]
2.1 Cha ac e is ics o was e s eams s udied in STREAM
Fo STREAM, a selec ion o mos common p oblema ic was es was done on he basis o esul s and
ecommenda ions om p e ious p ojec s, i.e. EURAD-ROUTES and PREDIS [2][3].
Six ypes o common challenging was es ha e been chosen o be s udied in his wo k package: Spen
Ion Exchange Resins (SIERs), Radioac i e Liquid O ganic Was es (RLOWs), eac i e me als (Al, Be,
Mg), sludges, e apo a o concen a es and incine a ion ashes. Table 1 summa izes mos ele an
cha ac e is ics o each was e s eam o hei ea men and condi ioning.
Addi ionally o hese mos widesp ead was e s eams, a new ype o was e om a GEN IV eac o has
also been included in his WP, he Pb/Bi eu ec ic alloy, ollowing he ecommenda ions o he PREDIS
Posi ion Pape [4] on he new condi ioning solu ions o was e s eams om new uel ypes and
ad anced eac o s/ uel cycles.

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Type o was e s eam
Sou ce
Physic-chemical
cha ac e is ics
Spen Ion Exchange Resins
(SIERs)
Chemical and Volume Con ol
Sys ems (CVCS), spen uel
pool cooling and clean-up
sys em, ea men o liquid
e luen s sys em, s eam
gene a o blowdown, eedwa e
and condensa e in BWRs
• O ganic exchange s a e
p ima ily composed o
polys y ene-di inylbenzene
(PS-DVB) o ac ylic-based
polyme s wi h sul onic acid,
qua e na y ammonium, o
chela ing g oups o ion
exchange
• Con aminan s: adionuclides,
hea y me als, and dissol ed
sal s om wa e sys ems (i.e.
bo a es)
Radioac i e Liquid O ganic
Was es (RLOW)
Including: lub ica ing oils, liquid
scin illa ion cock ails,
decon amina ion e luen s o
sol en s om ep ocessing
ac i i ies
• Va iable o ganic na u e and
wide ange o con aminan s
depending on hei o igin
• Poo chemical compa ibili y
wi h adi ional OPC ma ices:
he mal ea men o no el
ma ices as an al e na i e o
cemen a ion [5]
Reac i e me als
Reac i e me al was e, like Al,
Be, and Mg, om nuclea powe
p oduc ion o decommissioning
ac i i ies
• Va iable eac i i y in alkaline
media: hyd ogen gene a ion
and isk o p essu e build-up.
• C i ical dependence o po e
alkaline pH [6][7]
Sludges
P ima ily om e luen ea men
p ocesses like p ecipi a ion,
e apo a ion and concen a ion
• Composi ion, ac i i y
concen a ions and disposal
ou e a ailabili y a y based on
o igin and ea men
• One o he mos di icul ypes
o was e due o i s chemical
complexi y, handling
challenges, and long- e m
disposal issues [2]
E apo a o concen a es
P oduced h ough an
e apo a ion p ocess.
E apo a ion is mos e ec i ely
used o adioac i e liquids wi h
high concen a ions o sal s o
o he impu i ies
• The concen a e o bo oms
p oduc can ange om 15 w %
solids o a i ually d y powde
o cake, depending on he
e apo a o ype and e iciency
and on he chemical
composi ion o he was e
s eam [8]
• Con aminan s: Cs-137, Co-
60, Mn-54, bo a es, ni a es,
alkali-hyd oxides, and o ganic
compounds (i.e. oxala es) [5]
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Type o was e s eam
Sou ce
Physic-chemical
cha ac e is ics
Incine a ion ashes
By-p oduc o he mal ea men
o LILW
• P ope ies depending on
was e ype and ea men
condi ions [9]
• Gene ally, good compa ibili y
wi h BFS-OPC and BFS-MK
geopolyme s [10]
Pb/Bi eu ec ic alloy
Used in liquid me al cooled
eac o s
• Con aminan s om eac o
co osion and polonium
gene a ion a ise du ing eac o
ope a ion [11]
Table 1 - Main cha ac e is ics o he was es unde s udy in STREAM.
2.2 Cu en p oblems o cha ac e isa ion, ea men , condi ioning
and disposabili y
Cha ac e isa ion is needed a any s age o he was e managemen : om he gene a ion o he aw was e
h ough o i s collec ion, seg ega ion, ea men , condi ioning, s o age, anspo a ion and inal disposal.
The main p ope ies ha should be conside ed a e he o igin o he was e and i s adiological, physical
and, chemical p ope ies. Cha ac e isa ion needs o comply wi h he egula ions o ensu e p ope
handling and inal sa e disposal.
T ea men o adioac i e was e in ol es ope a ions in ended o educe he po en ial haza d o he was e
and enhance sa e y in he long e m (as one o a se ies o s eps con ibu ing o he sa e p edisposal
managemen o adioac i e was e). Due o he ac ha adioac i e was e is di e se and a ied in na u e
and i encompasses a b oad ange o adionuclides, hal -li es, ac i i y concen a ions, olumes and
physical and chemical p ope ies he choice o p ocess(es) o be used o was e ea men is complex.
Was e s abiliza ion by condi ioning p io o long- e m s o age and disposal is a key ac i i y o adioac i e
was e managemen . Radioac i e was e condi ioning consis s o ans o ming he was e in o packages
sui able o anspo , sho o long- e m s o age and inal disposal. Cu en ly, he p e e ed solidi ica ion
op ion in ol es a g ou -based o mula ha lows o ensu e comple e encapsula ion o he was e and
con aine . In line wi h in e na ional bes p ac ice, as consignmen s a e g ou ed upon eceip a a LLW
eposi o y, a consigno should assess he leachabili y o was e componen s, including haza dous
ma e ials, o unde s and hei long- e m pe o mance in inal disposal loca ions. Disposal si es ha e
limi s on haza dous and non-haza dous pollu an s, as well as adioac i e iso opes, which mus be
managed. Solidi ica ion mus demons a e he was e's du abili y and s abili y o e he long e m and
unde a ious en i onmen al condi ions. The solidi ied o m equi es ca e ul conside a ion o was e
mo emen and placemen wi hin solidi ied con aine s.
Gua an ees o se ice a e essen ial o encou age supply chain in es men , main aining obus sys ems
o moni o ing, anspo , and disposal, which a e c i ical o managing he complexi ies associa ed wi h
solidi ied was e.
Ex ensi e esea ch is being unde aken o es ablish o he solidi ying ma ices ha may imp o e cu en
p ac ices, especially gi en he decline o co e ing edien s such as pul e ized uel ash. This esea ch
may ad ance he abili y o solidi y was e o ms ha a e cu en ly di icul o solidi y by mixing wi h o he
ma e ials, such as he moplas ic was e o low pH was e, o by using ad anced solidi ica ion echniques
like lase cladding [12] o acuum induc ion mel ing (VIM) [13].
Table 2 summa izes he challenges and unce ain ies in he cha ac e isa ion, ea men , condi ioning
and s o age/disposal o he di e en was es included in STREAM.
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Cha ac e isa ion
T ea men
Condi ioning
S o age and disposal s eps
Reac i e me als
(Al, Be, U, Mg..)
Cha ac e izing eac i e me al was e is
challenging due o di icul ies in
ob aining p ecise lis o ac i a ion
p oduc s.
Reac i e me als pose challenges o was e
ea men and condi ioning due o
co osion, which can cause was e o m
modi ica ions (such as c acking), and
changes in con aine mechanical
p ope ies.
S o age and disposal depend on he s abili y
o was e packages.
SIERs
Challenges ela ed o he
cha ac e iza ion o SIERs is simila o
sludge cha ac e iza ion.
Techniques like gamma spec ome y
and scaling ac o s help assess
adiological in en o ies.
Rega ding chemical composi ion, MS
no ed chemical addi i es and co osi e
p oduc s, bu wi hou speci ics.
Inc eased ac i i y
a e he mal
ea men : While
he mal ea men s
help educe he
olume o SIERs,
hey can also
inc ease speci ic
adioac i i y. This
complica es disposal
and may equi e he
use o al e na i e
eposi o y si es.
Challenges
ega ding s abili y
issues wi h cemen
ma ix: (1)
challenges in
main aining he
chemical and
mechanical s abili y
o he cemen
ma ix when
immobilising
SIERs.
(2) Con aminan s
in e e ing wi h
Cemen Hyd a ion:
Con aminan s,
pa icula ly hose
om o ganic
exchange s, can
in e e e wi h he
cemen hyd a ion
p ocess,
comp omising he
s abili y o he
was e o m. This
can lead o issues
such as swelling,
gel o ma ion, and
educed s eng h..
Main challenge: mechanical and chemical
beha iou o was e packages, including
po en ial swelling, co osion, and complexing
subs ances ha inc ease adionuclide
mobili y.
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Cha ac e isa ion
T ea men
Condi ioning
S o age and disposal s eps
Sludges
Unce ain ies in adiological and
chemical in en o ies and a ying sludge
olumes.
Need o ex ensi e cha ac e iza ion o
legacy sludges.
Di e en immobilisa ion echniques a e
being es ed, wi h cemen a ion being he
p e e ed op ion. O he me hods like d ying,
high-densi y compac ion o he mal
ea men a e also explo ed o add ess
cemen a ion challenges o speci ic
sludges.
The main challenge in sludge disposal, aside
om he a ailabili y o a inal eposi o y, is
ensu ing package compa ibili y wi h Was e
Accep ance C i e ia (WAC). Chemicals like
sulpha es and ni a es may in e ac wi h
cemen -based ba ie s and hos ock,
po en ially mobilizing adionuclides. No
de ini i e solu ions exis ye , wi h ea men
and condi ioning being key ocus a eas.
Incine a ion
ashes [14]
Cha ac e izing he mally ea ed was e is
complex due o i s he e ogenei y and he
need o compliance wi h na ional and
in e na ional disposal s anda ds.
Incine a ion ashes may educe
adioac i e was e olume bu can also
concen a e o c ea e new, ha de - o-
manage compounds.
Condi ioning me hods such as cemen a ion
and i i ica ion a e e ec i e in s abilizing
incine a ion ashes, encapsula ing
haza dous subs ances, and educing
leachabili y, wi h he choice depending on
he ash's adiological and chemical
p ope ies.
Due o he a iabili y in ash composi ion,
disposal sys ems mus be obus enough o
handle was e wi h high concen a ions o
adionuclides o haza dous chemicals.
Incine a ion ashes p esen u he challenges
due o hei di e se composi ion, equi ing
ho ough adiological and chemical analyses
o mee disposal c i e ia.
S o ing he mally ea ed was e is challenging
due o conce ns o e physical s abili y and
po en ial leaching. Long- e m s o age mus
ensu e no en i onmen al isk, equi ing
igo ous es ing unde simula ed condi ions.
Disposing o incine a ion ashes is di icul due
o he isk o leaching hea y me als and
adioac i e iso opes. Ensu ing s able
chemical and adiological cha ac e is ics o e
ime is essen ial o sa e disposal.
RLOW
(Radioac i e
Liquid O ganic
Was es): oils,
LSC,
decon amina ion
e luen s
P oblems wi h he cha ac e iza ion o
legacy was es and complexing agen
cock ails, including he ones esul ing
om plas ic deg ada ion.
O ganic liquid was es can be ola ile,
lammable, and oxic, equi ing ea men
and/o immobiliza ion.
Incine a ion o RLOWs is one o he op ions
conside ed. Howe e , ce ain was e
s eams a e no compa ible wi h
incine a ion due o haza dous chemicals.
Re en ion o RLOWs in cemen ma ices is
mos ly physical, no chemical, making was es
ulne able o leaching.
Cemen i ious WF a e suscep ible o adiolysis,
he mal, and mic obial deg ada ion ha can
lead o gas eleases and c acking.
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Cha ac e isa ion
T ea men
Condi ioning
S o age and disposal s eps
T anspo es ic ions may no allow he
was e o be ans e ed o app op ia e
ea men acili ies. In o de o o e come
hese limi a ions, immobilisa ion in Nocha
polyme is an in e es ing op ion.
Challenges o di ec condi ioning. O ganic
componen s in e e e wi h cemen
hyd a ion, causing delayed se ing and
po ous ma ices, pa icula ly wi h pola
sol en s. Cemen a ion also esul s in a
olume inc ease. Cu en ly, explo a ion o
al e na i e ea men me hods and
geopolyme s aims o educe was e olume.
These issues limi he cemen a ion o o ganic
liquid was es o a 10–12% loading.
Complexing agen s and chemo oxics p esen
in some was e s eam a e banned o
pe mi ed wi hin s ic limi s de ined in he
WAC.
E apo a o
concen a es
Unce ain ies in adiological and
chemical in en o ies.
La ge olumes o cha ac e ise
T ea men
echnologies ha e
ocused on bo on
ex ac ion mainly, in
o de o dec ease
bo a e con en s and
imp o e compa ibili y
wi h OPC ma ices
[15] [16]
Alkali ission p oduc s (e.g., ⁸⁵S , ¹³⁷Cs) a e highly soluble in cemen ,
a ec ing only s abiliza ion. In con as , bo a es, sulpha es dis up
hyd a ion, al e ing se ing ime and s eng h.
Mix designs o e apo a o concen a es mus accoun o bo a e
e ec s, ensu ing long- e m du abili y unde en i onmen al and
adia ion exposu e.
Table 2 - Challenges and unce ain ies in he cha ac e isa ion, ea men , condi ioning and s o age/disposal o he challenging was es included in STREAM
(adap ed om [2]).

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2.3 Compliance wi h WAC
All was e si es and ea men /disposal si es mus ha e a pe mi ha desc ibes he was e and i s
designa ed des ina ion. This pe mi ensu es ha he acili y ope a es wi hin legal and
en i onmen al guidelines, speci ying he ypes o was e i can handle and he me hods o
ea men o disposal.
An En i onmen al Sa e y Case (ESC) is a comp ehensi e documen ha demons a es he sa e y
o a disposal si e. I includes de ailed assessmen s o he po en ial impac s on human heal h and
he en i onmen , bo h du ing ope a ion and a e closu e. The ESC is essen ial o ob aining
egula o y app o al and ensu ing ha he si e mee s all sa e y s anda ds [17] [18]
The Was e Accep ance C i e ion (WAC) de ines he speci ic equi emen s ha was e mus mee
o be accep ed a a ea men o disposal acili y. This includes physical, chemical, and
adiological p ope ies. The WAC ensu es ha only was e ha can be sa ely managed and
disposed o is accep ed.
All si es mus ha e a legal con ac ha ou lines he ag eemen o he ea men and/o disposal
o was e. These con ac s ensu e ha all pa ies unde s and hei esponsibili ies and he e ms
unde which was e will be managed. They p o ide legal p o ec ion and cla i y o bo h he was e
gene a o and he disposal acili y.
A Quali y Managemen Sys em (QMS) is a o malised sys em ha documen s p ocesses,
p ocedu es, and esponsibili ies o achie ing quali y policies and objec i es. In he con ex o
nuclea was e managemen , a QMS ensu es ha all ac i i ies ela ed o was e ea men , s o age,
and disposal a e conduc ed in a con olled and consis en manne , mee ing egula o y and sa e y
s anda ds [19] [20].
Go e nance a angemen s e e o he s uc u es and p ocesses es ablished o make decisions
abou he sui abili y o was e o ea men o disposal. This includes o e sigh by egula o y
bodies, in e nal e iew p ocesses, and s akeholde engagemen o ensu e ha was e
managemen p ac ices a e anspa en and accoun able.
An accep ance p ocedu e de ails how he sui abili y o he was e o m is assessed [21]. This
includes a se ies o es s and e alua ions o ensu e ha he was e mee s he WAC and o he
egula o y equi emen s. Reco ds o decisions made, along wi h jus i ica ions, mus be main ained
o p o ide a clea audi ail.
The inal disposal loca ion mus be iden i ied and app o ed. This in ol es selec ing a si e ha
mee s all egula o y and sa e y c i e ia, o en in ol ing deep geological eposi o ies o high-le el
was e. The si e mus be designed o isola e he was e om he en i onmen o housands o
yea s.
Reco ds mus be main ained and accessible, de ailing he con en s o he was e, sui abili y
decla a ions by consigno s, and o al and indi idual iso opic b eakdowns o was es. These
eco ds a e c ucial o acking he was e h oughou i s li ecycle and ensu ing compliance wi h
egula o y equi emen s.
WAC de ini ion
The link be ween WAC and he sa e y assessmen o a acili y is o p ima y impo ance. Howe e ,
he scope o WAC does no necessa ily ha e o depend en i ely on he sa e y assessmen o a
acili y [22]. I can also be linked wi h wide p inciples o was e managemen and suppo ed by
expe ience om was e ope a ions. Rega dless o hei scope and he basis o hei de i a ion,
he e mus be a clea jus i ica ion o how a sui e o WAC has been de eloped and why each
c i e ion is necessa y [23].
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Despi e ha monisa ion is one o he bigges challenges ega ding WAC, he e a e some obse ed
commonali ies [24]. In he case o LLW, adia ion sa e y ela ed c i e ia a e inco po a ed in all
p og ammes in e ms o limi ing su ace con amina ion and dose a es o ensu e sa e y while
handling and anspo ing was e packages [25]. Speci ic ac i i y limi s o adionuclides a e
es ablished based on he sa e y analyses o disposal acili ies, and whe e i is ele an , ac i i ies
o issile and o he selec ed adionuclides (226Ra) a e con olled as well. These limi s a e de ined
also in some p elimina y WAC, appa en ly, based on in e na ional expe ience.
Addi ionally, he WAC o mos coun ies add ess physic-chemical cha ac e is ics o he was es o
inal was e o ms as adioac i e was e eposi o ies a e gene ally no in ended o accep ing
haza dous, biodeg adable and oxic ma e ials. Fo sa e y easons, he p esence o some
chemicals (agg essi e, chela ing) is no allowed o is s ongly limi ed. Thus, disposal WAC can
limi he isk o physical haza ds (explosion, i e, …), pu escible ma e ials (i.e., o ganic ma e
ha is subjec o decay h ough he ac ion o bac e ia and/o ungi), was e o m s abili y, oidage,
ee liquids o p esc ibe he use o a ce ain ype o con aine (o con aine s). O ganic and eac i e
was es ha ha e he po en ial o p oduce gas, complexan s and/o ee liquids equi e ea men
o con e hem o a mo e passi ely sa e o m p io o condi ioning and packaging, pa icula ly
whe e WAC p eclude hei accep ance o s o age and/o disposal [26]. Gas gene a ion, hea
p oduc ion, ee liquids, i e esis ance o solidi ied was e and hei packages a e o he pa ame e s
aken in o accoun . Table 3 summa izes he mos common sa e y- ela ed WAC.
Table 4 p o ides a simpli ied o e iew o was e accep ance equi emen s and pa ame e s. The
equency o he use o a ious pa ame e s in pa icula coun ies is isible om he able. Emp y
boxes do no necessa ily indica e missing pa ame e s, bu jus insu icien in o ma ion abou he
ac ual s a us o he na ional Was e Accep ance Sys em (WAS).
Gene al equi emen s o Was e Fo ms
Fo disposal, solid o solidi ied RW is conside ed as he accep able inal was e o m. Solidi ied
inal was e o m should be compa ible wi h he enginee ed sys em o he eposi o y, i ele an ,
and wi h he hos ock. This condi ion is usually no di ec ly exp essed as a special WAC, bu he
solidi ica ion ma ix and he p ope ies o he inal was e o m, such as s abili y, mig a ion
pa ame e s, leachabili y, and s eng h esis ance, a e conside ed as inpu s o eposi o y sa e y
assessmen . Sa is ac o y esul s o sa e y assessmen jus i y he use o he e alua ed inal was e
o m.
Solidi ica ion media mus gua an ee long- e m s abili y o he inal was e o m by means o was e
immobilisa ion, assu ing anspo pa ame e s o he was e o m, such as leachabili y, solubili y,
di usi i y and dis ibu ion coe icien s, a e as low as achie able. No all solidi ica ion media a e
sui able o all ypes o was e: hei imp ope use can lead o de e io a ion in was e p ope ies
du ing eposi o y li e ime. Thus, he selec ion o an e ec i e condi ioning p ocess is done on case-
by-case basis while also conside ing WF pe o mance du ing anspo , s o age and disposal. In
he case o he challenging was es unde s udy in STREAM, con en ional cemen a ion does no
seem a sui able op ion in e ms o long- e m du abili y and/o op imisa ion o was e loading. Table
2 summa izes main unce ain ies ela ed o hei condi ioning and causes o non-compliance wi h
disposal WAC ela ed o hese ca ego ies o was es.
The inal was e o m in mos cases consis s o solid o solidi ied was e and a con aine . Howe e ,
indi idual solid pieces could usually be disposed o wi hou con aine unde condi ions se down
by WAC. Disposal o liquid was e is no desi able. In some coun ies, anspo and disposal is
o ally banned, e en i placed in con aine s wi h ela i ely long-li e imes, such as high in eg i y
con aine s.
Du ing he li e ime o he eposi o y, new RW s eams and/o new was e o ms can a ise, e. g.
a e echnological changes in was e p oduce p ocesses, o he use o new condi ioning
ma e ials. In such cases, he new was e o m mus go h ough a was e o m quali ica ion p ocess
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[27]; i includes compa ison wi h exis ing WAC, and in he case o non-compliance, de elopmen
o new was e o m speci ic se o WAC which has o be jus i ied by new was e o m o ien ed sa e y
assessmen .
Pa ame e s
Requi emen s
Radia ion
p o ec ion
Res ic ions on dose a es
Dose a e a con ac wi h and a a wo king
dis ance
Res ic ions on ixed and/o
emo able su ace
con amina ion on was e
packages
Maximum pe missible con amina ion limi s
es ablished o amilies o adionuclides
(e.g., Bq/cm2 o gamma adionuclides,
be a adionuclides and/o alpha
adionuclides)
Radioac i i y
Res ic ions on ce ain
adionuclides
Maximum pe missible limi o ac i i y
concen a ion o p e-de ined adionuclides
(e.g., maximum speci ic ac i i y pe was e
package)
Res ic ions on issile con en
Maximum pe missible limi o
concen a ion o o al amoun o issile
adionuclides
Res ic ions
on con en o
was e
packages
Res ic ions on chemical o
o he haza dous cons i uen s
To al ban on eac i e chemicals, explosi e
and py opho ic ma e ials
Maximum pe missible limi o some
ma e ials such as co osi e ma e ials pe
package
Res ic ions on biological,
pa hogenic, pu escible and/o
in ec ious ma e ials
To al ban on biological, pa hogenic,
pu escible and/o in ec ious ma e ials
Res ic ions on ee liquids
To al ban o maximum pe missible limi o
ee liquids pe package
Res ic ions on ma e ials ha
p esen isks o explosion o
igni ion
To al ban o maximum pe missible limi pe
package o accep ed wi h es ic ion on
case-by-case decisions (e.g. alkali me als,
eac i e me als, s ong educe s…)
Res ic ion on chela ing
compounds and chemo oxics
To al ban o accep ed wi h es ic ions
Res ic ion on o ganic con en
To al ban o maximum pe missible limi pe
package
Res ic ion on gas elease
Uppe limi on a pe package basis (e.g.,
gas gene a ion om co osion, adiolysis
and deg ada ion o o ganic ma e ial)
Res ic ion on hea gene a ion
a e
To al ban o maximum pe missible limi pe
package o hea gene a ion a e
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S abili y o
he was e
package
Chemical s abili y
To al ban o maximum pe missible limi pe
package o eac i e ma e ials in he was e
(including eac i e/elec oposi i e me als)
Radia ion s abili y o was e
o m
Speci ica ion o compa ible ma e ials o
p e en o minimise possible damage o
was e o ms om adioly ic e ec s
Physical s abili y o was e o m
Speci ica ion o limi s on oid space in
was e packages
Du abili y o was e
package/con aine
Speci ica ion o limi on ma e ials o ensu e
adequa e co osion, i e, wa e ,
mechanical and impac esis ance
Mechanical p ope ies o was e
o m
Speci ica ion o limi s on mechanical
p ope ies such as minimum comp essi e
s eng h and oid space in he was e
package.
Table 3 - Lis o mos common sa e y ela ed WAC [modi ied a e [28]].
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Among he disad an ages o his echnology, i should be poin ed ou he need o mee ing
en i onmen al equi emen s o discha ges as well as no being a cos -e ec i e al e na i e o he
ea men o small amoun s o was e.
Conce ning i s applica ion o he ea men o adioac i e was es, spen o ganic ion exchange
ma e ials can be incine a ed in combina ion wi h o he combus ible was e o in an incine a o
solely dedica ed o ha pu pose. The incine a ion o spen esins in an oxygen ich a mosphe e
esul in he oxida ion o he ini ial eed ma e ial and p oduces a olume educ ion ac o anging
om 30 o 100. The inal olume educ ion ac o depends on se e al ac o s such as he ac i i y
concen a ion in he incine a ion esidues o he condi ioning me hod.
Despi e being a well-p o ed and eliable echnology cu en ly in-use in se e al disposal acili ies,
incine a ion s ill poses some challenges such as he loss o ola ile elemen s, e.g. B o Cs, o he
need o a special egime o he ea men o alpha-bea ing was e [46].
4.1.1.2 Gasi ica ion-based he mal ea men
The gasi ica ion p ocess in ol es hea ing was e in a low-oxygen en i onmen whe e i unde goes
pa ial oxida ion and combus ion [55]. The p ocess con e s he o ganics in he was e in o a
syn he ic hyd oca bon gas (syngas) composed p ima ily o CO, H, and CH4. The p oduced gas
con ains signi ican ly less unwan ed SOx and NOx han is p oduced by incine a ion. Any non-
combus ible componen s a e le as a glassy ash esidue wi h low o ganic con en . The syngas
can be bu ned o hea ing, elec ici y gene a ion, o powe ing he ea men plan .
Non-combus ible ma e ials, such as me al, cemen , and glass, a e unsui able o his echnology
as hey can ha m he sys em's pe o mance ( educing he empe a u e). Was es con aining
signi ican quan i ies o ola ile adionuclides a e nei he good candida es o his echnique.
Addi ionally, o -gas ea men is expec ed o be equi ed, esul ing in he gene a ion o associa ed
seconda y was es ha will need u he managemen .
VTT Technical Resea ch Cen e (Finland) has p oposed using hei gasi ica ion plan [8] [56] o
ea low-le el was es, bu he sys em is s ill a he pilo scale. Inac i e ials ha e been comple ed
wi hin he Eu opean Commission THERAMIN and PREDIS p ojec s. Thei esul s ha e shown
e y e icien emo al o o ganic ma e om IERs and signi ican olume educ ion ac o s.
Technical ma u i y is TRL 6 – echnology demons a ed in he indus ial en i onmen . Tes s ha e
been unde aken on simulan was e a scale, al hough no es s on ac i e was e a scale ha e
been unde aken. Wi hin he PREDIS p ojec , he S a e Ins i u ion “Ins i u e o En i onmen al
Geochemis y” o he Na ional Academy o Sciences o Uk aine (SIIEG NASU) deployed a
coupled plasma-gasi ica ion p ocess o he mally ea a su oga e spen ca ionic IER doped wi h
Cs [54]. De elopmen wo k ocused on op imising he eac ion empe a u e o ensu e he
con e sion o he mobile and ola ile Cs species in o ino ganic and he mally s able compounds.
4.1.1.3 Py olysis
Py olysis is one o he mos a ac i e he mal me hod o was e p ocessing. I is cha ac e ised as
a low- empe a u e lameless p ocess (compa ed wi h high- empe a u e he mal me hods, e.g.,
incine a ion) in which he o ganic ma e ial is hea ed in a educing a mosphe e o lea e a
ca bonaceous p oduc o cha . Being a lameless echnology, py olysis has he ad an age o
lowe ope a ional empe a u e and, o c i ical impo ance in he nuclea con ex , an enhanced
sa e y p o ile. Thus, py olysis ea u es as an inno a i e echnology in a ecen IAEA epo on he
he mal p ocessing o adioac i e was es [57], [58], being conside ed, and e en p ac ised, as a
me hod o he ea men and condi ioning o adioac i e o ganic was es such as sol en s, oils
and especially spen ion exchange esins de i ed om he ope a ion o nuclea acili ies.
Py olysis is a lameless d y dis illa ion p ocess ha uses high empe a u es o b eak down he
o ganic componen s o was e in o new gases, liquids, and solids (py olysa es) unde oxygen- ee
o oxygen-de icien condi ions [59]. The o ganic ac ion is no combus ed (oxidised); complex

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o ganics a e ac u ed in o smalle componen s. The main ou pu s o py olysis a e low-mass
hyd oca bons (me hane, e hane, benzene and oluene), a s, and a ca bon- ich cha [46].
Py olysis has lowe ope a ing empe a u es han incine a ion, allowing i o e ain ela i ely ola ile
adionuclides in he solid esidue. CEA’s (Commissa ia à l'éne gie a omique e aux éne gies
al e na i es, F ance) IRIS p ocess p o ides an example o a py olysis p ocess designed o
adioac i e was e ea men [60].
Cons ain s include non-combus ible was e, which is unsui able. Halogena ed plas ics can be
managed (as in he IRIS p ocess) bu equi e addi ional enginee ing. The sys em p oduces
seconda y gases ha mus be il e ed and bu ned be o e discha ging he a mosphe e. The il e s
and sc ubbing luid om he o -gas sys em mus be eplaced pe iodically and disposed o
app op ia ely.
Technical ma u i y is TRL 9 – p o en echnology in comme cial use o adioac i e was e
ea men . Combining low- empe a u e py olysis and high-pe o mance plasma ea men (HPPT)
o he o -gas could be a no el solu ion o o ganic ma ix nuclea was es and p o ide economic
and sa e y ad an ages o coun ies wi h low and medium-scale in en o ies. Mo eo e , his
app oach can be aluable o some indus ially p oblema ic o ganic was es as a sa e, economical,
and en i onmen ally iendly al e na i e. The PREDIS WP6 SIIEG, NASU show lab-scale s udy
esul s ela ed o he py olysis o IERs [61]. S udies o he in luence o di e en ope a ing
pa ame e s on he emo al o model compounds using an induc i ely coupled plasma low eac o
a e shown. The SIIEG NASU esea ch g oup ha e wo ked wi h pa ne s o se e al yea s o
de elop a hyb id gasi ica ion p ocess o IER wi h incine a ion by plasma o ch and gas cleaning
echnologies o di e en applica ions. The plasma he mal ea men p ocess is a undamen ally
new echnology o a mul iloop ci cula ing gasi ie , which p o ides a comple e he mal
decomposi ion o RSOW (Radioac i e Solid O ganic Was es) a high empe a u es in he eac o
wi hou oxygen. Ecological sa e y is he p ima y equi emen imposed on mode n RSOW
p ocessing echnology. Adop ing he mul iloop ci cula ion gasi ie p inciple in was e p ocessing
allows o he signi ican ul ilmen o his equi emen , gi en he mo e p o ound des uc ion o
was e. Fu he mo e, oxic ola iles in he py olysis gas a e a e -bu ned a a high empe a u e
using a plasma o ch and comple ely decompose. A e gasi ica ion, ash is loaded in o s eel
con aine s o u he encapsula ion. The i s esul s o a bench scale a angemen combining
bo h echnologies a e p esen ed in [62].
4.1.1.4 Plasma echniques
Plasma echnology has become a aluable echnique o he he mal ea men o a ious
chemical, mixed adioac i e, and haza dous was es [63] [64], [65], [66]. The me hod can also be
applied o he ea men o spen esins. In his echnique, adioac i e was e, including spen
in e media e-le el adioac i e was e (IERs), is ed in o a plasma u nace; was e packages illed
wi h esins a e inse ed di ec ly in o he u nace. The mel ing capaci y depends on he design o
he speci ic acili y; o example, a plasma o ch mel e in Swi ze land has a mel ing capaci y o
app oxima ely 50 kg/h.
The olume educ ion o spen esins anges om 15 o 30%, depending on he amoun o
addi i es used. The ea men p ocess is ela i ely cos ly and becomes economical only when
ope a ed a high h oughpu a es, a he han as a acili y dedica ed solely o ea ing IERs. The
use o non- he mal induc i ely coupled plasma o ea ing IERs has been in es iga ed in Japan
[29]. Plasma echnology o e s a highly e ec i e way o ea ing his ype o was e. Main
ad an ages o his echnique a e he high- olume educ ion ac o s achie ed and he ob en ion
o a esidue ha is ee om o ganics, liquids, and mois u e, and gene ally mee s he s o age and
disposal WAC. By means o a plasma beam o app oxima ely 5000°C, he ino ganic ma e ials a e
mel ed in o a glassy slag con aining mos o he adioac i e iso opes, while he o ganic ma e ial
is gasi ied, oxidized and pu i ied in an o -gas cleaning sys em.
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4.1.1.5 Mol en sal oxida ion (MSO)
Mol en sal oxida ion (MSO) is a lameless he mal deso p ion p ocess [67][68][69]. Was e is
in oduced in o a ba h o mol en sal s, ypically a empe a u es be ween 500 and 950°C. An
ad an age o MSO o e con en ional incine a ion is ha acidic gases, p oduced, o example, by
he decomposi ion o halogena ed o ganics, eac wi h he ca bona e mel and a e e ained as a
sal ( his p ope y also allows MSO o be used as pa o an o -gas managemen sys em as an
al e na i e o we sc ubbing [70]). This oxidises he was e's o ganic cons i uen s, p oducing
ca bon dioxide, ni ogen, and wa e , signi ican ly educing he bu den o il e ing and sc ubbing
compa ed o incine a ion o py olysis.
The end p oduc is an o ganic- ee sal esidue ha cap u es adionuclides, me als, and o he
ino ganics. The o ma ion o s able sal s inhibi s he p oduc ion o acid gas emissions. This
necessi a es he discha ge o sal s once hey a e ‘spen ’ ( ypically a ash con en s o abou 20
w %). When he sal s a e cooled, he ino ganic componen s, including adionuclides, a e bound
wi hin he c ys allised sal s.
The CV Řež in Czechia ope a es an expe imen al MSO eac o ocusing on spen ion exchange
esins and scin illa o oils. Wi hin PREDIS [61], he MSO p ocess was used a CV Řež o ea
spen IER su oga es. A wo-s age MSO p ocess was used whe e IERs we e ed in o a sodium
ca bona e sal bed in one essel. The o -gas is ou ed h ough a second sodium ca bona e sal
bed in ano he essel o oxidise lue gases and ully cap u e ly ash. Cons ain s a e was es whe e
C-14 o i ium a e signi ican adionuclides. Seconda y was e om MSO o -gas is ela i ely
clean, so only small amoun s om he o -gas sys em a e expec ed. Technical ma u i y is TRL 6
( echnology demons a ed in he indus ial en i onmen ), and small-scale es s ha e been
unde aken on adioac i e was e. Indus ial-scale plan s o inac i e was e a e a DEFAC (S.
Ko ea) [71] and NSWC Indian Head (USA) [72].
4.1.1.6 Me al mel ing
Me al mel ing is a high- empe a u e echnology, whe e he sc ap me al is hea ed abo e i s mel ing
empe a u e and du ing his p ocess di e en elemen s and hei adioac i e iso opes a e
edis ibu ed be ween he ingo , slag and dus [46]. The dis ibu ion o con aminan s du ing mel ing
is a complex p ocess ha depends on he elemen al p ope ies (chemical composi ion, solubili y
o an elemen in he mol en me al, densi y o oxides, composi ion and basici y o he slag o me )
as well as on u nace p ope ies (mel ing empe a u e, u nace ype). Some elemen s chemically
simila o i on, such as cobal , nickel, ch omium, zinc and manganese, mainly emain wi hin he
mel . Mo e ola ile elemen s, such as caesium, iodine o i ium, lea e he mel and a e ans e ed
o he o -gases, o o he slag. T ansu anic elemen s as well as some ission p oduc s can be
eadily oxidized and will be ans e ed o he slag. The ad an ages o me al mel ing applica ion
should be b ie ly summa ized as ollows [73][74][75].
• Decon amina ion o mel ed sc ap me al is achie ed by e ec i e sepa a ion o
adionuclides om he me allic was e and hei dis ibu ion o he slag and dus / umes.
Decon amina ion ac o he e o e depends on he adionuclide p esen as a con aminan .
• A e mel ing, he ingo (o end p oduc ) can be uncondi ionally o condi ionally eleased
in o he en i onmen o in case o emaining ac i i y, can be s o ed o some pe iod while
adioac i i y decays o eleasable le els.
• The end p oduc is ypically homogenous and emaining ac i i y is bound in he me al.
• Mel ing p o ides high olume educ ion, hus he disposal capaci ies a e p ese ed.
• Remaining ac i i y bounded in he me al can be p ecisely de e mined.
Me al mel ing is an ex ensi ely p o en echnology, wi h comme cial ea men acili ies a ailable
(e.g. S uds ik mel ing acili y, CENTRACO and INFANTE acili ies in F ance, ECOMETs in Rusia
and CARLA acili y in Ge many).
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4.1.1.7 Fluidized Bed S eam Re o ming (FBSR)
No el he mal echnologies ha a e al eady being, o a e likely o be, deployed in u u e include
hose using py olysis, in which o ganics a e des oyed in he absence o ai . This is mo e
en i onmen ally complian han incine a ion (which des oys o ganics in he p esence o ai ) and
can be pe o med in calcine s, d ums, o by Fluidized Bed S eam Re o ming (FBSR) [76].
A comme cial acili y o con inuously p ocess adioac i e was es by py olysis a mode a e
empe a u es in a hyd o he mal s eam en i onmen was buil by S uds ik in E win (Tennessee,
USA) [77]. This acili y uses FBSR echnology o py olyse 137Cs and 60Co o ganic esins om
comme cial nuclea acili ies.
Applying FBSR, in which a bed o g anula ma e ial exhibi s luid-like p ope ies, o nuclea was e
equi es wo luidised beds. The i s ( he Deni a ion and Mine alisa ion Re o me ) ope a es in a
educing en i onmen o e apo a e he liquid nuclea was e s eam, des oying o ganics, educing
ni a es, ni i es and ni ic acid o ni ogen gas and o ming a s able solid was e p oduc . The
second FBSR ( he Ca bon Reduc ion Re o me ) ope a es in an oxidising en i onmen , and i s
unc ion is o gasi y ca bon ines, oxidise CO and H2 o CO2 and wa e , and con e ace acid
gases o s able alkali compounds by eac ing hese acids wi h he bed media comp ising calcium
ca bona e and/o calcium silica e pa icles.
The addi ion o bulk aluminosilica es o he luidised bed esul s in he p oduc ion o phases such
as sodali e (Na8[Al6Si6O24](Cl2)), which can accommoda e was e species in hei cage-like c ys al
s uc u es including I, Cs, S and Mo.
This echnology can p ocess a ious solid and liquid s eams, including was es con aining o ganic
ion exchange esins, cha coal, g aphi e, sludge, oils, sol en s, and cleaning solu ions. When clay
is added as a mine alising agen , he eldspa holds mine als (sodali e, nosean and nepheline)
o med by a nanoscale eac ion wi h he clay. The phases o med o ac as hos s o high Cl, I, F,
99Tc, and SO4 alkali (Na, K, Cs) bea ing was es [76], and o ganics a e des oyed, c ea ing s eam
and CO2. The mine alisa ion occu s a mode a e FBSR empe a u es because he FBSR
ope a ing empe a u e is in he ange in which mos clays become amo phous a he nanoscale
le el, e.g. kaolin, ben oni e (mon mo illoni e), and illi e. The clays lose hei hyd oxyl (OH-) g oups
a he FBSR empe a u es, des abilising he oc ahed al (6 nea es neighbou ing a oms ha o m
an oc agon) Al3+ in hei s uc u e and becoming amo phous. The alkali in he was e “alkali
ac i a es” he uns able Al3+ ca ion o o m new mine al phases, and he luidising agen , s eam,
ca alyses he mine alisa ion. Many o hese mine al phases only o m wi hou s eam a
empe a u es >1200°C.
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T ea men
me hods
Fea u es
Limi a ions
Seconda y was e
Incine a ion
Well-p o en echnology.
Ve y high- olume educ ion o p ocessed was e ( o
d y solid was e and a small pe cen age o we was e).
High h oughpu p ocess. P ocess con inui y (i.e., he
p ocess can ope a e con inually 24 hou s/day).
I can be used o bo h solid and liquid was es.
I is suscep ible o was e composi ion. In es men
equi es a ela i ely high capi al cos . Public
accep ance and licensing a e di icul ies.
The en i onmen al equi emen s o discha ges
need o be me . Disposing o small amoun s o
was e is gene ally no economical.
A special egime is equi ed o he ea men o
alpha-bea ing was e.
O gases Sc ubbing
Solu ions
Gasi ica ion
Gas emissions con ain signi ican ly lowe SOx and
NOx han in he case o incine a ion
Non-combus ible componen s emain in a glassy ash
esidue wi h low o ganic con en .
Syngas can be bu ned o hea ing, elec ici y
gene a ion, o powe ing he ea men plan .
No sui able o non-combus ible ma e ials (i.e.
me als, cemen , glass) o was es con aining
signi ican quan i ies o ola ile adionuclides
O gases Sc ubbing
Solu ions
Py olysis
Ex ensi e comme cial expe ience in p ocessing high
o ganic con en was e (e.g. ca idge il e s, cha coal,
IE esins, plas ics, was e wi h high o ganic con en ).
Low p ocess empe a u es.
Re en ion o ola ile species in he ashes.
Re en ion o adioac i i y in he py olyse esidue is >
99.99%.
Low gas low a es (compa ed o incine a ion).
Insigni ican NOx p oduc ion. The end p oduc is easily
managed. The p ocesses can be hea ed ex e nally,
hus minimising gas lows equi ing adiological
con ol.
Limi ed expe ience p ocessing ino ganic was e
wi h a s abilised (monoli hic) end p oduc .
Ex ensi e was e p e ea men is equi ed.
Sensi i e o was e composi ion and eed
Sodium/po assium bea ing was e migh cause
ope a ional p oblems o luidised bed py olyse s.
O gases Sc ubbing
Solu ions
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I can usually ea he was e as gene a ed (i.e., no
p io seg ega ion is necessa y) o solids, liquids, and
me als.
The p ocess empe a u e is up o 1800oC, which
allows he mel ing o was e.
The inal was e o m is obus , ee o o ganic ma e ial
and sui able o long- e m s o age and disposal.
Volume educ ion ac o s o me allic was e can ange
om 6:1 o 10:1, while o o he combus ibles, hey can
ise as high as 100:1.
Less p oduc ion o ce ain lue gases.
Plasma
echniques
I can usually ea he was e as gene a ed (i.e., no
p io seg ega ion is necessa y) o solids, liquids, and
me als.
The p ocess empe a u e is up o 1800oC, which
allows he mel ing o was e.
The inal was e o m is obus , ee o o ganic ma e ial
and sui able o long- e m s o age and disposal.
Volume educ ion ac o s o me allic was e can ange
om 6:1 o 10:1, while o o he combus ibles, hey can
ise as high as 100:1.
Less p oduc ion o ce ain lue gases.
Limi ed ull-scale plan expe ience
The p ocess is expensi e o cons uc and
ope a e. The demands on an o -gas ea men
sys em a e g ea e han was e incine a ion.
High main enance o eplace plasma o ches: a
special egime is equi ed o ea alpha-bea ing
was e.
O gases Sc ubbing
Solu ions
Me al mel ing
Ex ensi ely p o en echnology o was e me als such
as e ous me als (ca bon s eel and s ainless s eel),
aluminium, lead, coppe and b ass. High olume
educ ion, ypically om 5:1 o 20:1
The end p oduc is ypically homogeneous and s able,
wi h he emaining ac i i y con en bound in he me al.
P e-so ing is usually equi ed due o he di e en
me als dedica ed o mel ing u naces and
di e en mel empe a u es.
Mel ing mixed me al componen s (such as small
elec ic mo o s) is usually no economical.
O gases Slag

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The end p oduc has he po en ial o be eused o
ecycled wi hin he nuclea indus y o a e clea ance
wi hin he con en ional me al indus y.
Mol en sal
oxida ion
Eme ging echnology. Al e na i e o adi ional
incine a ion o o ganic was e.
Comple e des uc ion o o ganic ma e ial.
Lowe ope a ing empe a u e.
Low le els o gaseous emissions.
Cos s a e ela i ely low.
Limi ed comme cial expe ience.
Requi es specialized echniques o adequa e
condi ioning o he sal p oduc .
Limi ed o was e p og ammes
Sal esidues
Table 6 -The main ea u es and limi a ions o he mal ea men me hods
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Chemical ea men s
The nuclea indus y has access o a wide ange o chemical ea men s. The choice o ea men
is highly dependen on he speci ic ask, chemical na u e o he con aminan , and he
cha ac e is ics o he unde lying ma e ial. Table 7E eu ! Sou ce du en oi in ou able.
p o ides a summa y o he key ea u es o cu en ly used chemical ea men echnologies.
Technology
Applicable was e
s eams
Tempe a u e/
P essu e
Emissions
Seconda y
was es
Elec ochemical
oxida ion
O ganic liquids,
cellulosic, some
plas ics
40–60o C/
Ambien p essu e
CO2, CO, NOx,
HNO2
Deple ed acid,
ino ganic sludge
Pho o oxida ion
Dilu e liquids, no
solids
25–40o C/
Ambien p essu e
CO2, CO
O ganic by–
p oduc s
Acid diges ion
O ganic liquids,
cellulosic
200oC/
Low P essu e
CO2, CO, NOx
Sludge
P ecipi a ion
Aqueous liquids
25–40o C/
Ambien p essu e
None
Sludge/p ecipi a e
Di ec chemical
oxida ion
O ganic liquids,
cellulosic
200oC/
Low P essu e
CO2, CO
Sludge
Ca aly ic chemical
oxida ion
O ganic liquids
and sludges
200oC /
100 psi
CO2, CO
Sludge, spen
ca alys
Chemical
neu aliza ion
Acidic o alkaline
liquids
25–40o C/
Ambien p essu e
None
Neu alized liquid
Table 7 - Compa ison o chemical ea men echnologies
4.1.2.1 Fen on and Fen on-like oxida ion
Fen on and Fen on-like we oxida ion o adioac i e was es is one o he al e na i es conside ed
o he des uc ion o o ganic ma e ials o a ound 40 yea s due o he a ac i e op ion o
signi ican ly educe solid was e olumes and po en ially e-ca ego ise was es o accep ance in o
na ional eposi o ies. The p esence o o ganics, especially o ganic ligands, is some imes
es ic ed due o conce ns o e lammabili y, deg ada ion o o ganics o e ime and po en ial
inc eased mobili y o adionuclides [78], [79], [80].
Ex ensi e ials on he implemen a ion o we oxida ion ha e been unde aken in I aly, Sweden,
Japan, he USA, and he UK. Labo a o y-scale esea ch, pilo plan s, and mul ina ional ials ha e
de e mined ha olume educ ion and adequa e des uc ion o ce ain ma e ials a e achie able.
Was es a ge ed in hese ials include ion-exchange esins, was e ep ocessing sol en s,
sludges, and decon amina ion e luen s. Typically, was es ha e been ea ed in ba ch o semi-
ba ch p ocesses, wi h emnan solids sen o cemen a ion and liquid e luen s disposed o ia
o he ou es.
Many o hese na ional ials ha e ocussed on speci ic challenging was es. The mos ex ensi e
es ing a a ying le els has been conduc ed in he UK, wi h se e al scale pilo plan s and mobile
plan s ea ed wi h a ious ion-exchange esins, sludges, cellulosic was e, and liquid o ganics,
including ac i e ials u ilising eal was e. On he back o hese esea ch p og ammes wo ldwide,
se e al ull-scale we -oxida ion plan s we e planned o cons uc ion, usually u ilising con en ional
Fe–H2O2 Fen on chemis y. None o he p oposed acili ies we e e e cons uc ed beyond pilo
plan scale, being mo e con en ional ea men acili ies p e e ed (e.g. incine a ion o
cemen a ion).
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This echnology p esen s new oppo uni ies and emaining challenges o become a iable
indus ial ea men p ocess. Al hough he olume o solid was es is educed, Fen on eac ions
equi e la ge olumes o H2O2 o deg ade he solid esins, esul ing in an equally la ge olume o
seconda y liquid was es gene a ed. These liquid was es ha e o en been o e looked in plans o
la ge-scale pilo plan s.
S ic en i onmen al discha ge limi s o adioac i e ma e ial makes necessa y u he p ocessing
o hese was es ei he ia an enhanced Fen on p ocess o in addi ional ea men acili ies. Fu he
p ocessing is also equi ed o solids gene a ed, wi h la ge plan s ypically en isaged o ope a e
a he cemen a ion acili y's head-end. Due o hese seconda y was es, a longe - e m
unde s anding o any inal was e-was e o m in e ac ions is equi ed (e.g. be ween p ecipi a ed
sulpha es and cemen ), o esea ch in o al e na i e was e o ms (i.e. glass o ce amic ma e ials)
o was es gene a ed. De elopmen o mobile ea men acili ies seems especially in e es ing o
we oxida ion me hods. Fo hese mobile uni s, an o iginal hope o we -oxida ion acili ies was o
smalle , mobile plan s ha could ea a ied was es ac oss di e en si es.
On a mo e posi i e pe spec i e, he abili y o Fen on we oxida ion o deg ade ma e ial a lowe
empe a u es is pa icula ly in e es ing o was es con aining ola ile adioiso opes, o which high-
empe a u e p ocesses may equi e ex ensi e o -gas sys ems. Oppo uni ies exis o op imising
deg ada ion eac ions wi h a ied ca alys s (including me al ions no a ou ed du ing ypical
was ewa e ea men , such as coppe and ch omium), op imising he quan i y o H2O2 u ilised o
educe seconda y was es, co- ea men wi h o he o ganic ma e ials o in eg a ion in o an
al e na i e was e immobilisa ion p ocess (e.g. head-end o a ho isos a ic p essing sys em).
Imp o emen s and modi ica ions o he adi ional Fen on p ocess ha e been ealised o inc ease
eac ion kine ics, main ain ca alys eac i i y, and/o u he educe emaining o ganics in ea ed
solu ions. Rou es o achie ing hese include using al e na i e homogeneous ca alys s, u ilising
he e ogeneous ca alys s, and using mo e complex se ups such as pho o- and elec o-Fen on [81].
O e all, he Fen on-like oxida ion o o ganic IERs can be e y e ec i e, wi h epo ed educ ions
in o ganic ca bon o >98%, wi h he capabili y o use a sou ce o Fe, H2O2 and some pH con ol.
Resul ing liquids a e usually neu alised, esul ing in a sulpha e- ich p oduc and he p ecipi a ion
o many adionuclides. Sho e ea men imes ypically esul in a highe esidual o ganic con en
and a highe p esence o ligh weigh o ganic species, which appea ela i ely esis an o Fen on
oxida ion.
Deg ada ion o IERs using Fen on-like eac ions has consis en ly ound nea -boiling empe a u es
o p oduce he mos apid and e icien deg ada ion o esins. Tempe a u es lowe han 90°C ha e
consis en ly esul ed in highe inal chemical oxygen demand (COD) alues and some imes
incomple e esin deg ada ion [82] [83][79]. The e ec o pH on he deg ada ion o IERs is no
clea -cu . Due o he high o ganic loading du ing decomposi ion o hese ma e ials and he
in e play be ween acidic o ganic p oduc s and sulphu ic acid/ ammonia gene a ed du ing
decomposi ion, he pH can al e signi ican ly du ing deg ada ion.
Se e al na ional nuclea esea ch ins i u ions and companies wo ldwide ha e ialled la ge -scale
applica ions o Fen on p ocesses o speci ic nuclea was es. This has esul ed in se e al pilo and
small-scale plan s u ilising Fen on chemis y, all using homogeneous ca alysis. Subs an ial
in e es was ga ne ed om he 1980s o he 2000s, wi h s ong in e es om Sweden, I aly, he
UK, he USA and Japan. None o hese ialled sys ems appea s o ha e en e ed whole
comme cial ope a ion ou side o limi ed es ing, al hough signi ican expe ience and knowledge
ha e been acqui ed om hese esea ch p og ammes. Ne e heless, in I aly, he e is a Fen on
ea men acili y loca ed in Nucleco si e o ea ing adioac i e liquids coming om medical,
esea ch and indus ial applica ions, bu no was es om hei na ional nuclea p og am. The
po en ial o lowe empe a u e p ocessing, wi h a signi ican educ ion in esul an solid was es,
could p o ide ano he echnology in he oolbox o ea men op ions.
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials
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Decon amina ion p ocesses
Radioac i e me allic was e comes om mul iple sou ces and a e ca ego ised as Low-Le el Was e
and In e media e-Le el Was e depending on i s associa ed adioac i i y. Usually,
decon amina ion echniques a e employed o mi iga e adioac i e con amina ion, aiming o
emo e he adioac i e oxide laye whe e adionuclides a e o en physically adso bed.
Con en ional decon amina ion echniques, such as mechanical and he mal me hods, o en ace
limi a ions in e ec i ely emo ing adionuclides. O he echniques, such as chemical and lase ,
a e also e ec i e bu gene a e seconda y was es ha a e di icul o manage. The e o e,
de elopmen o inno a i e decon amina ion app oaches ha a e, bo h e icien and
en i onmen ally iendly, has become an issue o inc easing in e es . Challenges o add ess
include a ying was e olumes, adioac i i y le els, and ela ed ma e ials. P e alen chemical
echniques, pa icula ly con en ional washing wi h speci ic chemical solu ions, p o e commonly
e ec i e.
Elec ochemical and/o gel decon amina ion me hods can be employed a o ably o speci ic
su aces, p o iding no able ad an ages, including he educ ion o seconda y was e. These
app oaches con ibu e o e icien decon amina ion and add ess conce ns ela ed o was e
gene a ion.
4.1.3.1 Chemical Gels
The chemical me hods a e easy o apply and p esen an inc eased con ac ime, which imp o es
he emo al e iciency. In addi ion, hey can each emo e and hidden a eas. Howe e , o achie e
maximum e ec i eness, epea ed applica ions may be equi ed.
The inno a i e decon amina ion p ocess using chemical gels aims o o e come p oblems
associa ed wi h chemical-based decon amina ion echniques, such as eagen ba hs, oaming
solu ions, o sol en s. The gels a e commonly p epa ed by dispe sing hickening agen s, such as
silica o alumina pa icles, in solu ion, o ming a gel-like suspension. The excellen heological
p ope ies o decon amina ion gels allow hem o be sp ayed and emain a ached o he su ace.
This enables he implemen a ion o his echnique o e la ge su aces a a la ge scale. The gels
c ack a e d ying, o ming non-dus lakes whe e he con aminan s a e apped and a e easily
emo ed by b ushing o acuum cleaning (Figu e 4).
I o e s he ad an ages o sa e handling, high pene a ion, and small olumes o seconda y was e
[84][85]. The comme cial DeconGel™ 1101 was used o emo e 60Co and 137Cs adionuclides
du ing he decommissioning o a nuclea esea ch eac o . Decon amina ion was mo e e icien
o nonpo ous ma e ials, and he decon amina ion ac o s could each mo e han 90%. The newly
de eloped poly inyl alcohol-bo ax complex-based sp ay coa ing con ains adso ben s (P ussian
blue, ben oni e, and sul u -zeoli e) o decon amina e 137Cs-con amina ed su aces [86]. The gel-
like coa ing adhe ed o e ical su aces wi h a 137Cs emo al e iciency o 56.9%, compa ed wi h
27.2% o DeconGel. In addi ion, he coa ing could be easily emo ed by insing wi h wa e ,
lea ing no esidue.
Moo e e al. [85] p epa ed a ni ic-acid-laded polyme hyd ogel wi h high emo al o 137Cs and
90S on s ainless s eel. I displayed high emo al e iciencies o 91.61% o pain ed cemen ,
97.05% o aluminium, 94.1% o s ainless s eel, and 53.5% o cemen , 2.3 imes highe han
ha o comme cial Decongel. The adso ben could be sepa a ed om he used hyd ogel by a
simple magne ic sepa a ion, educing was e disposal cos s.
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o unde de elopmen o challenging was es
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Type o cemen i ious
ma e ial
Al e na i e binde
Cha ac e is ics
Ad an ages o e OPC
binde s
Coun y o comme cial
applica ion o RW S/S
Calcium Alumina e Cemen
(CAC)
Fas ha dening, high
s eng h, low pe meabili y,
high eeze- haw, co osion
esis ance
Tole ance o was e
componen s e a ding he
se ing and ha dening (i.e. B)
Enhanced chemical binding
o a wide a ie y o me als
and RNs by ion exchange
(zeoli ic eac ion p oduc s)
F ance ( o immobiliza ion o
haza dous non- adioac i e
was e encapsula ion)
Calcium Sul oalumina e
Cemen (CSAC)
A oid p e- ea men
Lowe co osion a es o
eac i e me als and gas
gene a ion (co osion,
adioly ic)
Sui able o was es
con aining o se ing
e a de s (B, Zn…)
Magnesium silica e cemen
(M-S-H cemen )
Con ol o ini ial pH and
educed sh inkage
Signi ican po en ial o
encapsula ing ce ain
p oblema ic was e s eams
con aining Al [109]
Phospha e cemen s
Magnesium phospha e
cemen (MPC)/Magnesium
Po assium Phospha e
Cemen (MKPC)
Fas se ing, high ea ly
s eng h, adhesi e
p ope ies, low wa e demand
and d ying sh inkage, high
empe a u e and chemical
esis ance
Compa ibili y wi h a wide
ange o was es
H2 adioly ic gene a ion 2-3
imes less han in OPC
Low co osion a es o
eac i e me als
Russian Fede a ion, USA
(Ce amic e e™)

EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o unde de elopmen o challenging was es
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Type o cemen i ious
ma e ial
Al e na i e binde
Cha ac e is ics
Ad an ages o e OPC
binde s
Coun y o comme cial
applica ion o RW S/S
Calcium phospha e cemen
(CPC)
Alkali-ac i a ed cemen
Alkali-ac i a ed slag cemen
(AASC)
Fas se ing, high s eng h,
low po osi y and high
empe a u e and chemical
esis ance
Compa ibili y wi h a wide
ange o challenging was es
Inc eased was e loadings
(i.e. SIERs up o 25%)
Sui able o was es
con aining o se ing
e a de s (B, Zn…)
Uk aine
Geopolyme
Czech Republic, Slo ak
Republic (SIAL™), Slo enia,
F ance, USA (Du aLi h™),
LC3
Low po osi y, enhanced
du abili y, low ca bon
oo p in
Reduced alkali-silica
eac ion-
Resis an o chlo ide and
sulpha e a ack-
Lowe gas and wa e
pe meabili y [110]
Table 10 - Mos ep esen a i e ypes o al e na i e binde s: cha ac e is ics and ad an ages o e con en ional OPC binde s (modi ied a e [108]).
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials
a ailable o unde de elopmen o challenging was es
50
Challenges o add ess and compa ibili y wi h di e en was e
s eams:
P ope ies and sho /medium/long- e m pe o mance o hese al e na i e binde s need o be
u he s udied o ill exis ing knowledge gaps. Th ee main gaps ha e been iden i ied in exis ing
li e a u e:
- Managemen o exo he m eac ions du ing se ing/ha dening p ocesses
- Cemen -was e in e ac ions: included in he scope o STREAM in sub ask 3.1 and 3.2
- Disposal assessmen , including aspec s such as:
o Compa ibili y wi h exis ing EBS in disposal acili ies
o ul ilmen o exis ing WAC o he need o de elop new ones
In gene al, in all cases, he eac ions in ol ed in he se ing/ha dening p ocess a e exo he mic.
These may a ec he scaling-up app oach p oposed, as la ge- olume d ums o cemen ed was e
o ms may exhibi a subs an ial empe a u e ise. This issue is o majo impo ance since he solid
phase composi ion in ma e ials based on CSACs, CACs, magnesium phospha e and alkali-
ac i a ed binde s a e empe a u e-dependan .
Ano he key issue o add ess when e alua ing he sui abili y o a condi ioning ma ix o a speci ic
was e s eam is unde s anding cemen –was e in e ac ions, and hei impac on was e o m
pe o mance in he sho and long- e m. This will allow o limi ad e se chemical eac ions ha
may jeopa dize he du abili y o he was e o m.
E alua ion o chemical s abili y o he was e-ma ix sys em unde ealis ic disposal condi ions,
including in e ac ions wi h o he enginee ed ba ie s in he nea - ield, is a c i ical ask o he
accep ance o hese al e na i e binde s o was e condi ioning [108].
Long- e m du abili y o was e o ms unde ealis ic disposal condi ions is a undamen al issue ha
needs o be add ess p io o accep ance o a new o mula ion, and hough i is no unde he
scope o STREAM WP, i will be add essed in he amewo k o EURAD-2 in WP7 L’OPERA.
4.2.2.1 Expec ed was e-ma ix in e ac ion
In e ac ions be ween di e en cemen sys ems and was e s eams ha e been s udied in se e al
na ional and in e na ional R&D p og ams [44][111][112]. Was e-ma ix sys ems ha e p o ed o
be complex, and u he e o s a e equi ed o ully unde s and and quan i y hese ypes o
in e ac ions.
Resul s ob ained ha e shown ha by con olling he in e nal chemis y, mic os uc u e o he
ma ix and he hyd a ion p oduc s o med, h ough inco po a ion o eac i e admix u es, choice o
cu ing empe a u e and mois u e con en , wa e /cemen a io, sys ems may be de eloped
selec i ely o enhance immobiliza ion o a speci ic was e componen o g oup o componen s.
Addi ional esea ch is s ill needed o elucida e physical and chemical e ec s o was e ions on he
cemen s uc u e du ing solidi ica ion, he o ma ion o exo ic hyd a ion p oduc s, he specia ion
o was e ions and he esis ance o he cons i uen solid phases o deg ada ion. These in e ac ions
mus be unde s ood because appa en ly sligh changes in ma ix chemis y could esul in
signi ican change in immobiliza ion capaci y and he e o e, can p omo e adionuclide leaching
[44].
In adi ional OPC sys ems, i is well-known he ad e se e ec o ce ain chemical compounds on
se ing and ha dening o he was e o ms:
• complexing agen s such as EDTA o bo on can in e e e wi h Ca a ailabili y
• o ganic ion exchange s can ake up wa e unde high pH condi ions and expand in he
was e o m
• and zinc sal s and bo a es can inhibi hyd a ion.
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials
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51
To o e come hese limi a ions, al e na i e o mula ions ha e been de eloped o imp o e he
ma ix binding capaci y o selec ed adionuclides and o educe he eac ions be ween was e
cons i uen s and he cemen hyd a es [50].
Table 11 summa izes he cu en ly-in-use OPC o mula ions and he p oposed al e na i e binde s
o he condi ioning o was e s eams included in STREAM.
Was e s eam
Con en ional Cemen i ious
ma ix
Al e na i e binde s unde
de elopmen o al eady
comme cially a ailable
Spen Ion Exchange esins
Slag-Po land blends
Calcium Sul oalumina e
Cemen s (CSAC)
Geopolyme s (including
comme cial p oduc s SIAL™)
Magnesium Phospha e
Cemen s
Sludge and concen a es
gene a ed om ea men o
LLW
OPC, wi h o wi hou addi i es
Calcium Sul oalumina e
Cemen s (CSAC)
Magnesium Phospha e
Cemen s (MPC)
LC3
Geopolyme s
Incine a ion ashes
OPC, wi h o wi hou addi i es
Magnesium Phospha e
Cemen s (MPC)
Geopolyme s
Mix u e o sludge and ion
exchange esins
OPC, slag-Po land cemen
Geopolyme s (including
comme cial p oduc s SIAL™)
LC3
Magnesium Phospha e
Cemen s (CSAC)
In e media e le el liquid
was e
Slag-Po land blands, OPC wi h
e miculi e
Magnesium Phospha e
Cemen s (MPC)
Geopolyme s
Seconda y was e gene a ed
du ing ea men o sol en s
om ep ocessing
OPC
Geopolyme s
E apo a o concen a e
con aining bo ic acid
OPC
Calcium Alumina es Cemen
(CAC) & Calcium
Sul oalumina e Cemen s
(CSAC)
Magnesium Phospha e
Cemen (MPC)
Geopolyme s (Du aLi h™)
Table 11- Was e s eams s udied in STREAM and examples o con en ional Po land
o mula ions and al e na i e binde s used o condi ioning [50]
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials
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52
Fo STREAM, a selec ion o he mos common p oblema ic ope a ional was es has been made,
including SIERs, liquid o ganic was es, e apo a o concen a es, sludges o eac i e me als. An
ex ensi e wo k has been ocused on he ea men and condi ioning o hese ype o challenging
was es, bu some unce ain ies a e s ill emaining, especially conce ning he compa ibili y o hese
new binde s wi h se e al ypes o challenging was es [6][100][101].
4.2.2.2 Spen Ion Exchange Resins
Spen Ion Exchange Resins (SIERs) usually con ain as majo con aminan s ission p oduc s (i.e.
Cs, S ), co osion p oduc s, bo a es, ni a es and alkali componen s. Fo di ec immobiliza ion o
in OPC ma ices, SIERs con en is ypically kep below 10%w ., hough he use o addi i es (i.e.
silica ume, blas u nace slags) may allow o inc ease was e loading up o 20%.
Bead esins ha e a dele e ious e ec on he cemen i ious ma ix as con aminan s can e a d
se ing (i.e. bo a es, Zn). Tha is he case o SIERs used o he ea men o bo a e s eams.
Resins composed o sal s o sho chain wa e soluble o ganic acids (i.e. ace ic, o mic, picolinic
acids) can also in e e e wi h hyd a ion eac ions. Addi ionally, highe con en o anionic esins
may inc ease bleeding du ing cu ing o he was e o ms. Apa om he chemical in e ac ions,
SIERs may also in luence he mechanical pe o mance o he was e o m, as osmo ic swelling o
esins can lead o he o ma ion o mic oc acks. Wa e sa u a ion o he SIERs p e iously o
cemen a ion can be done o a oid his mechanical e ec [5].
4.2.2.3 Liquid O ganic Was es
Physic-chemical cha ac e is ics o Radioac i e Liquid O ganic Was es (RLOW) a e highly-
dependen on he chemical composi ion o he e luen o he na u e o he by-p oduc s gene a ed
du ing he hyd olysis and adiolysis o he o ganic compounds. Mos ypical RLOWs a e
con amina ed lub ica ing oils, liquid scin illa ion cock ails and sol en s om uel ep ocessing and
e luen s gene a ed in decon amina ion ac i i ies.
RLOWs can in e ac wi h he cemen i ious ma ix by co e ing he anhyd ous cemen g ains and
p e en ing he eac ion wi h wa e . This will lead o se e a da ion as well as o an inc ease in he
ma ix po osi y. This e ec is mo e in ense in he case o pola sol en s [113].
Ano he issue o conce n ela ed o his ype o was es is he g ea e suscep ibili y o RLOW-
was e o ms o leaching, as he immobiliza ion o he liquids is mainly physical and no chemical
bonding is gene ally obse ed. Liquids a e usually apped in he po es and oid space o he
ma ices and no s uc u al bonding occu s.
Gas gene a ion is ano he poin o ake in o conside a ion since i can lead o c acking o he
cemen i ious was e o m. O ganic liquid was es a e highly suscep ible o deg ade unde
s o age/disposal condi ions by se e al mechanisms: adiolysis, he mal and mic obial
deg ada ion.
Unde s anding mic obial ac i i y and i s impac on was e in eg i y is essen ial o long- e m
managemen . This unde s anding is c ucial o p e en he de elopmen o honeycombs in he
solidi ied ma ix, which may lead o s ack collapse i placed inco ec ly in a con aine s ack. This
is e en mo e ele an o polyme ic o bi umen was e o ms. In he case o cemen -s abilised
WFs, biodeg ada ion es ing is gene ally included in was e o m quali ica ion p o ocols o WFs
con aining ca bonaceous ma e ials, such as oils o SIERs.
All hese p oblems limi RLOW was e loading o 10%w . in cemen i ious was e o ms, i di ec
immobiliza ion is used. In o de o o e come pa ially he p e iously exposed p oblema ic, se e al
addi i es and admix u es ha e been used including clay, silica- and calcium-based addi i es and
emulsi ie s. Use o wo-s ep condi ioning achie es signi ican imp o emen s o was e loading.
P e-emulsi ica ion and p e-imp egna ion can lead o was e loadings up o 50%.
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials
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53
In PREDIS p ojec , WP5 was de o ed o he immobiliza ion o RLOWs in geopolyme s. Resul s
poin ed o geopolyme as a p omising al e na i e o oil condi ioning. Howe e , u he wo k needs
o be done o assess he long- e m beha io o he was e o ms in disposal en i onmen [100].
4.2.2.4 Reac i e Me allic Was es
Conside a ion should be gi en o managing he hyd ogen e olu ion o ce ain eac i e me als,
especially uns able when using a high pH g ou . OPC-based sys ems a e no adequa e o he
immobiliza ion o eac i e me allic was es, such as aluminum, be yllium o magnesium, since hey
a e likely o eac wi h he cemen pas e.
In e ac ion o hese me als wi h he cemen i ious ma ix esul s in he co osion o he me al
su ace. High co osion a es lead o a signi ican hyd ogen gene a ion, ha may cause he
c acking o he was e o m and an o e p essu e in he was e package ha can lead o he ailu e
o he was e package. Co osion con ol is especially ele an o he encapsula ion o Al-
con aining was es. Use o low-pH ma ices, such as MPC, has p o ed o con ibu e o educe
co osion a es o eac i e me als and he e o e, limi ing hyd ogen gene a ion [6] [114]. Howe e
o he al e na i e binde s o Be and Mg such as geopolyme s a e al e na i e binde unde
conside a ion.
Ano he in e es ing al e na i e is he use o ine gas blanke s [115], using gases such as ca bon
dioxide o o he s ha would d i e ou he hyd ogen p io o eaching he lash poin , he eby
p e en ing he c ea ion o an explosi e en i onmen wi hin a con aine o wo k a ea. Al e na i ely,
inc easing en ila ion is ano he op ion o be conside o a oid he isk o igni ion o explosion.
4.2.2.5 E apo a o concen a es and concen a ed solu ions
This was e s eam is cha ac e ized by a signi ican he e ogenei y o i s adiological and physic-
chemical cha ac e is ics. Concen a es can con ain a g ea a ie y o sal s and e en o ganics.
Bo a es, phospha es, sulpha es, ni a es, luo ides and o ganic compounds a e known o hei
impac on he hyd a ion eac ions ha can lead o se - e a ding o on he con a y, can accele a e
he hyd a ion p ocess. Bo on is a well-known se ing e a de whe eas ni a es end o accele a e
hyd a ion eac ions.
Depending on he saline con en and chemical composi ion, was e inco po a ion o he pas e can
a ec signi ican ly he mic os uc u al and mechanical p ope ies. C i e ia o selec ion o
immobiliza ion ma ix
Cemen i ious ma ices a e widely applied in he nuclea indus y o he condi ioning o LILW
basically due o:
- Compa ibili y wi h a wide ange o di e en was e s eams
- High binding capaci y o adionuclides
- Imp o ed chemical, he mal and adiological s abili y
- Good compa ibili y wi h cemen i ious EBS in disposal acili ies.
The design o a condi ioning ma ix aims o p oduce a du able was e o m wi h eliable long- e m
pe o mance unde s o age and disposal condi ions. Fo he choice o he ma ix and i s la e
op imiza ion, se e al conside a ions should be aken in o accoun :
1. Quali y equi emen s and s anda diza ion o aw ma e ials
2. Compa ibili y wi h he physic-chemical cha ac e is ics o he was e s eam: i.e.
componen s ha in luence hyd a ion eac ions
3. Fac o s a ec ing he cemen a ion p ocess: se ing ime, wo kabili y, iscosi y, e c.
4. Op imiza ion o he o mula ion: cemen /wa e a io, use o addi i es, op imised was e
loading
5. Finally, ype o disposal concep and he equi ed sa e y unc ions o he was e o ms

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In gene al, comp essi e s eng h, pe meabili y, i adia ion beha io o leaching esis ance a e
used as pe o mance indica o s du ing he design o he cemen i ious was e o ms o assess
solidi ica ion, s abiliza ion and hyd aulic pe o mances [113][116]. Resul ing was e o ms mus
ul ill WAC de ined o he disposal acili y, on he basis o i s sa e y case [18][27].
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5. Scaling-up and indus ial implemen a ion o new
ea men s and condi ioning p ocesses
Add essing he challenge o adioac i e was e managemen equi es obus , scalable, and
comme cially iable me hodologies o p ocessing and ea ing di e se o ms o was e, including
o ganic subs ances, me als, concen a ed esidues, and sludge. The p og ession om
expe imen al echniques de eloped in labo a o ies o la ge-scale indus ial applica ions in ol es
o e coming a mul i ude o obs acles, encompassing echnical complexi ies, egula o y
equi emen s, and inancial conside a ions.
5.1 P e ious expe iences om indus y, WMOs/was e
p oduce s
Gene ally, he selec ion o he p ocess(es) o he (p e) ea men o adioac i e was es is based
on he le el o ac i i y and he classi ica ion o was e. Ne e heless, was e managemen policies
and na ional egula ions can also in luence he adop ed app oach.
T ea men p ocesses such as compac ion and incine a ion a e widely ex ended. Chemical
p ocesses a e also o common use o he (p e) ea men o se e al was e s eams on an
indus ial scale, ei he in-plan o in ea men acili ies.
Examples o he mal ea men s
Table 12 summa ises he incine a o s a indus ial scale o ea liquid and solid adioac i e was es
a ailable ac oss Eu opean coun ies. Figu e 6 shows an example o o –gas sys em o he CILVA
incine a o loca ed a Belgop ocess (Belgium) o ea solid and liquid was es.
Coun y
Facili y
Capaci y
No es
Belgium
CILVA,
Resea ch Cen e
Belgop ocess
80 kg/h solid
50 kg/h liquid
Comme cial ea men :
solids, liquids and ion
exchange esins
F ance
Cycli e F ance
2500 on/y solid
2000 on/y liquid
Comme cial ILW & LLW
ea men acili y
Ne he lands
COVRA, Vlissingen–
Oos
60 kg/h solid
40 l/h liquid
Two incine a o s, one o
liquids, one o animal
ca casses & o he solids
Slo akia
Jaslo ske Bohunice
BSC
50 kg/h solid
10 kg/h liquid
Used in campaigns o
LLW
Spain
ENRESA El Cab il
50 kg/h o al solid &
liquid
Loca ed a LLW disposal
acili y
Sweden
Cycli e Sweden AB
License limi 600
on/y
Solid and liquid
Can also ea ac i a ed
ca bon
Table 12 - Incine a o acili ies o ea liquid and solid was e in Eu ope
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Figu e 6 - View o he o –gas sys em o he incine a o . (Cou esy o Belgop ocess).
O he he mal ea men echnologies cu en ly on a pilo scale a e he ELIPSE acili y a one o
he CEA si es (F ance) and he CFB gasi ica ion pilo plan in VTT (Finland). The ELIPSE me hod
employs mo e po en plasma (45 kW) imme sed in an aqueous solu ion (subme ged sp ayed
plasma a c). This high-powe plasma acili a es he decomposi ion o o ganic liquids a a a e o
up o 5 L/h (Figu e 7). This p ocess can handle a di e se ange o o ganic componen s, including
chlo ine, luo ine, phospho us, and scin illia ion cock ails. Liquids con aining TBP/dodecane o
chlo o o m mix u es can be p ocessed a a a e o 2 L/h o du a ions anging om 1 o 30 h. The
e icacy o he des uc ion was assessed by examining he o al o ganic ca bon in he emaining
solu ion, which consis en ly app oached 99%. Subs an ial ad ancemen s and demons a ions
ha e been achie ed in ecen yea s, posi ioning he p ocess a a echnology eadiness le el nea
six on he TRL scale. Howe e , his me hod s ill equi es u he echnical enhancemen s be o e
i can be implemen ed in indus ial and comme cial ope a ions.
Figu e 7 - Schema ic iew o he elimina ion o liquids by plasma in wa e (ELIPSE) p ocess.
(Cou esy o CEA).
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A he Technical Resea ch Cen e o Finland L d. (VTT), esea che s ha e been ad ancing on
he upscaling o he mal gasi ica ion echnology o he ea men o spen ion exchange esins
[117]. This echnique, known as ci cula ing luidized-bed gasi ica ion (Figu e 8), is also capable
o educing he olume o low-le el ope a ional was e con aining o ganic ma e , p o ided he
was e is c ushed be o ehand. The cu en es acili y is speci ically designed o p ocessing spen
ion-exchange esins; he e o e, modi ica ions o he eeding sys ems a e necessa y o
accommoda e o he was e ypes.
Figu e 8 - Pilo scale Ci cula ing Fluidised–Bed (CFB) gasi ica ion es ig. (Cou esy o VTT).
Examples o chemical ea men s
The nuclea indus y has access o a wide ange o chemical ea men s. Chemical neu aliza ion
o p ecipi a ion a e p ocedu es o common use o se e al ypes o was e s eams gene a ed in
di e en ac i i ies o he nuclea cycle. The choice o ea men is highly dependen on he speci ic
ask, chemical na u e o he con aminan , and he cha ac e is ics o he unde lying ma e ial. Table
13 p o ides a summa y o he key ea u es o cu en ly used chemical ea men echnologies.
Technology
Applicable was e
s eams
Tempe a u e/
P essu e
Emissions
Seconda y
was es
Elec ochemical
oxida ion
O ganic liquids,
cellulosic, some
plas ics
40–60o C/
Ambien p essu e
CO2, CO, NOx,
HNO2
Deple ed acid,
ino ganic sludge
Pho o oxida ion
Dilu e liquids, no
solids
25–40o C/
Ambien p essu e
CO2, CO
O ganic by–
p oduc s
Acid diges ion
O ganic liquids,
cellulosic
200oC/
Low P essu e
CO2, CO, NOx
Sludge
P ecipi a ion
Aqueous liquids
25–40o C/
Ambien p essu e
None
Sludge/p ecipi a e
Di ec chemical
oxida ion
O ganic liquids,
cellulosic
200oC/
Low P essu e
CO2, CO
Sludge
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paused in 2012, and esumed in 2022 wi h o e $200 million spen , ye challenges like was e s eam
a iabili y and acili y design emain. The U.S. GAO highligh ed in 2023 ha DOE's analysis o
al e na i es was limi ed, po en ially missing cos -sa ing op ions like mixing was e wi h conc e e ins ead
o glass, which could sa e ens o billions. The plan is no ye ope a ional, wi h comple ion p ojec ed
beyond 2084 a a cos o abou $341 billion. The lessons lea ned include he need o independen
alida ion o analyses and ea ly add essing o echnical isk. This case s udy illus a es he complexi ies
o upscaling wi h signi ican cos and schedule implica ions and unde sco es he impo ance o obus
planning and egula o y o e sigh .
5.3 NDT and moni o ing o Quali y Assu ance o was e packages
This epo p o ides a comp ehensi e explo a ion o he cu en s a e o he a in moni o ing adioac i e
was e packages using inno a i e non-des uc i e echniques, ocusing on me hods ha do no damage
o al e he was e package. The analysis is based on ecen esea ch and echnical epo s and aims o
o e de ailed insigh s o s akeholde s in nuclea was e managemen , including egula o s, acili y
ope a o s, and esea che s.
Non-des uc i e echniques a e p e e ed o moni o ing because hey allow o epea ed assessmen s
wi hou comp omising he in eg i y o he package, which is c i ical o long- e m s o age and disposal.
These echniques a e pa icula ly impo an o e i ying he con en , checking o leaks, and ensu ing
s uc u al in eg i y, especially in high- adia ion en i onmen s whe e di ec human in e en ion is limi ed.
Non-des uc i e echniques in ol e di ec analysis o ma e ials by obse ing hei spon aneous emission
o nuclea adia ion o using ex e nal p obes, such as gamma ays and neu ons, wi hou physically
al e ing he package. Common me hods include gamma- ay spec oscopy, neu on coun ing, and
omog aphic imaging, which a e used o bo h cha ac e iza ion and ongoing moni o ing. The ocus is on
inno a i e and ad anced applica ions, pa icula ly hose de eloped o enhanced in ecen yea s.
Tomog aphic Gamma Scanning (TGS)
TGS is a sophis ica ed non-des uc i e assay (NDA) me hod ha uses gamma- ay omog aphy o c ea e
a low- esolu ion h ee-dimensional image o he adioac i e ma e ial dis ibu ion wi hin he was e
package. This echnique imp o es upon he Segmen ed Gamma Scanne (SGS) by pe o ming
emission and ansmission scans, yielding bo h spa ial and ac i i y in o ma ion. The images we e used
o make accu a e poin - o-poin a enua ion co ec ions, enhancing he assay accu acy o
he e ogeneous was e. TGS is pa icula ly aluable o d ummed was e, wi h ield applica ions
demons a ed a si es such as Rocky Fla s o u anium-con amina ed was e and LANL o hea -sou ce
plu onium, as summa ized in a 2014 OSTI epo [126].
Gamma Ray Spec oscopy
Gamma- ay spec oscopy is ano he c i ical NDA echnique ha iden i ies and quan i ies gamma-
emi ing adionuclides by analysing he ene gy spec um o he emi ed gamma ays. This me hod is
essen ial o de e mining he ypes and amoun s o adioac i e ma e ials p esen , aiding in was e
classi ica ion and compliance wi h egula o y h esholds, such as he alpha ac i i y h eshold o < 0.37
MBq/kg (10⁻² Ci/ ) o cha ac e iza ion o was e packages a And a, F ance [127]. I is o en used in
combina ion wi h TGS o p o ide de ailed iso opic in o ma ion, he eby enhancing he o e all
cha ac e iza ion p ocess. Recen applica ions include sensi i e imaging o ac inide ma e ials in shielded
adioac i e was es, as no ed in a ecen publica ion [128].
Neu on Coun ing
Neu on coun ing measu es neu on-emi ing adionuclides such as plu onium iso opes using passi e
o ac i e me hods. Passi e neu on coun ing de ec s spon aneous ission neu ons, whe eas ac i e
me hods such as neu on in e oga ion induce ission o measu e he esponse. This echnique is c ucial
o assessing ansu anic (TRU) was e and is o en combined wi h gamma- ay me hods o
comp ehensi e analysis [129].

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Combined NDA Techniques
The in eg a ion o mul iple NDA me hods, such as TGS, gamma- ay spec oscopy, and neu on
coun ing, is a g owing p ac ice o achie e mo e accu a e and comp ehensi e cha ac e iza ion. The
combined use o neu on mul iplici y coun ing, calo ime y, g a ime y, and gamma- ay spec oscopy
has been used o de ec pa ial ma e ial de ec s in was e packages, demons a ing he syne gy o hese
me hods [130]. This app oach is pa icula ly use ul o add essing he challenges posed by he was e
ma ix densi y, elemen al composi ion, and dis ibu ion he e ogenei ies, as no ed in a echnical epo
[131]
Techniques de eloped and used in PREDIS WP7 p ojec [132]
Table 15 summa izes he echnologies de eloped and es ed wi hin he WP7 o he PREDIS p ojec .
Technology
Technology de elope s
Scin illa ing op ical Fib e (SciFi) gamma adia ion
moni o ing
INFN, I aly
Silicon Li hium Fluo ide (SiLiF) neu on adia ion
moni o ing
Senso ised Long- ange Radio (LoRa) wi eless senso
ne wo k
UniPi, I aly
Acous ic Emission (AE) o measu ing ASR
Magics and SCK CEN, Belgium
Non-con ac ul asonic scanning
NNL, UK
RFID embedded senso s
BAM, Ge many
VTT, Finland
Muon omog aphy (Mu-Tom)
INFN, I aly
Table 15 - Lis o echnologies de eloped and es ed wi hin he WP7
5.3.5.1 SciFi (gamma) and SiLiF (neu on) adia ion moni o ing
Compac lux de ec ion ins umen s, known as SiLiF neu on coun e s and SciFi gamma- ay coun e s,
ha e been de eloped o ex e nal moun ing on was e d ums. These de ices we e op imised and
e alua ed using INFN in PREDIS WP7 (Figu e 10). The SiLiF neu on coun e inco po a ed a
semiconduc o de ec o comp ising a silicon diode wi h a 6LiF neu on con e e laye on bo h sides.
The SciFi gamma ay coun e ea u es a scin illa ing ibe wi h silicon pho omul iplie s a each end, all
encased in an aluminum ube. The p oposed moni o ing app oach in ol es a ixing ou SciFi and SiLiF
senso s o he cemen ed d um o enable con inuous moni o ing h oughou he p e-disposal s age.
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Figu e 10.Comple e moni o ing uni consis ing o one SiLiF de ec o and one SciFi de ec o wi h he
ela ed elec onics (le ). A possible a angemen o ou adia ion moni o ing uni s on a cemen ed
d um du ing i s p e-disposal phase ( igh ).
PREDIS p ojec assessed he iabili y o ex ended- e m moni o ing using adia ion de ec o s placed
a ound adioac i e was e con aine s. This e alua ion encompassed ini ial labo a o y expe imen s,
compu e -based simula ions, and a wo-mon h da a ga he ing phase. The demons a ion u ilized a
cemen -based mock-up d um con aining a 165 MBq 137Cs gamma sou ce. In addi ion, he p ac icali y o
neu on de ec ion was examined using a PuBe neu on sou ce in a sepa a e es . These indings sugges
ha his moni o ing app oach could soon p o e o be an in aluable me hod o he ea ly iden i ica ion o
i egula i ies o po en ial in e e ence wi h d ums du ing hei p e-disposal s age in ac ual indus ial
se ings.
5.3.5.2 Senso ised LoRa Wi eless Senso Ne wo k [132]
UniPi has c ea ed and e alua ed an ad anced sys em o assessing he longe i y o was e o ms unde
s o age and eposi o y condi ions. This sys em inco po a es LoRa echnology o acili a e he ex ended
moni o ing o adioac i i y le els in was e con aine s and o measu e he su ace adia ion in ensi y and
in e nal s uc u al in eg i y. This app oach employs passi e gamma and neu on coun ing, and o e s
ongoing su eillance. By analyzing changes in luence o e ime, al e a ions in he was e ma ix s uc u e
can be de ec ed, educing he inconsis encies and human e o s ypically associa ed wi h was e
package managemen . The Wi eless Senso Ne wo k p oposed by UniPi comp ises h ee in eg a ed
le els, as illus a ed in Figu e 11 -
Figu e 11 - LoRa adia ion moni o ing amewo k o adioac i e was e d ums
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The sys em, which employs LoRa echnology o i s ene gy-e icien , cos -e ec i e, and long- ange
a ibu es, unde wen ini ial cha ac e iza ion a UniPi's Labo a o y o Nuclea Measu emen s. I hen
p oceeded o ield ials a Nucleco's Rome si e and a h ee-mon h demons a ion a he UJV as pa o
he PREDIS p ojec . These e alua ions con i med he echnology's abili y o pe o m de ailed ac i i y
moni o ing and anomaly de ec ion wi hin con aine s, showcasing i s sui abili y o emo e, au oma ed
moni o ing wi hou In e ne connec i i y. The es s assessed c ucial aspec s, such as adia ion de ec o
accu acy, wi eless da a ansmission eliabili y, ba e y longe i y, and he capaci y o he sys em o
iden i y s uc u al changes wi hin he d um ma ix. This alida ion p ocess es ablished he e icacy o he
sys em o long- e m adioac i e was e d um su eillance and i s adap abili y o a ious ope a ional
equi emen s.
5.3.5.3 Senso Acous ic Emission o measu ing ASR [132]
Acous ic Emission (AE) echnology, de eloped by Magics and SCK CEN, is a non in asi e moni o ing
me hod employed o e alua e he condi ion o was e con aine s. One ins ance whe e dis u bances migh
occu in a was e d um is du ing he alkali–silica eac ion (ASR) in cemen -based packages. This p ocess
esul s in he c ea ion o a gela inous subs ance ha expands, gene a es s ess, and po en ially causes
conc e e ac u es. The AE echnique u ilizes highly esponsi e piezoelec ic senso s (Figu e 12) placed
on he ex e io o he package. When a c ack o ms, he esul ing elas ic s ess wa e a els h ough he
ma e ial and can be de ec ed using an AE senso . To iden i y hese AE occu ences, a con inuous
wa e o m mus be p ocessed. Once e en s a e de ec ed, a cumula i e ally o e en s can be p oduced
as a unc ion o ime.
Figu e 12 - AE senso a ached o a was e d um (le ) and placed on op o a conc e e sample o
es ing ( igh )
Labo a o y-scale expe imen s conduc ed in PREDIS demons a ed he iabili y o using AE o moni o
conc e e expansion. The ini ial esul s indica ed a ela ionship be ween he o al numbe o acous ic
e en s and he expansion in ce ain conc e e composi ions and en i onmen al se ings. Howe e , d um-
scale expe imen s ailed o e eal dis inc expansion signals. Consequen ly, i was decided o delay he
p ocessing and analysis o he ga he ed AE da a un il no iceable changes we e obse ed.
5.3.5.4 Muon Tomog aphy [132]
The Mu-Tom echnique is a no el and p omising non-des uc i e app oach o examining he in e nal
s uc u e o cemen ed d ums. The INFN conduc ed es s on his me hod in he PREDIS p ojec . This
echnique u ilizes cosmic ay-gene a ed muons, which a e highly pene a i e pa icles ha a e capable
o passing h ough ma e wi hou being abso bed. As muons a e se ma e ials, hei ajec o ies a e
in luenced by mul iple Coulomb sca e ings. The sca e ing angle dis ibu ion depends on he densi y,
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a omic numbe , and hickness o he ma e ial. By examining hese sca e ing angles, Mu-Tom enables
he explo a ion o adioac i e was e d um con en wi hou using des uc i e me hods. The sys em
employed wo muon de ec o s posi ioned app oxima ely 3 m apa (Figu e 13). This echnique can
p oduce h ee-dimensional images and scan objec s a a ious ho izon al le els using a 3D
econs uc ion algo i hm, al hough he cu en appa a us has no been op imised o e ical coo dina e
measu emen s.
Figu e 13 - A pic u e o he mock-up p oduced by UJV and ins alled in he INFN Pado a Mu-Tom
demons a o . The wo muon de ec o s a e abo e and below he was e d um.
PREDIS conduc ed expe imen s using a simula ed was e d um c ea ed by a UJV, which con ained
me allic componen s encased in conc e e o mimic an ac ual was e con aine . These ials e ec i ely
showcased Mu-Tom's abili y o iden i y me al objec s wi hin subs an ial conc e e blocks, ep esen ing a
no able imp o emen in non-des uc i e examina ion me hods o s uc u al e alua ion. The subsequen
s age o his in es iga ion will ocus on b oadening da a collec ion o u he assess and e ine Mu-Tom's
capabili ies. Th ough he accumula ion and examina ion o addi ional in o ma ion, esea che s aim o
imp o e he p ecision and esponsi eness o he echnology o de ec ing and cha ac e izing me allic
elemen s wi hin conc e e s uc u es.
Digi al wins and was e package moni o ing
Digi al wins (DT) a e i ual ep esen a ions o physical objec s o sys ems ha mi o hei eal- ime
s a us ia da a in eg a ion. In was e package moni o ing, digi al wins a e used o ack he condi ion o
adioac i e was e packages, such as adia ion le els, empe a u e, and s uc u al in eg i y, wi hou
physical in e en ion. This is pa icula ly c ucial o managing low- and in e media e-le el adioac i e
was e du ing he p e-disposal phases, including ea men , condi ioning, and ex ended in e im s o age.
T adi ional moni o ing me hods o en in ol e di ec measu emen s, as discussed abo e, which can pose
isks o ope a o s owing o adia ion exposu e. Digi al wins o e a solu ion by enabling emo e eal- ime
moni o ing and p edic i e analysis, educing human in e en ion, and enhancing sa e y [133].
In his con ex , a DT is a dynamic da a-d i en model ha in eg a es eal- ime senso da a, simula ion
models, and ad anced da a p ocessing echniques. I allows o he con inuous moni o ing o was e
package pa ame e s, such as gamma and neu on emissions, empe a u e, and p essu e, and can
simula e a ious scena ios o p edic u u e beha iou . This echnology suppo s decision making o
sa e handling, anspo , and accep ance in o inal disposal acili ies, as well as iden i ying packages
equi ing emedial ea men . Key echnologies enabling digi al wins include he In e ne o Things (IoT)
o senso da a collec ion, machine lea ning o da a analysis, and 3D isualiza ion o ope a o
in e ac ion. These echnologies acili a e cybe -physical in eg a ion, whe e he i ual model upda es in
eal ime based on physical measu emen s, p o iding a comp ehensi e iew o he s a us o he was e
package.
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The s a e-o - he-a in digi al wins o was e package moni o ing includes se e al inno a i e
applica ions, pa icula ly highligh ed in ecen p ojec s such as PREDIS. The p ojec aimed o de elop,
adap , and demons a e digi al win echnology o was e package moni o ing, as de ailed in Wo k
Package 7 (WP7), "Inno a ions in cemen ed was e handling and p e-disposal s o age." The PREDIS
p ojec p oposed new me hods o managing and analysing da a om digi al wins, including signal
p ocessing and da a lea ning echniques [134]
Despi e ad ancemen s, challenges emain, including he high ini ial cos o de eloping digi al win
sys ems, he need o ex ensi e da a o aining machine lea ning models, and he in eg a ion o di e se
da a sou ces. Li e a u e on digi al wins o adioac i e was e disposal, including was e package
moni o ing, is spa se, indica ing he need o u he esea ch and alida ion.

EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
unde de elopmen o challenging was es
70
6. Challenges o new ea men and condi ioning echnologies
Though o mos common was e s eams, echnologies and p ac ices o was e ea men and
condi ioning a e well de ined, ce ain ypes o p oblema ic was e s eams such as, o ganic was es,
eac i e me als, legacy was es o e en was es om u u e uel cycles and eac o s, s ill do no ha e a
ma u e and consolida ed managemen ou e.
New was e s eams om D&D ope a ions can pose signi ican challenges o hei ea men and/o
condi ioning, no only because o hei adiological o physic-chemical cha ac e is ics bu because o he
la ge olumes o ea . Some o hese ypes o was e will no ha e an iden i ied managemen ou e o
will equi e adap a ions o exis ing condi ioning echniques [3] [116].
Ano he issue o inc easing in e es in nuclea indus y is he iden i ica ion o sui able was e
managemen ou es o new was e s eams gene a ed in he ope a ion o new eac o s, SMRs and
GEN IV is essen ial o hei u u e licensing [4].
De elopmen o new condi ioning ma ices is mainly d i en by he need o inding an adequa e
condi ioning echnology o p oblema ic was es ha cu en ly do no ha e an adequa e managemen
ou e. Howe e , o he aspec s such as sus ainabili y o he need o secu e aw ma e ials used o was e
cemen a ion a e issues o inc easing in e es in he cu en con ex .
Sus ainabili y o no el managemen ou es is a key poin o be assessed as a p e ious s ep o
indus ial implemen a ion [3]. Implemen a ion o p inciples such as was e minimiza ion o ecycling o
ma e ials will inc ease e iciency, educe olume o was e o be disposed and educe cos s. Applying
he p inciples o ci cula economy o nuclea decommissioning and was e managemen will lead o mo e
cos -e ec i e al e na i e whils imp o ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y by minimizing was e olumes and
op imizing disposal olume.
In ha sense, de elopmen o new low-ca bon oo p in cemen s can also aid o lessen
en i onmen al impac o condi ioning p ocesses. Howe e , he e a e s ill unce ain ies ha need o be
add essed. Design and op imisa ion o al e na i e cemen i ious sys ems (geopolyme s, AAMs,..) a e
aimed o o e come he exis ing limi a ions o adi ional OPC sys ems. And hough, p omising esul s
ha e been ob ained in p e ious p ojec s [100] [101], he e a e s ill ele an issues o hei indus ial
implemen a ion ha need o be s udied. Fu he esea ch is needed in issues such as, ma ix-was e
in e ac ions, disposabili y assessmen o WAC compliance.
New condi ioning ma e ials mus also exhibi ce ain lexibili y o adap o a iable olumes and
a iabili y o physic-chemical cha ac e is ics o non-con en ional was e s eams, including legacy
was es.
Secu i y o he supplies o cemen powde and supplemen a y ma e ials ( ly ash, blas - u nace slag)
is cu en ly ha he nuclea indus y is acing. E olu ion o cemen indus y o educe i s ca bon oo p in
has esul ed on a isk o he supply o cemen i ious ma e ials cu en ly in use o LILW condi ioning.
Changes in physic-chemical cha ac e is ics o OPC powde s can be a challenge o he manu ac u ing
and quali ica ion o he was e o ms [50]. Howe e , his ans o ma ion o cemen indus y has led o he
de elopmen o no el cemen s (CEM II/C-M, CEM VI, LC3, beli e-calcium sul oalumina e cemen s…)
ha may o e new p ospec s o design cemen -based ma ices and back ill ma e ials wi h educed
en i onmen al impac .
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
unde de elopmen o challenging was es
71
7. Gaps o be add essed in STREAM WP
Ce ain ypes o challenging was e s eams equi e speci ic condi ioning solu ions ha ha e no ye been
de eloped o need TRL inc ease. This may be he case o some ashes, eac i e ma e ials, eac i e
me als, non-incine able o ganic ma e ials, sludges o chemo oxic subs ances. The me hods o
con e ing o ans o ming hese was es in o accep ed was e o ms s ill need o be s udied [3].
STREAM WP is ocused on he de elopmen and op imiza ion o new o exis ing ea men and
condi ioning me hodologies o LILW o which no adequa e o echnological ma u e solu ions a e
cu en ly a ailable. including me allic was es, liquid o ganic was es, SIERs, sludges o e apo a o
concen a es. Addi ionally, o con en ional was e s eams, condi ioning o was es om new eac o s and
uel cycles ha e also been included in his WP acco ding o he ecommenda ions o he PREDIS
Posi ion Pape on EURAD SRA [4].
STREAM scope is aligned wi h he RD&D needs iden i ied in he ea men and condi ioning domains in
he PREDIS and EURAD SRAs and add esses mos o he common ac i i ies o in e es speci ied o
a eas ela ed o ea men and p ocessing, decon amina ion and condi ioning echnologies.
This wo k package aims o ad ance on he knowledge gene a ed in p e ious in e na ional ini ia i es on
p edisposal opics, like THERAMIN, PREDIS o EURAD-ROUTES p ojec s, in o de o inc ease TRLs
o echnologies unde de elopmen in o me p ojec s up o TRL 7 (p o o ype demons a ion).
T ea men and p ocessing echnologies ha e eached a high le el o ma u i y and e en comme cial
applica ions a e al eady a ailable, especially in he case o he mal ea men s (e.g. S uds ik FBSR,
Belgop ocess Plasma ea men ,…). Howe e , no all was e s eams can unde go con en ional he mal
ea men s due o hei small olumes o hei physic-chemical o adiological cha ac e is ics. The e o e,
u he wo k is equi ed o achie ing he indus ial implemen a ion o al e na i e p ocesses, pa icula ly
aiming a imp o ing pe o mance, sa e y, was e minimiza ion and cos - educ ion.
In he case o decon amina ion echnologies, gels and oams ha e a ac ed conside able a en ion. A
la ge amoun o wo k has been done in PREDIS p ojec [93]. Howe e , op imiza ion o decon amina ion
solu ions is s ill necessa y o imp o e he e iciency o he p ocesses and o minimise he olume o
p ima y and seconda y was es.
The need o he design and op imiza ion o al e na i e binde s ha e been ex ensi ely in es iga ed in
p e ious na ional and in e na ional p ojec s. Some new cemen s, such as MPC [6] a e eady o mo e o
eal-scale demons a ion ( eal scale con aine s). Howe e , o he no el condi ioning ma ices, like
geopolyme and AAMs, s ill need u he op imiza ion (i.e. inc ease o was e loading), especially o
ce ain challenging was es.
O he low-ca bon binde s, such as CEM II/C-M, CEM VI, LC3, beli e-calcium o sul oalumina e cemen s,
can o e new p ospec s o was e immobiliza ion whils minimizing en i onmen al impac . Ne e heless,
hei immobiliza ion capaci y and esul ing was e o m pe o mances s ill need o be e alua ed.
Addi ional wo k needs o be done o elucida e was e-ma ix in e ac ions in he sho /medium/long- e m
and hei impac on was e o m pe o mance unde ealis ic s o age/disposal condi ions.
Fo inc easing he ma u i y le el o hese no el condi ioning ma e ials, aspec s such as scale-up o
s anda diza ion and quali ica ion mus be e alua ed p io o an indus ial implemen a ion phase.
Disposabili y assessmen , including he sui abili y o exis ing WAC o new was e o ms o he need o
de elop new ones, is a key issue o inc easing TRL.
Long- e m pe o mance o was e o ms is closely ela ed o he de ini ion o WAC o disposal acili ies
[135]. In STREAM, use o non-des uc i e con ol echniques and he de elopmen o simula ion models
has been p oposed o suppo unde s anding package s abili y/pe o mance h ough bo h long- e m
s o age and inal disposal. Despi e no expe imen al wo k will be done o assess long- e m du abili y o
he new was e o ms, his WP will bene i om esul s ob ained in WP L’OPERA. Collabo a ion wi h his
wo k package is al eady on-going and addi ionally o he exchange o da a, bo h expe imen al and
modelled, sha ing o samples is o eseen.
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
unde de elopmen o challenging was es
72
Table 16 summa izes he knowledge gaps iden i ied and he co ela ion wi h he p oposed esea ch
ac i i ies in STREAM
These iden i ied gaps will be add essed in he h ee echnical asks o STREAM. Task 3 (S udy o
ea men and condi ioning me hods) will deal wi h issues ela ed o he op imiza ion o ea men s and
al e na i e binde s o he condi ioning o he selec ed was es. Task 4 (Scaling-up o ea men and
condi ioning me hods), on he o he hand, will add ess he challenges o scaling-up, including he
de elopmen o new moni o ing and modelling ools o assis he manu ac u ing and pe o mance o
la ge scale p o o ypes. Finally, ask 5 (Deploying sa e solu ions achie ing cos and en i onmen al
pe o mances ollowing he p inciples o ci cula economy) will co e some o he emaining unce ain ies
e e ed o he sui abili y o exis ing WAC and quali ica ion es ing p o ocols o he esul ing was e o m.
.
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o unde de elopmen o challenging was es
73
EURAD Roadmap Domain
Iden i ied gap(s)
R&D ac i i y in STREAM
(Sub) ask in STREAM WP
Expec ed ou come
2.1.2. Iden i y pa ame e s
and me ics o was e
accep ance c i e ia h ough
whole li e cycle (Was e
Accep ance C i e ia)
Need o de ine new WAC o
no el was e o ms
conside ing ea men and/o
condi ioning and
s o age/disposal phases.
Analysis o exis ing WAC,
conside ing ope a ional and
pos -closu e assessmen
(enginee ba ie s
compa ibili y,
di usion/leaching, sho -mid-
e m beha iou ,
in ude /acciden
scena ios….)
5.2. E alua ion o ul ilmen o
WACs and disposabili y
assessmen acco ding o
disposal acili ies ea u es
Assessmen o he sui abili y
o exis ing WAC o no el-
binde WFs (and adap a ion i
necessa y)
2.1.3. Assess po en ial
echnologies o he
implemen a ion phase,
conside ing cos -bene i a io
and a ailabili y (Technology
Selec ion)
Need o ma u e ea men
and condi ioning
echnologies ha allow o
minimise was e olume o
can p o ide an op imised
managemen ou e o ce ain
was es
Demons a ion o he
upscaling easibili y o
ea men and condi ioning
p ocesses de eloped in ask
3 by a combina ion o la ge-
scale es ing
4.1. Demons a ion o up-
scaling easibili y o ea men
and condi ioning p ocesses.
P o ide guidance o
enduse s o he selec ion o
he mos sui able ea men
and/o condi ioning
echnology conside ing
ma u i y o echnology, cos -
e ec i eness and
en i onmen al aspec s.
LCC/LCA analyses o he
mos p omising
p ocesses/ma e ials
5.1. Technical and economic
equi emen s ela ed o he
ea men and condi ioning
ma ices
2.2.2. Minimise he quan i y
and olume o adioac i e
was e h ough p e- ea men
and ea men
Imp o ed was e ea men
ou es, including me hods o
decon amina ion and
imp o ed seg ega ion, ha
allow was e minimiza ion
and educ ion o seconda y
was e s eams,
Design and op imisa ion o
he mal and chemical
ea men : i.e low-g adien
he mal ea men and
he e ogeneous Fen on we
oxida ion p ocesses
3.1. Op imiza ion o a ailable
ea men echnologies and
condi ioning ma ices based
on al e na i e binde s.
Op imised chemical and
physical me hods o
ea men , including
decon amina ion solu ions
Scaling-up o chemical and
gel decon amina ion
p ocesses using su oga es
and eal adioac i e samples
4.1. Demons a ion o up-
scaling easibili y o ea men
and condi ioning p ocesses.
Scaling-up o indus ial
p o o yping o he mos
p omising echnologies
EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o unde de elopmen o challenging was es
80
Type o
ea men
Ad an ages o e adi ional ou es
P ocesses/pa ame e s ha need o be
op imised o inc ease TRL
P ojec phase (pilo
phase, p o o ype, lab
scaling-up, lab)
TRL
EASD® Gel
EASD® Gel is one echnology a ia ion ha u ilises
a gel-based elec oly e
The chemical eagen is ni ic acid, has o med he
basis o he elec oly e-media used in he EASD®
Gel echnology. I has s udy compa ible wi h a
a ie y elec oly e solu ions and di e en me allic
was e (e.g., s ainless s eels, nickel-alloys, lead
e c.).
Labo a o y scale
esea ch. Imp o ed
decon amina ion
e iciency Spen gel is
s o ed in a plas ic
con aine p io o
neu alisa ion and
disposal. Po en ial
was e educ ion
TRL 3-4
Foams
Sui able o la ge su aces and i ems o excessi e
weigh Imp o e he con ac be ween su ace and
chemicals
Sho li espan (15–30 min)
Low seconda y was e p oduc ion i eagen is
eused
Sp aying equi es di ec ope a o in e en ion and
canno be used o closed olumes ( essels,
ca i ies). Highe exposu e o wo ke s. Li e ime o
oam is limi ed. Ca e mus be aken when lushing
Labo a o y scale
esea ch.
TRL 3-4

EURAD-2 Deli e able 6.1 – Re iew o ea men and condi ioning p ocesses and ma e ials a ailable o
unde de elopmen o challenging was es
81
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