Emerging avalanche field-effect transistors based on two-dimensional semiconductor materials and their sensory applications

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Ci e his: J. Ma e . Chem. C, 2025,
13, 15767
Eme ging a alanche ield-effec ansis o s based
on wo-dimensional semiconduc o ma e ials
and hei senso y applica ions
Ehsan Elahi, †*
a
Muhammad Fa ooq Khan, †
b
Jamal Aziz,
c
Ume Ahsan,
a
Payal Chauhan,
a
Mohammed A. Assi i,
d
Kalyan Jyo i Sa ka ,
a
Ume Asghe
e
and Zdenek So e *
a
Recen ly, wo-dimensional (2D) laye ed semiconduc o s ha e been he subjec o p omising esea ch
wo k due o hei in iguing physical and chemical cha ac e is ics. In elec onic nano-de ices, impac
ioniza ion is a iable condi ion o in es iga e o p obe he le el o sensi i i y upon he applica ion
o ex e nal s imuli. Howe e , a alanche ield-effec ansis o s (FETs) ha e eme ged as p omising
candida es o a wide ange o sophis ica ed applica ions, especially o sensing ai s. In his e iew,
we explo e he inco po a ion o 2D ma e ials in o a alanche FETs, highligh ing hei auspicious
p ope ies such as high ca ie mobili y, a iable band gaps, and a omic hickness, which p o ide
signi ican ad an ages o e ypical ma e ials. 2D ma e ials signi ican ly imp o e he sensi i i y, speed,
and powe efficiency o a alanche FETs. This s udy also encompasses he ad ances in pho o-, bio- and
gas-sensing echnologies, emphasizing hei implica ions in con empo a y applica ions such as op o-
elec onics, imaging, and en i onmen al moni o ing. Thus, ou e iew p o ides a ho ough in es iga ion
o ma e ial a ibu es, de ice a chi ec u e, and p ospec i e applica ions by es ablishing a alanche FETs
wi h 2D ma e ials as he keys one in powe and ec i ying applica ions.
1. In oduc ion
A e he disco e y o g aphene,
1
he scien i ic communi y has
explo ed wo-dimensional (2D) laye ed semiconduc o ma e i-
als ha ha e been ecognized as p omising con ende s o a
a ie y o applica ions due o hei excep ional cha ac e is ics,
which include a dangling-bond- ee su ace, ich physical p op-
e ies, and lexibili y a he a omic le el.
2–6
Due o high con ac
esis ance, la ge leakage cu en , and sho channel e ec s, he
con en ional solid-s a e echnology in okes o mee he need
o minia u iza ion in elec onic de ices.
7,8
The po en ial o
he e olu iona y ole o 2D ma e ials in nanoelec onics and
op oelec onics is essen ially admi ed in he mode n e a.
9–11
This mo i a es he in es iga ion o 2D semiconduc o s, such as
TMDCs,
3,12–17
g oup III chalcogenides (e.g., InSe, GaSe, In
2
Se
3
,
e c.),
18–21
and mono-elemen al ma e ials (e.g., phospho ene,
ellu ene, e c.).
22–24
The e o e, 2D semiconduc o s a e ex e-
mely use ul o de eloping elec onic,
25,26
pho onic, memo y,
27
sensing
28
and neu omo phic de ices
29–32
due o hei exclusi e
elec onic band s uc u es and a omically hin physical
a chi ec u e.
12,33,34
These ma e ials can play a subs an ial ole
in accele a ing he ad ancemen o bo h elec onics
35–37
and
op oelec onics
38–40
due o hei ease o ab ica ion and in e-
g a ion (wi hou he need o s ic la ice ma ching o epi axy),
high ca ie mobili y,
18,19
s ong ligh –ma e in e ac ions,
41,42
and s ong elec os a ic con ol.
43
2D semiconduc o echnol-
ogy is now ad anced enough o be compa ible wi h Si-based
elec onics, allowing di e si y in ab ica ion o nano-de ices
and ci cui -le el con igu a ions on he wa e scale.
44–47
1.1. A alanche b eakdown phenomenon
In ecen yea s, a ew effo s ha e been made owa ds impac
ioniza ion in a alanche ansis o s made using 2D ma e ials.
A alanche FETs
48
ha e been gaining gigan ic a en ion in
a
Depa men o Ino ganic Chemis y, Uni e si y o Chemis y and Technology,
P ague, Technicka
´5, P ague 616628, Czech Republic. E-mail: [email p o ec ed],
[email p o ec ed]
b
Depa men o AI Con e gence Elec onic Enginee ing, Sejong Uni e si y, Seoul,
Republic o Ko ea
c
Chai o Sma Senso Sys ems, Uni e si y o Wuppe al, Wuppe al, Ge many
d
Depa men o Chemis y, College o Science, King Khalid Uni e si y,
P.O. Box 9004, Abha, 61413, Saudi A abia
e
Labo a o y o Human Fac o s and Au oma ion in A ia ion, Depa men o Ai
T anspo , Facul y o T anspo a ion Sciences, Czech Technical Uni e si y in
P ague (CTU), 128 00 P ague, Czechia
School o In e disciplina y Enginee ing and Sciences (SINES), Na ional Uni e si y
o Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, 44000, Pakis an
†These wo au ho s con ibu ed equally.
Recei ed 21s May 2025,
Accep ed 8 h July 2025
DOI: 10.1039/d5 c02021b
sc.li/ma e ials-c
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Ma e ials Chemis y C
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elec onics due o hei abili y o pe o m pho o-, gas- and bio-
sensing (Fig. 1a). The a alanche b eakdown is a phenomenon
in semiconduc o de ices whe e a sudden inc ease in cu en
occu s due o he ioniza ion o ca ie s (holes and elec ons)
wi hin he ma e ial. This happens when an elec ic ield
(E- ield) ac oss he p–n junc ion is su icien ly s ong, leading
o apid mul iplica ion o cha ge ca ie s. The p ocess o
a alanche mul iplica ion occu s when an ex emely as cha ge
collides wi h a oms in a subs ance, c ea ing elec on–hole pai s
ha a e assis ed by ee alence elec ons. The h eshold o
E- ield a which a alanche b eakdown o igina es and a ma e ial
ansi s om a highe - esis ance s a e o a lowe - esis ance
s a e is used o in e p e he elec ical b eakdown ol age
(V
EB
); he a alanche b eakdown egion is shown in Fig. 1(b).
I is a c ucial ac o o igu e ou he highes ol age ha an
elec onic de ice can ole a e be o e su e ing pe manen
damage o he c ys alline s uc u e o ma e ials. The ela ion-
ship be ween V
EB
and he dimensions o he channel ma e ial,
such as channel leng h and hickness, p o oundly in luences
he de ice con igu a ion, unc ionali ies and ab ica ion. The
elec ical b eakdown obse ed in 2D-FETs unde a high E- ield
o igina ed om impac ioniza ion wi hin he 2D channel,
commonly e e ed o as a alanche mul iplica ion.
49
The c i i-
cal elec ic ield (E
CR
) and impac ioniza ion a e (a) a e he key
Ehsan Elahi
D Ehsan Elahi cu en ly wo ks as
a pos doc o al esea che in he
So e g oup a he Depa men o
Chemis y, Uni e si y o Chemis y
and Technology (UCT), P ague,
Czech Republic. He ob ained his
MSc in Elec onics om Quaid-i-
Azam Uni e si y Islamabad,
Pakis an and MPhil om Riphah
In e na ional Uni e si y Laho e
Campus, Punjab, Pakis an. He
a ained a doc o a e deg ee (PhD)
om he Depa men o Physics,
Sejong Uni e si y, Seoul, Sou h
Ko ea in 2024. Ehsan’s esea ch in e es s include 2D ma e ials
(TMDCs), 2D e omagne ic ma e ials, elec onics, op oelec onics,
spin onics, and spin-calo i onics.
Muhammad Fa ooq Khan
D Muhammad Fa ooq Khan is
an assis an p o esso a he Depa -
men o AI Con e gence Elec onic
Enginee ing, Sejong Uni e si y,
Republic o Ko ea. He ea ned his
PhD (Physics) om Sejong Uni-
e si y in 2018. A e ha , he
was a pos doc ellow a Yonsei
Uni e si y in 2019. His esea ch
p ima ily ocused on nano ab i-
ca ion o elec onic, memo y, and
ene gy ha es ing de ices
mani es ed by wo-dimensional
laye ed semiconduc o ma e ials.
His con ibu ions ex end beyond academia; he success ully won
wo esea ch g an s om he Na ional Resea ch Founda ion (NRF)
o Sou h Ko ea and has au ho ed a book chap e on ‘‘2D Ma e ial
Pho onics and Op oelec onics.’’ In addi ion, he is se ing as a
e e ee o a ious scien i ic jou nals ensu ing he dissemina ion o
high-quali y esea ch.
Ume Ahsan
M Ume Ahsan holds a Mas e o
Science in Physics om COMSATS
Uni e si y Islamabad, Laho e
Campus, comple ed in 2020. He
is pu suing a PhD in Chemical
Technology a he Uni e si y o
Chemis y and Technology,
P ague, whe e his doc o al ese-
a ch ocuses on syn hesis, cha ac-
e iza ion, and de ice in eg a ion
o ad anced wo-dimensional
ansi ion me al dichalcogenides
and hei no el alloys. His wo k
explo es applica ions in nex -
gene a ion nanoelec onic and op oelec onic de ices—including
ield-effec ansis o s, pho ode ec o s, and chemical senso s—by
in es iga ing s uc u e–p ope y ela ionships o enhance pe o -
mance. He has au ho ed se e al pee - e iewed a icles ad ancing
sus ainable, high-pe o mance elec onic sys ems.
Payal Chauhan
D Payal Chauhan is a Ma ie
Skłodowska-Cu ie Ac ions pos -
doc o al ERA Fellow in he So e
G oup a he Uni e si y o Chemi-
s y and Technology (UCT),
P ague, Czech Republic. She
ecei ed he PhD in Physics om
he Depa men o Physics, Sa da
Pa el Uni e si y, Guja a , India,
in 2022. P io o joining UCT,
she held a pos doc o al posi-
ion a CHARUSAT Uni e si y,
Guja a , India. He cu en ese-
a ch ocuses on wo-dimensional
composi e ma e ials o elec oca aly ic applica ions, including
wa e spli ing, supe capaci o s, and anion exchange memb ane
elec olyze s o seawa e elec olysis, aiming o ad ance
sus ainable ene gy and hyd ogen p oduc ion echnologies.
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pa ame e s o quan i ying he a alanche b eakdown mecha-
nism. The E
CR
is e e ed o as he lowes E- ield equi ed o
he a alanche mul iplica ion and a(cm
1
) is e e ed o as he
numbe o elec on–hole pai s p oduced pe uni dis ance
a elled by he ho ca ie . He e, E
CR
=V
EB
/L,whe eV
EB
is he
alue o sou ce–d ain ol age (V
DS
) a which he b eakdown
begins. When he de ice ope a es unde he b eakdown zone,
he ca ie mul iplica ion gain (G) becomes limi ed, making
i sui able o pho on ene gy disce nmen , and he de ice
ou pu cu en is p opo ional o he incoming pho on powe .
Con e sely, when he de ice unc ions abo e he b eakdown
ol age, known as Geige mode, an inciden pho on can
ini ia e a alanche b eakdown, esul ing in subs an ial ca ie
mul iplica ion. This mul iplica ion can be unlimi ed and may
ins iga e a sel -su icien a alanche de elopmen , he eby
assis ing single-pho on de ec ion.
50
The b eakdown beha io
o some 2D ma e ials, such as MoS
2
,
51
WSe
2
and g aphene,
52
has been he subjec o ecen in es iga ions. Along wi h
a ious o he de ice applica ions, he 2D ma e ials including
g aphene, TMDCs and black phospho us (BP) ha e p o ided
new oppo uni ies o imp o ing he pe o mance o a a-
lanche FETs.
51,53,54
An a alanche pho odiode (APD) is an eno mously sensi i e
pho ode ec o ha can ans o m ligh in o cu en / ol age.
Basically, he APD ope a es a high e e se bias ol ages o ens
o e en hund eds o ol s.
55
In his phase, he E- ield accele -
a es he pho ogene a ed elec on–hole pai s, allowing hem o
impac ionize and p oduce addi ional ca ie s. The APD can
he e o e be employed as an inc edibly e y sensi i e de ec o
ha equi es minimal elec ical in ensi ica ion. Fu he mo e,
due o he a omically hin na u e, 2D ma e ials may be able o
s a he impac ioniza ion in a sho ac i e egion (o10 nm)
wi h ela i ely low elec ical bias, esul ing in ca ie mul i-
plica ion wi h a high Gand be e noise pe o mance owing o
i s nanoscale ac i e zone. Fig. 1(c and d) depic s he he e o-
junc ion band alignmen s a a ious bias ol ages o e alua e
he in insic phenomenon o he a alanche pho odiode.
56
The
pink a ea shows he deple ion zone in he p- ype/n- ype he e o-
junc ion. When he FET is unde bias, he applied ol age
aligns wi h he buil -in E- ield. A low ol ages, as demons a ed
in Fig. 1(c), he ex e nal E- ield is insu icien o cause a a-
lanche b eakdown, limi ing he pe o mance o he de ice o a
ypical pho ode ec o wi h limi ed gain. Fig. 1(d) depic s he
de ice’s band alignmen a high bias ol age, esul ing in
ca ie mul iplica ion ia he a alanche p ocess.
56
Inc easing
bias ol age a he p–n junc ion accele a es pho ogene a ed
ca ie s in he E- ield, esul ing in mo e ene gy. Ca ie mul i-
plica ion gene a es mo e elec on–hole pai s, signi ican ly
inc easing pho ocu en .
57,58
The key me ics pa ame e s o
se e al ypes o APDs based on 2D ma e ials and hei he e o-
s uc u es a e compiled in Table 1.
55,59
EQE is de ined as he
a io o he numbe o collec ed elec ons o he numbe o
injec ing pho ons, which is equi alen o Rhc
el%¼Iph
P
hc
el%.
60,61
He e, I
ph
is he change in pho ocu en , lis he wa eleng h o
he inciden ligh , his Planck’s cons an , cis he speed o ligh
and Pis he inciden op ical powe . Ne e heless, 2D pho o-
de ec o de ices use impac -ionized ca ie mul iplica ion, and
all inciden pho ons a e no abso bed o gene a e ee elec on–
hole pai s o con ibu e o a pho ocu en ; hei EQE is less
han one. Howe e , due o he high Scho ky ba ie among he
2D channel and me al con ac s, he majo i y o 2D APDs
equi e a signi ican ly high bias in o de o commence impac
ioniza ion. In 2D APDs, he V
EB
can be dec eased by subs i u -
ing 2D dW he e ojunc ions o me al/semiconduc o
Scho ky junc ions. Thus, u he de elopmen s in 2D-APDs
ha ope a e a oom empe a u e wi h low bias and high gain
(G) a e equi ed. Responsi i y (R),
62,63
de ec i i y (D*)
64,65
and
Kalyan Jyo i Sa ka
D Kalyan Jyo i Sa ka ecei ed
his PhD deg ee om he Indian
Ins i u e o Technology Kha agpu
(IIT Kha agpu ), India in 2020.
Cu en ly he is wo king as a
pos doc o al esea che a So e
G oup, Uni e si y o Chemis y
and Technology P ague (UCT
P ague). P io o joining he So e
G oup in Janua y 2022, he was a
SERB Na ional Pos doc o al Fellow
a he Indian Ins i u e o Science
Bangalo e (IISc Bangalo e). He has
also wo ked as a esea ch
associa e-I in he QuEST-DST p ojec o six mon hs a he Indian
Ins i u e o Science Educa ion and Resea ch, Thi u anan hapu am
(IISER TVM). His esea ch ocus is on ab ica ion and cha ac e iza ion
o 2D ma e ial-based de ices o op oelec onics, memo y applica ions,
and quan um anspo s udies.
Zdenek So e
D Zdene
ˇk So e has been a
ull p o esso a he Uni e si y o
Chemis y and Technology P ague,
Czech Republic, since 2019. He
also ecei ed his PhD om he Uni-
e si y o Chemis y and Tech-
nology P ague in 2008. Du ing his
PhD, he spen one yea a Fo s-
chungszen um Julich (Pe e G u
¨n-
be g Ins i u e, Ge many), ollowed
by pos doc o al expe ience a he
Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen,
Ge many. His esea ch in e es s
include semiconduc o s and 2D
ma e ials, hei syn hesis, c ys al g ow h, chemical modi ica ions and
unc ionaliza ion. He is pa icula ly ocused on a ious applica ions o
wo-dimensional ma e ials including ene gy s o age and con e sion.
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EQE
66,67
a e he impo an pa ame e s o he pho ode ec ion
phenomenon.
67
Ris de ined as he a io o he pho ocu en o
he incoming ligh powe : R¼Iph
PA,
68,69
he e Ais he e ec i e
a ea and Pis he inciden powe densi y. D* is a e m ha
ypically e e s o he abili y o a senso o de ec a signal o
s imulus D¼Rffiffiffiffi
A
p
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2eIda k
p
!
.
70
On he o he hand, o ou s and-
ing pe o mance o he senso , and human–compu e com-
munica ion applica ions, piezo onic and piezo-pho o onic
de ices ha e been cons uc ed.
2,71,72
Examples o hese de ices
Table 1 The summa ized cha ac e is ics o a alanche de ices
Ma e ials
A alanche de ice
ype Responsi i y (R)(AW
1
)
De ec i i y (D*)
(Jones) Rise/ all ime (s) Gain (G)l(nm) EQE Re .
MoS
2
Pho o ansis o 3.4 10
7
4.3 10
16
27/1.2 s — 520 E8.1 10
9
%97
Bi
2
O
2
Se Pho odiode 3 10
3
4.6 10
14
2.5 ms 400 515 — 222
BP Pho ode ec o 160 — — 7 520 382 10
2
%59
WSe
2
APD Pho o ansis o 5910 5.3 10
12
8/8.2 ms 500 532 — 109
WSe
2
/WS
2
FET 135 1.3 10
12
131.8/146.5 ms — 400–
1100
— 116
BP/InSe Pho odiode 80 — — 10
4
4mm 24.8 10
2
% 165
MoS
2
Pho ode ec o 10
4
210
12
— 24 532 — 100
WSe
2
/MoS
2
Pho odiode 88 m——E1300 532 — 117
InSe APD Pho ode ec o — — 87 ms 152 543 866% 141
ZnO Pho ode ec o 1.7 10
4
3.2 10
12
20 ns/98.9 ns 294 367 — 138
p-Ge/n-MoS
2
Pho odiode 170 — 357/365 ms 320 532 — 244
MoTe
2
/WSe
2
/
MoTe
2
Pho odiode 6.02 7.24 10
9
475 ms 587 400–700 1406% 245
G /epi axial silicon Pho ode ec o 0.38 6.63 10
12
1.4 ms 1123 300–
1100
60% 218
InSe APD Pho ode ec o 1 10
5
7.3 10
12
1 ms 500 405–785 — 223
MoS
2
-WSe
2
Bionic 7.6 10
4
— 108/268 ms 1.5 10
4
635 10
7
% 241
WS
2
Pho ode ec o 74 1.45 10
13
— — 532 — 54
Monolaye MoS
2
Pho o ansis o 8.84 10
8
1.65 10
13
2 ms — 450–650 — 246
P /WSe
2
/Ni APD Pho ode ec o E0.28 — 45/50 ms510
5
520 60% 158
Fig. 1 (a) Schema ic o an a alanche FET/a alanche pho osenso : which can be u he used o gas and biomolecule sensing. (b) Schema ic
ep esen ing he a alanche b eakdown egion in he o m o he (I–V) cu e. The band con igu a ion o he p–n he e ojunc ion: (c) unde low bias
(VoV
EB
). (d) High bias V4V
EB
.
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include piezoelec ic FETs,
73
nanogene a o s,
73
sola cells,
74
pho o onic pho ocells
73
and piezo onic s ain senso s.
75
Mono-
laye MoS
2
was used o p oduce piezo onic ansis o s.
76
The
piezo onic GaN unnelling junc ion esponded quickly o ex e nal
mechanical s imuli, aking only a esponse ime o 4.38 ms.
76
GaN
e ical nanowi es ha e a empo al esponse o less han 5 ms.
77
In gene al, he piezoelec ic ield and po en ial go e n he buil -in
ield in he p–n junc ion, as well as he heigh o he ba ie a
he me al–semiconduc o in e ace.
78,79
The piezo onic de ices
buil wi h mul ijunc ions ha e a gauge ac o abo e 10
4
and may
be used as ul a-high sensi i i y s ain senso s, due o in eg a ing
piezoelec ic con ol wi h bipola ansis o ampli ica ion.
80
Howe e , he e has always been a di e ence be ween ad anced
applica ions and basic esea ch. The absence o a consis en and
p ac ical me hod o cha ac e izing hei cha ac e is ics, which
ough o be well-sui ed wi h he con en ional pho ode ec o
pe o mance assessmen scheme, has been one o he p ima y
causes o his dispa i y. De e mining he le el o in e ope abili y
be ween labo a o y p o o ypes and indus y echnology is c ucial.
We p esen b oade p inciples o he e olu ion o he igu es o
me i o 2D-based de ices and looked a equen ins ances in
which he pa icula D*, R,I
da k
, and speed migh be misjudged.
This e iew a icle explains he la es ad ancemen s in
a alanche FETs ha use he dis inc i e cha ac e is ics o 2D
ma e ials. In addi ion, we also explo e he po en ial applica-
ions o a alanche FETs in sensing echnology, which is becom-
ing mo e impo an o ecen applica ions o d ug sc eening,
heal hca e, and cybe secu i y sys ems. To unde s and he use
o 2D semiconduc o s in elec onics, op oelec onics, and sen-
sing echnology as a alanche FETs, i is impo an o explo e
undamen al concep s and ecen b eak h oughs. Finally, we
discuss he challenges and po en ial o 2D semiconduc o -
based de ices o p ac ical applica ions and hei scalabili y,
which should be add essed by bo h academic and indus ial
esea che s. Ou pe spec i e can assis academia o a be e
unde s anding o 2D semiconduc ing ma e ials and hei un-
damen al concep s wi h deep insigh s.
2. A alanche b eakdown phenomena
in 2D and TMDC ma e ials
2.1. A alanche effec in MoS
2
-based FETs
TMDC nanoshee s ha e gained popula i y due o he lack o
dangling bonds on hei su ace, hei excep ional mechanical
lexibili y, and hei high su ace- o- olume a io.
81–83
Explo a-
ion has ocused on laye ed MoS
2
o i s excep ional elec ical
p ope ies and hickness-dependen band con igu a ion, which
shi s om an indi ec bandgap o 1.2 eV o a di ec bandgap o
1.8 eV wi h ewe laye s.
84–86
MoS
2
has he po en ial o e olu-
ionize elec onics, including ul a hin anspa en FETs,
87,88
logic ci cui s,
89,90
and senso applica ions.
91–93
To employ MoS
2
in spa ial in eg a ed elec ical p oposals and applica ions, FET
channel leng hs needed o be educed o sub-mic ome e s. As a
esul , exposu e o s ong la e al E- ields may cause elec ical
b eakdown. Fu he mo e, he elec onic band con igu a ion in
semiconduc o s has an impac on he elec ical b eakdown.
As MoS
2
-FETs show he quan um con inemen e ec , he
hickness o MoS
2
de e mines he elec ical b eakdown in he
de ice. Unde s ong E- ields, he elec ical cha ac e iza ion o
MoS
2
is a e due o he mal b eakdown as he channel laye ’s
MoS
2
o e s poo hea dissipa ion capabili y.
94,95
The signi i-
can hea esis ance o insula ing ma e ials like SiO
2
in ensi ies
his phenomenon.
96
Fo hese mo i es, o a oid he mal b eak-
down due o Joule hea ing, mos o elec ical es s in MoS
2
FETs
ha e been ca ied ou in he linea domain wi h smalle V
DS
.
He e, we e iew he in es iga ion o a alanche mul iplica ion-
ela ed elec ical b eakdown p ocesses in MoS
2
FETs wi h
a ious channel leng hs and hicknesses.
51
By a ying he
numbe o s acking laye s, one can con ol he a alanche
mul iplica ion by modi ying band con igu a ion in MoS
2
due
o he phenomenon’s quan um con inemen impac . Fig. 2(a)
displays he op ical image o he de ice based on MoS
2
ex o-
lia ed lakes wi h Ti/Au me al con ac s. The impac o high
E- ield on he elec ical b eakdown was in es iga ed wi h di -
e en channel leng hs (1.49, 1.95, 3.42, and 4.97 mm) wi h
uni o m hickness o he MoS
2
laye (B2.4 nm). The elec ical
cha ac e is ics o he de ices we e checked a oom empe a-
u e. The adso bed ai molecules on MoS
2
educe he ou -o -
plane phonon ib a ion as obse ed, hus educing ene gy
dissipa ion by elec on–phonon sca e ing.
51
As a esul , elec-
ical b eakdown in he ai can happen a lowe V
EB
. Analyzing
he no malized I
DS
–V
DS
cu es e eals ha as he channel
leng h is aised, he ea ly ol age V
EB
is accompanied by a
sudden ise in channel cu en and swi ched o he posi i e V
DS
as ep esen ed in Fig. 2(b). The impac o empe a u e on
a alanche mul iplica ion has also been examined wi h a MoS
2
lake o 17 nm hickness. The measu emen s we e conduc ed a
a ixed V
GS
o 0 V while a ying he empe a u e om 80 o
300 K. Fig. 2(c) demons a es ha he no malized I
DS
expe i-
enced a apid inc ease in he low E- ield egion un il i eached
i s sa u a ion alue. This occu ed as he he mal ene gy
supplied o he elec on su passes he Scho ky ba ie a he
junc ion be ween he me al elec ode and MoS
2
laye , as
indica ed by he low E- ield egime. Unde condi ions o high
E- ield, he elec ons had enough ene gy o a e se he
Scho ky ba ie and ini ia e in e ac ions wi h op ical phonons.
Consequen ly, he no malized I
DS
declined as empe a u e
inc eased owing o he dissipa ion o ene gy esul ing om
he in e ac ion wi h op ical phonons, as seen wi h he high
E- ield. The E
CR
alues a he onse o a alanche mul iplica ion
we e simila ly in luenced by empe a u e since a g ea e E- ield
was necessa y o coun e balance he ene gy dissipa ion caused
by elec on–phonon sca e ing wi h inc easing empe a u e.
These indings p o ide signi ican e idence o he impac o
empe a u e-dependen elec on–phonon sca e ing on he
gene a ion o elec on–hole pai s. This beha iou may be
explained by wo compensa o y ac o s: i s ly, a g ea e em-
pe a u e enhances elec on–phonon sca e ing, which has a
nega i e in luence on impac ioniza ion. Secondly, i dec eases
he bandgap ene gy o MoS
2
, leading o enhanced cha ge
ca ie concen a ion, which has a signi ican in luence on
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impac ioniza ion. The e ec s o ca ie concen a ion and
E- ields on elec ical b eakdown imply ha he elec ical b eak-
down in MoS
2
FETs a ises om a alanche mul iplica ion. The
occu ence o a alanche mul iplica ion was con ingen upon
he hickness o MoS
2
. The impac o elec on–phonon sca e -
ing and he powe law analysis o he co ela ion be ween E
CR
and bandgap ene gy demons a ed ha he a alanche mul i-
plica ion cha ac e is ics in MoS
2
ag eed wi h hose seen in 3D
semiconduc o s. This esea ch aims o enhance comp ehen-
sion o he elec ical b eakdown e en s in MoS
2
when exposed
o s ong E- ields. Addi ionally, i will o e aluable unde -
s anding o he u u e accomplishmen o con ollable
a alanche mul iplica ion p ope ies, which a e now only achie -
able in hickness-dependen 2D laye ed MoS
2
and o he
TMDCs. Fo ins ance, he eliance o ‘‘E
CR
’’ and ‘‘a’’ on he
hickness o he MoS
2
laye was signi ican ly associa ed wi h
he quan um con inemen e ec in a 2D laye as obse ed in
his s udy. On he o he hand, he au ho s demons a ed an
ul asensi i e a alanche de ice ha u ilizes chemical apo
deposi ion (CVD) o p oduce monolaye MoS
2
,
97
The op ical
pic u e o CVD-g own MoS
2
lakes is shown in Fig. 2(d). Fig. 2(e)
displays an op ical image o he ab ica ed de ice based on he
MoS
2
FET. ‘‘Au’’ is u ilized o me al elec odes, while a highly
p-doped Si wi h a esis ance o abou 5 10
3
Ocm was
employed as he back ga e. A ce ain po ion o he MoS
2
lakes
was chosen o be u ilized as a FET channel, and i was placed
on o an h-BN lake. The de ice illus a es he elec ical b eak-
down phenomenon o MoS
2
FETs unde high V
DS
a di e en
V
GS
le els.
97
The obse ed b eakdown a a ious V
GS
le els is
shown in Fig. 2( ). A V
GS
alues o 10, 20, 30, 40, and
50 V, he e is a no iceable sha p ise in bo h I
DS
and V
DS
.
Typically, d ain-induced ba ie lowe ing (DIBL), he mal
b eakdown, junc ion punch h ough, and a alanche ca ie
mul iplica ion a e he ou majo ac o s ha migh esul in
a apid inc ease in I
DS
o FETs. DIBL ep esen s a po en ial
sho -channel e ec in MoS
2
FETs. Monolaye MoS
2
’s elec o-
s a ic p ope ies esul in low DIBL e en in ul a-sho channel
de ices.
51,98
MoS
2
FETs ab ica ed on a SiO
2
subs a e show
li le empe a u e ise. Gi en ha h-BN has a much highe he mal
conduc i i y (B420 W m
1
K
1
) han SiO
2
(B1.40 W m
1
K
1
),
his de ice a chi ec u e would be less a ec ed by he he mal
impac o Joule hea ing han MoS
2
FETs on a SiO
2
subs a e.
Acco dingly, he mal b eakdown is also no a likely cause o an
unexpec ed spike in I
DS
. When he deple ion zones be ween
he bulk and n
+
– d ain con ac and he p-bulk and n
+
– sou ce
con ac o e lap, he junc ion punch- h ough e ec occu s,
enabling I
DS
o pass h ough he o e lapped deple ion
egions.
99
The p e ious wo k
51
sugges s ha o he possible
causes o he obse ed b eakdown mechanism such as DIBL
o he mal e ec s can be simila ly neglec ed, and he b eak-
down phenomenon can be a ibu ed o a alanche mul iplica-
ion. I ’s in e es ing o no e ha he b eakdown is closely
co ela ed wi h he alue o V
GS
a which V
EB
and DI
DS
/DV
DS
we e measu ed. V
EB
and DI
DS
/DV
DS
alues d opped when V
GS
wen om 50 V o 20 V. Howe e , i was no possible o
no ice a signi ican ise in I
DS
a V
GS
=10 V (Fig. 2( )). This
can be a ibu ed o an excessi ely high channel cu en (I
DS
)
caused by he ga e- ield-induced ca ie s p io o he a alanche
Fig. 2 (a) Op ical image o an MoS
2
-based de ice wi h a ying channel leng hs. (b) No malized I
DS
o he MoS
2
FET explo ed a ixed V
GS
= 0 V and
diffe en channel leng hs; he b eakdown ol ages wi h E- ields a e indica ed by colou ed dashed lines. (c) No malized I
DS
associa ed wi h E- ield
eco ded a V
GS
= 0 V a diffe en empe a u es be ween 80 and 300 K. Figu es (a)–(c) a e ep oduced wi h pe mission om e . 51, ACS Nano (2018).
(d) Op ical image o he CVD-g own MoS
2
. (e) Op ical image o he ab ica ed de ice based on he s uc u e h-BN/MoS
2
. ( ) I
DS
–V
DS
cha ac e is ic cu e
a di e en V
GS
alues. Figu es (d)–( ) a e ep oduced om e . 97, Copy igh , Ad anced Science (2021).
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b eakdown. I is e iden ha he compliance cu en was
a ained a a V
DS
alue o 48.5 V, e en lowe han V
EB
(49.5 V)
o V
GS
=20 V, while he I
DS
was measu ed a V
GS
=10 V.
O e all, he modi ica ion o V
GS
may be used o explain he
obse ed dependency o V
EB
on V
GS
by al e ing he heigh o
con ac ba ie be ween he channel and me al elec odes.
Since g ea e E- ields in he channel a e el by elec ons
inocula ed om he sou ce o MoS
2
, when V
DS
inc eases, he
alue o DI
DS
/DV
DS
inc eases wi h an inc ease in V
EB
, esul ing
in a d op in V
GS
. The undamen al ea u es o b eakdown
p ocesses in MoS
2
FETs migh also be examined using he
elec ical cha ac e is ics ha we e acqui ed. The o mula
51
o
calcula ing he mul iplica ion ac o (M), o he amoun o
channel cu en gene a ed by he elec ical b eakdown, is
M(V
DS
)=I
DS
(V
DS
)/I
DS
(V
DS
=V
EB
)=I
DS
(V
DS
)/I
sa
(1)
whe e I
sa
is he sa u a ion cu en , i is obse ed ha he ‘‘M’’
depends on V
DS
. Nex , a a ious V
GS
le els, i is shown ha
‘‘11
M’’ is a unc ion o V
DS
/V
EB
. Empi ically, he ollowing
equa ion signi ies he link be ween ‘‘11
M’’ and V
DS
/V
EB
.
11
M¼VDS
VEB

m
(2)
He e, he i ing equa ion may be used o ob ain ‘‘m’’.
100
As in o he s udies, he i ing was ca ied ou in his case close
o he ln (V
DS
/V
EB
) alue o 0.05, ha is, sho ly a e he
b eakdown began.
59,100
O e all, i was shown ha he in e -
ac ion be ween ca ie injec ion ia he con ac ba ie and
ca ie mul iplica ion by a alanche b eakdown is c ucial. This
wo k offe s a p e ailing app oach o enhance he pe o mance
o a alanche de ices and p o ides a ho ough knowledge o
hin a alanche FETs, which a e unin es iga ed a eas o in es-
iga ion in elec onics and op oelec onics.
2.2. Abso p ion-mul iplica ion a alanche WSe
2
-FETs
I has been es ablished ha a alanche de ices based on 2D
semiconduc o s ha e achie ed imp o ed pe o mance and
efficien G. He e, we e iewed an a alanche de ice based on
he Au/WSe
2
/Ge s uc u e, whe e in a ed abso p ion and a a-
lanche zones a e obse ed o he Au/WSe
2
Scho ky-based
junc ion u ilizing he ge manium (Ge) subs a e, co espond-
ingly. Fig. 3(a) p esen s he schema ic illus a ion o he
Scho ky he e ojunc ion (S-HJ) based sepa a e abso p ion mul-
iplica ion (SAM) de ice wi h i s ci cui y ep esen ing he
g ounded sou ce e minal Ge node and he applied nega i e
d ain bias; he inse displays he equi alen ci cui o he
de ice, whe ein he esis ance o he WSe
2
channel ma e ial
is dis ibu ed in o R
1
and R
2
, and he Scho ky con ac s o WSe
2
/
Au a e symme ical o he Scho ky diodes S
1
(d ain node) and
S
2
(sou ce node) as demons a ed in he inse o Fig. 3(a).
Fu he mo e, he WSe
2
/Ge junc ion o ms he diode (D
1
), which
is wha gi es he de ice i s in a ed de ec ing capabili y. The
de ice’s undamen al elec ical p ope ies a e displayed in
Fig. 3(b), whe e he cu es ep esen ing he d ain cu en and
Fig. 3 (a) Schema ic illus a ion o he S-HJ SAM de ice wi h he elec ical s uc u e: inse displays he equi alen ci cui . (b) I–Vcha ac e is ic cu es o
he d ain side (blue) and bulk Ge side (pink dashed line) o he S-HJ-SAM. Tempe a u e-dependen I–Vcu es o he de ice. (c) Tempe a u e-dependen
b eakdown ol age. Figu es (a)–(c) a e eused wi h pe mission om e . 109, Copy igh , ACS Pho onics (2023). (d) Op ical image o he de ice wi h scale
ba 5 mm: inse shows he schema ic diag am o he a alanche de ice and heigh p o ile o he channel ma e ial (WSe
2
). (e) Ou pu cu es o he de ice:
p- ype mode, ( ) n- ype un eiling ambipola anspo ea u es. These igu es (d)–( ) a e ep oduced wi h pe mission om e . 105, Copy igh , ACS nano
(2022).
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Ge-node cu en s. d ain ol age a e ep esen ed by he black
solid line and he ed dashed line, espec i ely. The d ain
cu en and Ge-side cu en a e 2 10
11
A and 3 10
12
A,
co espondingly, when he bias ol age is 1 V. Bo h he D
1
and
S
1
Scho ky diodes a e e e se biased when he V
DS
is nega i e,
and he e e se leakage cu en g adually ises as he V
DS
ises.
The signi ican ise in d ain cu en seen a 25.5 V is asc ibed
o he de ice’s c i ical b eakdown. I is no ewo hy ha only he
d ain cu en had a sudden ise upon eaching he b eakdown,
whils he bulk Ge side cu en did no exhibi a sha p inc ease.
This sugges s ha D
1
diodes a e no suscep ible o b eakdown
unde high e e se ol ages. As an ou come, he b eakdown in he
S-HJ-SAM de ice happens in he WSe
2
channel a ound he
Au/WSe
2
Scho ky diode (in e ace S1). The de ice empe a u e-
dependen I–Vcha ac e is ics a e shown in Fig. 3(c). When he
empe a u e d ops, he b eakdown ol age (V
EB
) dec eases as well.
This cha ac e is ic demons a es ha he a alanche e ec dom-
ina es he b eakdown a high bias ol ages. A highe empe a-
u es, ca ie s lose mo e ene gy owing o he la ice sca e ing
e en s, leading o a posi i e empe a u e coe icien o a alanche
b eakdown ol age compa ed o lowe empe a u es. A g ea e
empe a u es, ca ie s equi e a highe bias ol age o achie e
adequa e ene gy o impac ioniza ion.
101
High G o an APD based
on he WSe
2
/Ge he e ojunc ion emains p oblema ic due o un-
nelling e ec s. Howe e , he S-HJ SAM de ice o e s a no el
app oach o designing a alanche b eakdown de ices.
2.3. A alanche mul iplica ion in channel-leng h-modula ed
ambipola WSe
2
FETs
A alanche mul iplica ion has ga he ed signi ican a en ion in
2D ma e ial-based FETs.
102
P io esea ch has mos ly employed
a unipola ma e ial as he ac i e channel, wi h an emphasis on
making highly efficien de ices. De eloping efficien ambipola
elec onic de ices and no el s uc u es o a alanche b eak-
down is s ill a challenge. While he easy ca ie - ype uning o
ambipola 2D ma e ials may be achie ed by elec os a ic ga ing.
When an ambipola ma e ial is u ilized as he ac i e channel,
he high V
DS
needed o s a a alanche mul iplica ion in e s
he ga ing effec close o he d ain elec ode, allowing bo h
ca ie s o go h ough he channel simul aneously in an ambi-
pola manne .
103,104
I is possible o sepa a e he wo opposing
phenomena by using channel leng h modula ion, and i is
easible o analyze he p ope ies o a alanche mul iplica ion
in ambipola WSe
2
FETs by ocusing on he ac ha a alanche
mul iplica ion is con olled by an E- ield while ambipola
anspo is con olled by ol age. Con en ional MOSFETs
usually each sa u a ion mode when a sufficien ly high V
DS
is
applied, as he pinch-off occu s nea he d ain elec ode. Ne e -
heless, wi h he addi ional ise in ol age, a mul i ude o
physical phenomena may mani es inside he semiconduc o
channel. An op ical mic oscopic iew o he long-channel FET
de ice is illus a ed in Fig. 3(d): he inse deno es he schema ic
o he de ice. Mul iple sho -channel de ices we e cons uc ed
on a single WSe
2
lake. I is impo an o obse e ha o he
de ice ha ing a sho e channel, cu en densi y was educed
due o addi ional cons ain s including hickness, con ac , and
in e ace condi ions. Al hough he ans e cu e o his de ice
displays ambipola beha iou consis en wi h he long-channel
de ice as shown in Fig. 3(d), he ou pu cu es a high ol ages a y
signi ican ly, sugges ing ha he undamen alphysicalp ocessin
he sho -channel ansis o is dis inc . Fig. 3(e) and ( ) demon-
s a e he elec ical cha ac e is ics o he de ice unde high V
DS
in
n- ype and p- ype modes, co espondingly. The ou pu cu es
highligh he iode as well as he sa u a ion egion a smalle
V
DS
.WhenV
DS
is beyond a ce ain h eshold, he cu en inc eases
beyond i s sa u a ion le el. This suppo s ambipola anspo
beha iou and has been ecognized in FETs wi h di e se channel
ma e ials.
105,106
The de ice unc ions wi h majo i y ca ie s un il
eaching he sa u a ion h eshold, a e a subsequen inc ease in
cu en esul s om he buildup o opposing cha ge ca ie s
(i.e., mino i y ca ie s) a he d ain elec ode (Fig. 3 ). Upon
inc easing he V
DS
beyond he sa u a ion zone, he e was a
subsequen inc ease in cu en un il he compliance limi was
applied o a oid de ice ailu e caused by he mal b eakdown.
Unlike ambipola anspo obse ed in longe -channel FETs, he
inc ease in he cu en did no ini ia e a dis inc ol age le els. In
con as , he cu en inc eased a a cons an a e om i s sa u a-
ion le el, independen o he ga e ol age, as gi en by M=I/I
sa
.
Two possible easons o he ise in cu en a e sa u a ion a e
Joule hea ing a he con ac and he cu en c owding effec .
107,108
Ne e heless, as he cu en inc eased a a low le el and he e was
minimal eliance on he ga e ol age, his phenomenon can be
a ibu ed o a alanche mul iplica ion. The con a y o ms o
ou pu cu es a highe ol age be ween long- and sho -channel
de ices a ise om wo sepa a e physical e en s happening inside
he channel. Long-channel FETs a e cha ac e ized by ambipola
anspo , shown by a pa abolically g owing d ain cu en upon
sa u a ion. A c i ical ol age (V
c
) is de ined as he h eshold o he
commencemen o ambipola anspo , as illus a ed by he high-
ligh ed a ows in Fig. 3(e) and ( ). Sho -channel FETs exhibi
ea u es o a alanche mul iplica ion, wi h he V
EB
e e ed o as
he h eshold a which a alanche b eakdown occu s. The V
c
alues
shown by blue open ci cles o long-channel de ices demons a ed a
linea co ela ion wi h he uning o ga e ol age o bo h n- and
p- ypes. Fu he mo e, he slopes o he i ed lines we e almos equal
o ‘‘1’’ o all de ices, sugges ing ambipola anspo . The alue o
V
c
does no depend on he channel leng h bu is con ingen upon
he h eshold ol ages o any pola i y. Consequen ly, he h eshold
ol age is affec ed by he dielec ic cons an o he insula o and he
ci cums ances a he in e ace. O e all, his s udy aims o comp e-
hend he a alanche mul iplica ion p ope ies in a omically hin
ma e ials and make a aluable con ibu ion o he ad ancemen o
efficien and eme gen de ice designs by selec i ely combining
ambipola anspo and a alanche mul iplica ion.
3. A alanche FETs based on TMDC
he e os uc u es
3.1. A alanche FETs based on he WSe
2
/MoS
2
he e os uc u e
Fig. 4(a) depic s an op ical mic oscopic iew o he 2D he e o-
s uc u e-based APD. The pho odiode is p o ec ed by h-BN
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lakes, and WSe
2
and MoS
2
monolaye s a e linked o he Au
(sou ce/d ain) elec odes. The elec ical cha ac e is ics o he
diode we e explo ed, and he de ice ep esen ed ec i ica ion
beha iou .As hega e ol ageinc eases, heMoS
2
a ea ge s ex en-
si ely doped, leading o educed con ac esis ance. In con as ,
WSe
2
and he he e os uc u e egions become deple ed and
pa ially n- ype doped, co espondingly (Fig. 4(b)). This ea u e
canbedemons a edbyann
+
–n–i junc ion. The s ongly doped
MoS
2
a ea (ma ked as ed do s in Fig. 4(b)) has a high numbe o
elec ons, esul ing in a high cu en unde o wa d bias.
110,111
The
I–Vcha ac e is ics o he measu ed a alanche de ice a he e e se
bias a ying om 0 o 10 V and unde acuum condi ions a e
plo ed in Fig. 4(c). The cu en g ows linea ly wi h he e e se bias
o6.5 V. The da k cu en begins o imp o e apidly when he
e e se bias is aised o e 6.5 V, signi ying he a alanche mul i-
plica ion o occu
59
and highligh ed by he blue line. The ed
dashed line shows he linea i ing o he da k cu en p io o he
a alanche e ec . The ela ion M=I
da k
/I
s
couldbeused oge he
mul iplica ion ac o (M).
105
I
s
is he sa u a ion cu en and
e e ed o as I
da k
a V=V
c
. The b eakdown ol age in FETs can
be uned by he ga e ol age (V
gs
).
51,97,105
Bu o achie e low V
EB
,a
la ge alue o V
gs
is equi ed and hence he powe consumed is
s ill high. Al e na i ely, he minimal V
EB
can be a ained by he
TMDC P–N junc ion because he ol age educ ion ha akes place
ac oss he space cha ge egion is p ominen .
112
Ne e heless,
de ini e doping and ene gy band modi ica ion o TMDCs
a e essen ial in he he e ojunc ion.
112,113
Fu he mo e, he
a alanche phenomenon becomes di icul o de ec , as he
p esence o he unnelling e ec will cause he b eakdown
be o e he accomplishmen o he a alanche b eakdown.
114,115
The e is ano he app oach ha we ha e e iewed he e, a low-
ol age a alanche de ice based and ou -o -plane WSe
2
/WS
2
p–n
he e ojunc ion FET e e ed o as HJ-FET. The e is a no iceable
educ ion in ‘‘V
b
’’ de ec ed in he HJ-FET as compa able wi h a
single-channel ma e ial-based WSe
2
-FET.
116
The educ ion in V
EB
in
he HJ-FET is ini ia ed by he E- ield ea angemen in he channel
a e he c ea ion o he ou -o -plane P–N junc ion. Fig. 4(d) shows
he wo de ice a chi ec u es, a WSe
2
FET and ano he lake o WSe
2
placed on op o WSe
2
(WSe
2
–WSe
2
lakes) and HJ-FET oo ed wi h
ah-BNspace laye (WSe
2
–hBN–WSe
2
FET). So, he a alanche
b eakdown cha ac e is ics o he WSe
2
FET p ac ically emained
he same a e placing ano he WSe
2
lake. The associa ed V
b
alues
we e 41 V and 40 V cong uen ly. In he WSe
2
–hBN–WSe
2
FET, he
V
b
alues o he WSe
2
–hBN FET and he WSe
2
–hBN–WS
2
FET a e
35 and 36.4 V, co espondingly, as e ealed in Fig. 4(e). All hese
alues a e pa ially g ea e han hose o WSe
2
-based de ices. The
u mos V
EB
is a ained in he WSe
2
–hBN–WS
2
-based de ice. This
ea u e may be iden i ied as enhanced de ec -induced sca e ing
b ough abou by he mechanical s ess applied du ing he p ocess
o deposi ing a WS
2
lake on he WSe
2
–hBN and de ec -induced
sca e ing a he h-BN/WSe
2
junc ion. The implan ed h-BN isola ion
laye can s op he c ea ion o he e ojunc ions among he WSe
2
and
WS
2
in he WSe
2
–hBN–WS
2
FET. Consequen ly, in he HJ-FET he
de elopmen o he e ojunc ions o e s a i al ole in d opping he
alue o V
b
. In he FET, he d ain-sou ce E- ield is pe pendicula o
he buil -in elec ic ield p oduced by he e ical WSe
2
/WS
2
p–n
he e ojunc ion and ca ie s a e only inc eased and s imula ed by
he d ain–sou ce E- ield. The de iciency o he ca ie is enhanced
Fig. 4 (a) Op ical image o he he e os uc u e based on MoS
2
/WSe
2
wi h h-BN a he op. (b) The ene gy band diag am o he diode a V
g
= 50 V. (c) I–V
cu e o he diode a V
g
= 50 V as e e se bias is applied, ep esen ing he a alanche phenomenon a g ea e e e se bias beyond V
c
. The igu es (a)–(c)
a e ep oduced by e . 117, copy igh , Nano Le e s, ACS (2022). (d) Schema ic s uc u e o he HJ-FET. (e) I–Vcha ac e is ics o he WSe
2
FET wi hou
and wi h an h-BN isola ion laye , o he a angemen WSe
2
–hBN–WSe
2
FET; he inse shows he I–Vcu es as biasing is nea ly equal o V
b
. ( ) V
b
s. he
V
gs
o he WSe
2
-FET, HJ FET, and WSe
2
–hBN–WS
2
FET. Figu es (d)–( ) a e ep oduced om e . 116, Copy igh , Nano Resea ch (2023).
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and holes unde go mul iplica ion in MoS
2
and WSe
2
monolaye s,
co espondingly, by he a alanche mul iplica ion phenomenon.
Fig. 7(e) illus a es he ene gy band con igu a ion, ep esen ing
TPA-based op ical abso p ion and ca ie mul iplica ion du ing
ansi . Because he ene gy o he exci a ion pho on is less han
he bandgap ene gies o bo h MoS
2
and WSe
2
,holes(elec ons)in
he conduc ion band ( alence band) mus abso b wo pho ons o
be ele a ed o he alence band (conduc ion band).
180
In WSe
2
,
pho oexci ed holes a e ampli ied du ing ansi by he a alanche
e ec , bu in MoS
2
, pho oexci ed elec ons unde go mul iplica-
ion.Fig.7( )displays heI–V cha ac e is ics o he TPA-based
APD unde bo h da k condi ions and unde 1030 nm ligh . The
TPA p ocess is undamen ally weak, esul ing in a negligible
pho ocu en e en a a subs an ial op ical powe densi y o
31.8 kW cm
2
when he e e se bias is less han 10 V, as seen
in he inse image o Fig. 7( ). The enhanced a alanche e ec a
high e e se biases enhances he Rby abou h ee o de s. This
s udy demons a es unp eceden ed R, a ibu able o bo h a high
wo-pho on abso p ion coe icien and a subs an ial a alanche G
in monolaye MoS
2
and WSe
2
. The apid cha ge ans e mecha-
nism o pho ogene a ed cha ge ca ie s in he he e os uc u e
a ea may enhance R.He eweha e e iewedano he powe
e icien WSe
2
a alanche pho ode ec o designed using an
in-plane WSe
2
FET and an ou -o -plane WSe
2
/WS
2
P–N junc ion.
The dec eases in b eakdown ol age (V
b
) in he HJ-FET a e seen
and he g ea e ‘‘R’’ in he HJ-FET is explo ed unde ligh
exposu e. Fig. 7(g) p esen s he I–Vcu es o he WSe
2
FET and
HJ FET unde da k and ligh modes: inse illus a es he sche-
ma ics o he APD. Bo h kinds o de ices ep esen an enhanced
cu en and dec eased b eakdown ol age unde 532 nm lase
ligh and he highes Ris 135 A W
1
.Fig.7(h)illus a es heGin
bo hkindso samples.I isclea lyshown ha heHJFEThas
g ea e gainwi h espec o hesameV
DS
when he bias is in he
ange o 5 o16.5V.Fu he mo e, hemaximumGo e 60 is
obse ed in bo h ypes o de ices. Fig. 7(i) shows he band
s uc u e o he WSe
2
/WS
2
-based s uc u e, which deno es he
mo emen o cha ges a e illumina ion. These ou comes indica e
ha he use o he WSe
2
/WS
2
he e os uc u e is a subs an ial way
o imp o e he e iciency o APDs wi h low powe u iliza ion.
116
6. 2D-hyb id he e os uc u e based on
a alanche FETs
6.1. Plasmonic wa eguide (APD)
Silicon pho onics
181
has eme ged as a iable pla o m o se e al
signi ican applica ions including on-chip op ical senso s,
182
op ical elecommunica ions
183
and nonlinea pho onics.
184
We e iewed he e a high-speed and e y sensi i e de ice based
on Si/BP hyb id plasmonic wa eguide (HPWG) APDs effec i e a
he wa eleng h o 1.55/1.95 mm. The HPWG on a hin silicon-on-
insula o (SOI) pla o m is speci ically designed o augmen ligh
abso p ion by he BP while concu en ly acili a ing b ie ca ie
ansi imes, which is c ucial o a aining high speed and high
‘‘R’’ in he pho ode ec o . Fig. 8(a) illus a es he g aphic a chi-
ec u e o he cu en Si-BP HPWG-based APD combined wi h
a ious passi e componen s, wi h he wo-channel (1.55/
1.95 mm) wa eleng h-di ision (de)mul iplexe s and he g a ing
couple s a he inpu /ou pu e minals. These passi e pa s
a e implemen ed o effec i ely cha ac e ize he cu en de ices
ope a ing h oughou a wide wa eleng h ange, conside ing ha
a g a ing couple is ypically wa eleng h-sensi i e and has a
es ic ed ope a ional bandwid h o a ound se e al ens o
nanome e s. In he ac i e a ea, a ho izon al Si-HPWG is in o-
duced, including double nano-slo s lanking a cen al silicon
co e and wo me al s ips on each side.
185,186
The ho izon al
HPWG is speci ically en eloped by a mul ilaye BP shee , as seen
in Fig. 8(a) and (b), he e o e augmen ing ligh abso p ion in
he BP laye . The wo me al s ips unc ion as sou ce (S) and
d ain (D) elec odes, he e o e minimizing he ansi dis ance
be ween hem o enhance eac ion speed. The ‘‘Si’’ co e and he
BP laye a e physically sepa a ed by an ul a hin Al
2
O
3
insula ing
laye . Ins ead o using he usual Si wi h a hickness o 220 nm, a
hin Si-co e was employed o inc ease ligh abso p ion by he
BP.
187
The ex olia ed BP ilm is success ully loa ed abo e
he nanoslo s wi hin he elec odes and he Si-co e due o he
excep ional mechanical cha ac e is ics o he BP lake.
185
The
s udy indica es ha aising he hickness o he BP laye
enhances i s op ical abso p ion.
188
Con e sely, a hinne BP
laye is a ou ed o ge educed mode-misma ching loss and
enhanced mobili y,
189
which is c ucial o ob aining a apid
esponse. A modes BP hickness (abou 30 nm) is used o he
exis ing pho ode ec o o op imize he balance be ween Rand
speed. Fu he mo e, due o he aniso opic na u e o BP, i s
o ien a ion signi ican ly in luences he elec ical and op ical
cha ac e is ics o he pho ode ec o s.
190
The biasing is es ab-
lished o emain below 2 V o p e en he mal b eakdown.
Fig. 8(c) illus a es he eco ded pho ocu en o he cu en BP
pho ode ec o unc ioning a a 1.95 mm wa eleng h. The op ical
powe anges om 1.4 o 186 mW. The pho ocu en has a
beha io simila o ha o he da k cu en , demons a ing a
supe line g ow h a ele a ed ol ages. The pho ocu en exhibi s
a quick inc ease a low op ical powe le els (e.g.,o15 mW) and
hen ises mo e g adually as he op ical powe ascends o 186
mW. Rsigni ican ly ises, a ibu ed o he space cha ge effec , a
phenomenon ex ensi ely epo ed in undamen al APDs.
191
Inc eased pho oca ie densi ies esul ing om g ea e op ical
powe diminish he E- ield s eng h inside he mul iplica ion
a ea. In he coming imes, elec ical bandwid h may be
imp o ed by educing he gap be ween bo h elec odes, while
he da k cu en can be minimized by p ope ly egula ing he
heigh o ba ie . In compa ison o p e iously epo ed pho o-
de ec o s, he cu en Si/BP HPWG based APD is among he mos
supe io de ices, offe ing a po en ial al e na i e o u u e op i-
cal applica ions.
6.2. B oadband ibe -in eg a ed APD o WS
2
/Bi
2
O
2
Se
Laye ed bismu h oxychalcogenide (Bi
2
O
2
Se), a ecen ly iden i ied
2D ma e ial, exhibi s excep ional mobili y (B20 000 cm
2
V
1
s
1
),
a sui ably sligh band gap o 0.8 eV, and ou s anding ai s abili y,
hus posi ioning i as an ou s anding con ende o op oelec onic
de ices.
192,193
WS
2
has ga ne ed signi ican scien i ic a en ion due
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o i s excep ional op ical cha ac e is ics, pa icula ly in he
domains o senso s and pho onic de ices.
194,195
The inadequa e
efficiency o Bi
2
O
2
Se-based pho ode ec o s is a ibu ed o ele a ed
da k cu en and a diminished ON/OFF a io while es ic ing ligh
abso p ion due o he poo esponsi i y o pu e WS
2
.
196,197
Assem-
bling dW he e ojunc ions has been desc ibed as an ac i e ech-
nique o esol e heissueo highda kcu en and oadjus
in e laye ansi ion ene gy. The bandgap o Bi
2
O
2
Se is 0.8 eV,
whe eas WS
2
has an indi ec bandgap o 1.38 eV, enabling he
o ma ion o a ype-II dW he e os uc u e be ween 2D WS
2
and
Bi
2
O
2
Se.
192,198,199
We e iew a sel -powe ed high-speed ib e-
in eg a ed pho ode ec o (FIP) based on he WS
2
/Bi
2
O
2
Se he e o-
s uc u e on he end ace o he op ical ib e. This FIP ope a es in
he a alanche zone, exhibi ing an EQE o 141% and a ‘‘G’’ o 44.
No ably, his FIP has s ong pe o mance in w is bending
measu emen , indica ing signi ican po en ial mo ion ecogni ion
applica ion alongside adi ional pho ode ec ion. The conduc ion
band ene gies o WS
2
and Bi
2
O
2
Se a e 4.5 eV and 4.25 eV,
co espondingly.
200,201
The Bi
2
O
2
Se elec ons will mig a e o he
WS
2
side due o diffe en Fe mi le els. Consequen ly, a ype II
band con igu a ion is es ablished a he junc ion o he o e -
lapping WS
2
/Bi
2
O
2
Se as seen in Fig. 8(d), accompanied by he
eme gence o a buil -in E- ield in he deple ion egion. The limi ed
band gaps o WS
2
and Bi
2
O
2
Se acili a e he abso p ion o a g ea e
numbe o incoming pho ons. Fig. 8(e) illus a es he de ice’s
pho o- esponse measu ed unde da k and ligh a a lo 650 nm
wi h a ying powe o inciden ligh . E en when he applied bias
su passes 80 V, he da k cu en emains signi ican ly low. Con-
e sely, wi h an applied bias below 39 V ( egion I), he pho o-
cu en ises g adually; howe e , i escala es signi ican ly when he
bias ol age exceeds 39 V owing o he a alanche effec . In Fig. 8(e),
he c i ical de ice pa ame e s a e p esen ed a a bias o 68 V (a ea
II), and he R,EQEandGa e calcula ed o be 0.74 A W
1
,141%,
and 44 unde a powe in ensi y o 56.7 mW. Mo eo e , a a bias o
Fig. 8 (a) Schema ic a angemen o he de ice-based Si/BP. (b) SEM image o he ab ica ed de ice. (c) The examined pho ocu en o he APD as he
bias a ies. Figu es (a)–(c) we e ep oduced wi h pe mission om e . 216, copy igh ACS Pho onics (2022). (d) Schema ic ep esen a ion o he ene gy
band con igu a ion o WS
2
/Bi
2
O
2
Se unde ligh exposu e. (e) The pho ocu en o he FIP wi h a ious in ensi ies (650 nm) may be ca ego ized in o h ee
dis inc zones: he no mal e e se bias e ec i e zone (I), he a alanche b eakdown zone (II), and he e e se bias b eakdown zone (III). The ed ci cles
indica e he a alanche ‘‘G’’ achie ed a a ligh in ensi y o 56.7 mW. ( ) The pho o esponse o he de ice a 1550 nm, wi h in ensi y (0 mW o 7.0 mW) is
e ealed, wi h he ed ci cles indica ing he a alanche ‘‘G’’ o he de ice unde 1550 nm ligh a 7.0 mW. Figu es (d)–( ) we e ep oduced wi h pe mission
om e . 217, copy igh , Op ics Communica ions (2023). (g) Wo king phenomena and a alanche mul iplica ion beha iou o nMAG/Si APD a e illus a ed
schema ically. (h) Da k and pho ocu en inspec ion in he a alanche egion. (i) ‘‘G’’ a di e en powe in ensi ies o adian ligh as a unc ion o e e se
biasing. Figu es (g)–(i) a e ep oduced wi h pe mission om e . 218, copy igh , Ad anced Op ical Ma e ials (2024).
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80 V ( egion III), he EQE a ains 642% wi h an imp o ed Ro
3.36 A W
1
a inciden ligh wi h hepowe o 5.2mW. The ele a ed
EQE abo e 100% is asc ibed o collisional-ionized ca ie mul i-
plica ion. Addi ionally, he dis inguishing ea u e o APDs is
in es iga ed, which shows a linea ela ionship be ween he inci-
den powe o ligh and pho ocu en esponse a diffe en biases.
The APD o FIP is wideband; meanwhile, he a alanche effec is
dis inc a 1550 nm o inciden ligh (Fig. 8( )). The a alanche effec
was seen unde a bias ol age abo e 32 V. Upon inc easing he
biasing ol age up o 46 V, e e se bias b eakdown commenced.
The amoun o pho ocu en was minimal a bias ol ages below
32 V a a wa eleng h o 1550 nm. The pho ocu en ose quickly as
he bias ol age inc eased. The pho ocu en eached 148 mAwi ha
Go 12.88 when he illumina ion in ensi y was 7.0 mW and he
bias ol age was 60 V. This ‘‘FIP’’ has excellen capabili ies in
measu ing bending de o ma ion due o i s g ea sensi i i y o
a ia ions in ligh in ensi y. A eliable me hod o p oduce apid,
b oadband ib e-in eg a ed pho ode ec o sisp o idedby his
wo k, which has po en ial uses in ib e-in eg a ed mul i unc ion
sys ems.
6.3. Sel -quenched a alanche pho ode ec o s
The e ha e been many ecen epo s on APDs based on III–V
compound semiconduc o s, silicon (Si), and ge manium
(Ge).
202–204
Because o hei small bandgap cha ac e is ics,
APDs cons uc ed om Ge and III–V semiconduc o ma e ials
ha e been ex ensi ely used o sensing in he nea -in a ed
(NIR) band.
102
Ne e heless, hese APDs’ hole–elec on disso-
cia ion a io (k- alue) is almos ‘‘1’’, which leads o a signi ican
amoun o ex a noise ha makes i challenging o imp o e he
de ice’s e iciency e en u he .
205,206
Si elec onic componen s
a e pe ec o achie ing high ca ie mul iplica ion because o
hei e y low k- alue (o0.1), low da k cu en , and supe io
mul iplica ion capabili ies.
207
Consequen ly, enhanced Si-
based APDs ha allow o sensi i e NIR spec um de ec ion
a e needed, especially in he communica ion band. The mos
app op ia e me hod o achie ing his is o de elop a he e o-
junc ion APD by combining a 2D ma e ial wi h Si, which can
inc ease he ope a ional bandwid h ha goes beyond he com-
munica ion band. G aphene has special p ope ies including
du abili y, small band gap, and g ea e ca ie mobili y and ac s
as a signi ican 2D ma e ial.
208
High-pe o mance pho ode ec-
o s may bene i om mac o-assembled g aphene nano ilms
(nMAG) because o hei la ge-a ea, high c ys allini y, and
p ecisely con olled hickness.
209
We e iewed he e a e ical
he e os uc u e pho ode ec o made o nMAG and epi axial
silicon (epi-Si) wi h an Ro 0.38 A W
1
and a esponse ime
o 1.4 ms. Addi ionally, he APD shows a e y low noise le el and
a signi ican a alanche Go 1123. In addi ion o enabling sel -
quenching by swi ching om ligh o da k ia a alanche mul i-
plica ion, i can ope a e wi h ela i ely smalle a alanche
u n-on ol ages and ans e da a a a eal- ime a e o 38 Mbps
o e da a ne wo ks o nea -in a ed ligh communica ion. The
sugges ed s uc u e makes i possible o use complemen a y
me al-oxide-semiconduc o (CMOS) compa ible me hods o
ab ica e high-pe o mance APDs in he in a ed spec um.
The schema ic diag am o an APD is p esen ed in Fig. 8(g);
when he bias ol age is aised, he nMAG laye u ns as he
abso p ion laye o he NIR longwa e spec um in he nMAG/
epi-SI de ice, as p esen ed in Fig. 8(g). The mildly doped epi-Si
laye , con e sely, unc ions as a mul iplica ion laye . Elec ons
a e d i en in o cha ge mul iplica ion zones in epi-Si by he
p o ided e e se bias, which also sepa a es pho on-gene a ed
elec on–hole pai s. Pho ogene a ed elec ons gain signi ican
kine ic ene gy unde an ex ensi e in e nal elec ic ield in a
ela i ely la ge deple ion egion, and a alanche mul iplica ion
can be accomplished h ough impac ioniza ion wi h alence
elec ons in he la ice, esul ing in ee elec ons ha g ow
exponen ially, causing he apidly inc easing pho ocu en .
In epi-Si, phonon concen a ion ises wi h empe a u e, leading
o apid ene gy loss h ough elec on–phonon collisions.
The e o e, ca ie s can only acqui e he ene gy needed o
impac ioniza ion and a alanche mul iplica ion in g ea e
elec ic ields. The I–V g aphs in Fig. 8(h) show ha when he
ol age eaches a pa icula h eshold, he cu en ises quickly.
As he powe densi y a ies om 0.11 o 1.14 W mm
2
(see he
inse o Fig. 8h), he b eakdown ol age (V
b
) g adually d ops
om 13.5 o 11.9 V, which is much lowe han he da k
cu en (23.7 V). Since he high-powe densi y inc eases he
numbe o nMAG-exci ed pho ogene a ed ca ie s, which
enables ea ly impac ioniza ion o elec ons, he change in
h eshold ol age enhances he a alanche mul iplica ion e ec .
Addi ionally, an unequal esis ance dis ibu ion b ough abou
by he high-powe densi y inc eases he in luence o ioniza ion
gain and he elec ic ield on nMAG.
210
The sel -quenching
ac ion o he de ice is e y bene icial in p o ec ing APDs om
damage caused by high cu en densi ies. The illumina ion-
dependen V
b
allows he nMAG/epi-Si pho ode ec o o pe -
o m a alanche sel -quenching. I was es ablished ha he
de ice’s a alanche ol age is g ea e when i is no ligh ed han
when i is, acco ding o he esul s shown in Fig. 8(h). The
a alanche b eakdown will begin a 1550 nm wi h 0.11 W mm
2
illumina ion i he ope a ion ol age is adjus ed o 13.5 V.
Howe e , when he e is no ligh p esen , he de ice’s a alanche
ol age ises o 23.7 V. When he de ice is no ligh ed and he
b eakdown ol age exceeds he ope a ing ol age, he a alanche
b eakdown wi hin he de ice will au oma ically quench, caus-
ing he cu en o d op apidly. The sel -quenching mechanism
used in he nMAG/epi-Si pho ode ec o p o ec s agains ope a-
ional ailu es, inc easing i s longe i y. The a alanche mul i-
plica ion mechanism in his de ice is ac i a ed only by inciden
ligh , bu only i he ope a ing ol age is imp o ed o a c i ical
poin . These indings show ha a alanche mul iplica ion dom-
ina es he in e nal bene i . The gain o 1123 (Fig. 8(i)) is
calcula ed employing he equa ion M=I
ph
/I
ph0
a a low e e se
bias, whe e I
ph
and I
ph0
a e pho ocu en s wi h and wi hou
mul iplica ion, co espondingly. Because o he a alanche
e ec , he nMAG/epi-Si pho ode ec o displays ou s anding
pe o mance when equa ed wi h he p e ious esea ch esul s,
including a low da k cu en , high esponsi i y, and de ec i i y,
as well as a as esponse ime.
211–215
Addi ionally, he pho o-
de ec o has been success ully employed o eco d pic u es and
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may be used o dual-colou de ec ion. This wo k o e s ecom-
menda ions o he design o NIR image senso s and op ical
communica ion de ices based on 2D/Si he e os uc u es.
7. A alanche FET applica ion in
bio-sensing phenomena
7.1. A alanche egula ion in a bionic ansis o
Visual adap i e de ices p o ide he capaci y o s eamline
ci cui s and p ocesses in machine ision s uc u es, enabling
adap a ion and pe cep ion o pho os unde di e se b igh ness
condi ions; ne e heless, his capabili y is cons ained by a
slow adap a ion p ocess. He e, we e iew a alanche modi ica-
ion as eed o wa d inhibi ion in bionic 2D ansis o s o
achie e high- equency isual adap a ion wi h pe cep ual accu-
acy a he mic osecond le el, a aining a esponse speed ha is
o e 10 000 imes mo e apid han ha o cu en bionic
senso s and he human e ina. To enable ul a- as sco opic
and pho onic adap a ion p ocesses o 108 ms and 268 ms, as
well, he bionic ansis o au onomously ansi ions be ween
a alanche and pho oconduc i e effec s in esponse o changes
in ligh in ensi y. An adap i e machine ision sys em was
de eloped by combining con olu ional neu al ne wo k echnol-
ogy wi h a alanche-based bionic ansis o s. I demons a es
ema kable mic osecond-le el speed adap a ion and eliable
image ecogni ion wi h 98% accu acy unde bo h low and
in ense ligh condi ions. Fig. 9(a) p esen s he g aphical illus-
a ion o he e iewed de ice s uc u e. This junc ion-FET
(J-FET) consis s o a MoS
2
anspo channel and a WSe
2
ga e.
Fig. 9 (a) G aphical illus a ion o he de ice. (b) I–Vo he de ice unde illumina ion wi h V
gs
=3 V. (c) Schema ic o he bionic neu onic sys em; ed
ci cles deno e he ci cui hemes. Figu es (a)–(c) a e ep oduced wi h pe mission om e . 241, copy igh , Na u e Communica ions 2024. (d) Schema ic
o he MoS
2x
O
x
-based gas sensing de ice. (e) V
b
and ‘‘a’’ wi h V
DS
=35Va V
GS
= 20 V e ealed in he o m o balls and squa es, co espondingly. Figu es
(d) and (e) a e ep oduced om e . 242, (2024). ( ) Ene gy band diag am. (g) The ca ie anspo phenomenon inside he de ice. (h) The a i hme ic
simula ion calcula ed he cu en - e e se bias wi h a ious unc ional s ains; he inse shows he schema ic illus a ion o a piezo onic GaN a alanche
de ice. (i) The (I
DS
–V
DS
) cu es o he e e se b eakdown in an FET in he p esence o piezoelec ic cha ges. Figu es ( )–(h) a e ep oduced om e . 243,
copy igh , Nano Ene gy.
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Fig. 9(b) shows how he inciden ligh s imulus may g ea ly
al e he ou pu cu en and a alanche mechanism. As inciden
ligh in ensi ies, i causes an inc ease in he pho ocu en ,
exhibi ing posi i e pho oconduc i i y (PPC) in bo h he sa u a-
ion and linea zones; bu , in he ioniza ion egion, he PPC
p og essi ely shi s o nega i e pho oconduc i i y (NPC).
The pho ocu en i s ises o 5.1 mA and he ea e declines
o 2.2 mA as ligh s eng h inc eases, esembling spon aneous
isual adap a ion ha mi iga es he ou pu o o e s imula ion
in o ma ion. The a alanche ‘‘G’’ dec eases om 1.5 10
4
o
8 as ligh in ensi y ises, indica ing a shi om he a alanche
o he pho oconduc i i y effec as he majo pho o-sensing
mechanism. The Rin he ioniza ion zone unde goes subs an-
ial a ia ions in bo h alue and pola i y, anging om 7.6 
10
4
o 110
3
AW
1
, bu in he sa u a ion zone, i luc ua es
li le om 158 A W
1
o 5 A W
1
. The sensi i i y p og ession in
he ioniza ion a ea pa allels ha in he e ina, hence affi ming
he de ice model’s c edibili y.
219
The I
DS
exceeds he leakage
cu en by o e 10
3
, alida ing he a alanche effec and demon-
s a ing he de ice’s g ea s eadiness. In he human e ina,
ansi ioning om dim o b igh en i onmen s esul s in he
al e na ing dominance o pho o ecep o s, speci ically od cells
(high sensi i i y) and cone cells (low sensi i i y), in pe cep ual
unc ion. The ans o ma ion om od o cone cells in he
e ina is analogous o he swi ch be ween a alanche and
pho oconduc i i y effec s in a de ice. In his o de , he J-FET
has been gi en isual beha iou by he a alanche uning unde
diffe en ligh illumina ion ci cums ances. Because o his, he
e ina’s sensi i i y p og essi ely al e s o e ime h oughou a
p o ac ed p ocess o isual adap a ion. Feedback inhibi ion
and egene a ion/bleaching o he pho opigmen go e n he
pho o ecep o cell’s ansi ion.
220,221
In con as , he de ice
sensi i i y de elopmen in he a alanche ioniza ion a ea is
ligh -adap i e and eal- ime, gua an eeing he use quick de ec-
ion o en i onmen al changes and p e en ing any possible
inju y om he human e ina’s p o ac ed sco opic and pho o-
pic adap a ion p ocess. The changeo e o he pho o-sensing
mechanism is epo ed o be accompanied by sign e e sal and
magni ude a ia ions wi h mo e han i e o de s o Rand
a alanche G. In compa ison o he e ina and he epo ed
bionic de ice wi h isual adap a ion, a signi ican dis inc ion in
sensi i i y a weak and s ong ligh s imuli may aid in imagin-
ing con as imp o emen . Upon associa ing he Rand Gwi h
p e iously es ed APDs, his de ice exhibi s excep ional APD
cha ac e is ics, ea u ing a Go 1.5 10
4
and R eaching 7.6 
0
4
AW
1
, indica ing signi ican po en ial o weak-ligh de ec-
ion and enhanced isualiza ion in low-ligh en i onmen s,
unc ioning as a bionic isual senso .
59,100,116,117,141,222,223
As seen in Fig. 9(c), his de ice, in con as o o he 2D bionic
de ices, could imp o e op ical adap a ion beyond he e ina by
p o iding an effec i e bionic neu al ne wo k. The a alanche
effec ’s pho osensi i i y is ou o de s o magni ude mo e han
ha o he pho oconduc i i y effec , which means ha i may
mimic he oles o od and cone cells in his ne wo k. The
pho ogene a ed ol age opposes he di ec ion o he buil -in
E- ield a he MoS
2
/WSe
2
junc ion, unc ioning as an inhibi o y
cell ha modula es he a alanche effec . Ligh (s imula ion),
‘‘Pho o-gene a ed ol age’’ (Inhibi ion cell), and ‘‘a alanche’’
(Rod) may es ablish a eed o wa d inhibi o y ci cui in which
he ‘‘a alanche’’ ge s bo h s imula o y and inhibi o y signals o
p e en excessi e ou pu unde pho opic adap a ion ci cum-
s ances. Unde in ense ligh i adia ion, he a alanche effec is
supp essed, ansi ioning he pho o-sensing p ocess o ‘‘pho o-
conduc i i y’’ (Cone). The ansi ion be ween ‘‘pho oconduc i i y’’
and ‘‘a alanche’’ du ing bo h pho opic and sco opic adap a ion
occu s a mo e apidly han he chemical eac ion-based swi ch-
ing be ween cones and ods in he e ina. The eed o wa d
exci a ion ci cui including he ‘‘Ou pu cu en ,’’ ‘‘a alanche,’’
and ‘‘pho oconduc i i y’’ demons a es mul iplexed modula ion
p ope ies and signi ican ly enhances he ‘‘SNR’’. This de ice offe s
signi ican bene i s in pho og aphic adap a ion o e he human
e ina and p e iously desc ibed bionic de ices by using a eed o -
wa d ci cui as a apid-swi ching phenomenon. By using a mo e
p edic i e and quick eed o wa d inhibi ion ci cui , he a alanche
uning-based bio-inspi ed isual de ice can a oid p olonged isual
adap a ion. This has g ea po en ial o wide- anging machine
ision applica ions, p omo ing concep s and schemes o bio-
inspi ed op ical sys ems while educing eliance on in ica e
sys ems and compu a ion.
8. A alanche FET applica ion o gas
sensing
8.1. NO
2
-gas sensing in doped-MoS
2
Recen ly, a alanche mul iplica ion has been seen in TMDCs
such as MoS
2
and a ious o he 2D-TMDC ma e ials, a ibu ed
o obus Coulomb in e ac ion-induced quan um con inemen
effec s.
117,224
Ope a ing TMDC-based FETs in an a alanche
mul iplica ion mode ia ga e- ol age uning allows o he
ampli ica ion o weak signals gene a ed by ligh o molecula
adso p ion. An enhanced signal ia a alanche mul iplica ion
demons a es educed backg ound noise and ex eme sensi i -
i y, allowing de ec o s o a ain ou s anding pe o mance.
97,101
In o de o achie e ou s anding sensing efficiency, he e is a
g owing push o imp o e and make use o ca ie mul iplica-
ion phenomena o gas sensing. Nea es -neighbou hopping
(NNH) is a p e alen occu ence in ma e ials wi h highe de ec
concen a ions, acili a ing he p oduc ion o g ea e ca ie
concen a ions in de ec i e subs ances.
225–227
In o de o ackle
his challenge, he esea ch looks in o a alanche mul iplica ion
in MoS
2
wi h high de ec concen a ions. The impac o NNH
on he e ec i eness o MoS
2
a alanche mul iplica ion is cla -
i ied in his wo k. By subs i u ing oxygen (O) a oms o sulphu
(S) a oms in a monolaye o MoS
2
, he de ec i e con igu a ion is
gene a ed as e e ed o as MoS
2x
O
x
, wi h xme iculously
egula ed be ween 0 and 0.51. When xsu passes 0.44, signi i-
can ly doped O de ec s allow MoS
2x
O
x
o demons a e NNH.
While main aining MoS
2
-like ca ie mobili y, he p esence o
O de ec s in MoS
2x
O
x
inc eases he possibili y o ca ie
collisions compa ed o pu e MoS
2
. Addi ionally, a gas senso
was cons uc ed ha exploi s he a alanche mul iplica ion
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p ope ies o MoS
2x
O
x
. This senso (MoS
20.51
O
0.51
) possesses
a limi o de ec ion (LOD) o almos 1.4 10
4
ppb and
demons a es an ou s anding gas esponse o 50 ppb NO
2
a
ambien empe a u e, achie ing an imp essi e signal Ro 5.8 
10
3
%, exceeding con en ional esis ance- ype gas senso s u i-
lizing TMDCs by wo imes. The MoS
2x
O
x
gas-senso FETs
unc ion using a alanche mul iplica ion ea u es, in con as o
adi ional de ec o s ha use wo pa allel elec odes o gas
ioniza ion and b eakdown ol age assessmen .
228–231
The
monolaye MoS
2
u ilized in his wo k is p oduced by he CVD
me hod. Following ea men , O a oms eplace S acancies,
esul ing in he O doping o he i adia ion ilm designa ed as
MoS
2x
O
x
, as seen in Fig. 9(d): he inse shows he op ical
image o he de ice. Upon exposu e o NO
2
gas, he senso
con inues o demons a e a alanche mul iplica ion beha iou s,
wi h he b eakdown ol age (V
b
) ising om 13.8 V o 21.8 V as
he gas amoun escala es om 50 ppb o 200 ppb, while he ‘‘a’’
dec eases om 954.5 cm
1
o 669.8 cm
1
(Fig. 9(e)). Simul a-
neously, he I
DS
o he MoS
20.51
O
0.51
based FET educes by wo
o de s o magni ude in he a alanche zone (V
DS
4V
b
). In
compa ison o he MoS
2
FET, he MoS
20.51
O
0.51
FET shows a
subs an ial sensi i i y o NO
2
gas, as shown by he much g ea e
I
DS
change. The O-subs i u ed con igu a ion is linked o he
an icipa ed ans e o cha ge o he NO
2
molecule a he
adso p ion loca ion. Du ing adso p ion, NO
2
emo es elec ons
om he MoS
20.51
O
0.51
su ace like ha o adso p ion on he
MoS
2
laye . MoS
20.51
O
0.51
p esen s n- ype semiconduc ing
beha iou ; hence i s ca ie s a e exclusi ely elec ons. The
adso p ion o NO
2
on he MoS
20.51
O
0.51
su ace diminishes
he ca ie densi y o MoS
20.51
O
0.51
. This senso is adap able
and app op ia e o de ec ing gas concen a ions, especially a
low le els, since i does no need p ecise gas p essu es. This
wo k highligh s a alanche mul iplica ion as a success ul phy-
sical mechanism o he de elopmen o ul asensi i e gas
senso s and shows how o modi y i s cha ac e is ics using
hopping ans e .
9. Piezo onic and piezopho o onic
a alanche de ices
The piezo onic effec may be exploi ed o ab ica e obus
de ices based on a alanche mul iplica ion. A alanche de ices,
such as single pho on a alanche diodes (SPADs), employ non-
linea cu en ampli ica ion o de ec single pho ons.
80,232
SPADs espond in 10
12
s, whe eas s anda d pho omul iplie
de ices espond in 10
9
s.
233
The maximal G ac o and V
EB
o
SPADs a e c i ical ac o s ha may be imp o ed by al e ing he
de ice’s a chi ec u e,
234
building he e ojunc ions by swi ching
ma e ials
235–237
and imp o ing in e ace pola iza ion using
dopan s. The e ical conduc i e con igu a ion o he p–n
diode, which had a c i ical b eakdown E- ield o 3.5 MV cm
1
and a b eakdown ol age o 2600 V, se ed as he basis o GaN
a alanche de ices.
238
The GaN a alanche de ice was heo e i-
cally in es iga ed by means o he ini e elemen app oach, as
we e iewed he e. The s ain-induced pola isa ion con ols he
a alanche p ocess. This e e s o he impac o piezo onic and
piezopho o onic p ocesses on single-pho on a alanche diodes
ha a e ex emely quick and sensi i e. Because s ain-induced
pola isa ion can e icien ly egula e he ca ie ’s ansi a he
in e ace, piezo onic s ain senso s o e ex emely high sensi-
i i y. Bo h cen osymme ic ma e ials wi h non-uni o m
s ain and non-cen osymme ic ma e ials, such as wu zi e-
s uc u ed semiconduc o s like ZnO, GaN, e c., can be used o
c ea e piezo onic de ices. Unde e e se bias, he piezo onics-
MOSFET b eakdown model was cons uc ed. Unde a ious
s ains, he cu en – ol age cha ac e is ics we e compu ed.
Pola iza ion b ough abou by s ain ampli ies he cu en in
he deple ion laye . I is e iden ha bo h he gauge ac o and
he b eakdown ime can be imp o ed. I is possible o g ea ly
enhance he e iciency o piezo onic and piezopho o onic
a alanche diodes. The pe ec p–n junc ion design is applied
o he a alanche diode in acco dance wi h Shockley’s heo y.
Ca ie s smash h ough he ba ie a ea a high e e se bias
ol ages. In a su icien ly la ge space cha ge egion, he co a-
len bond’s elec ons a e ene gized o p oduce a ee elec on–
hole pai . Fig. 9( ) displays he E- ield and cha ge; ioniza ion
will esul om he accele a ion o he ee ca ie s in he
deple ion a ea and hei collision wi h he la ice a oms unde
he s ong E- ield. The impac ioniza ion p ocess c ea es ee
elec on–hole pai s. When he e e se cu en ises quickly as
an e ec o he mul iplica ion, b eakdown occu s. A he ime
o he a alanche collapse, he deple ion laye becomes wide .
The cha ac e is ics o he deple ion laye de e mine he a a-
lanche b eakdown condi ions.
239
Fig. 9(g) shows he GaN
piezo onic a alanche de ice schema ic cons uc ion and ca -
ie anspo . In ea lie s udies, he s ain was used o e i-
cien ly con ol he piezoelec ic pola iza ion cha ges a
in e sec ion.
240
The s ain di ec ion de e mines he di ec ion
o cha ges; piezoelec ic cha ges ha e a wid h o Wpiezo. The
piezo onic de ice has been in es iga ed using a 2D s ained
model ha inco po a es he p- ype a ea and n- ype zone wi h
piezoelec ic cha ges in o de o ge a de ailed unde s anding o
he piezo onic and piezopho o onic impac s on he a alanche
de elopmen . The elec ic ield scena ios a e desc ibed by ideal
Ohmic connec ions and Di ichle bounda y condi ions. The
inse o Fig. 9(h) displays he piezo onics a alanche diode
schema ic. Wi hin he wid h Wpiezo, he piezoelec ic cha ges
a e dispe sed a he n- ype zone o wu zi e GaN. The e e se
ol age is ixed a V= 4 V and he uni o m s ain a ies om 1
o 1%; he cu en ol age cha ac e is ics a e displayed in
Fig. 9(h). The cu en inc eases g adually a i s when he
e e se ol age ises, and he speed clea ly imp o es as he
ol age ises. The cu en p og esses wi h he ex e nally unc-
ional s ain o a gi en e e se ol age, pa icula ly when i is
close o he b eakdown ol age. The piezo onic pola iza ion
ield gi es he a alanche p ocess an al e na i e s a ing poin .
Posi i e and nega i e piezoelec ic cha ges a e p oduced by he
applied s ain in dis inc di ec ions. E en ually, he de ice
b eaks down due o he ising d ain–sou ce ol age. Fig. 9(i)
displays he cu en – ol age cha ac e is ics o I
DS
and V
DS
a
a ious s esses. The applied s ain causes he cu en o ise a
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a cons an ol age. I is clea ha he MOSFET a 0.02% s ain
gene a es ca ie s mo e quickly han he o he one. I is
desc ibed how he a alanche mechanism con ols he piezo-
elec ic elec ic ield. The gauge ac o can each up o 10
6
–10
7
,
and he de ice has ex emely high sensi i i y. P e iously, he
ol age was employed o egula e he c i ical s a e o he classic
a alanche de ice; oday, he ex e nal s ain is con olled.
The link be ween ca ie anspo and piezoelec ici y in he
junc ion zone also clea ly educes he eac ion ime. Fo ul a-
as and ul a-high sensi i i y piezo onic and piezopho o onic
s ain senso s, which ha e eno mous po en ial applica ions
in biosensing and human–compu e in e aces, he s udy has
conside able guiding impo ance. I is also e iden ha he
connec ion be ween ca ie anspo and piezoelec ici y in he
junc ion zone sho ens he esponse ime. The disco e y has
signi ican implica ions o ul a as and ul a-high sensi i i y
piezo onic and piezopho o onic s ain senso s, which ha e
as po en ial applica ions in biosensing and human–compu e
in e aces.
10. Challenges, solu ions and u u e
pe spec i es
The a alanche ansis o s a e ypically ope a ed in a ce ain
phase whe e hey delibe a ely endu e an a alanche b eakdown.
This dis inc mode expe iences high ol ages and swi ches
apidly, bu i also aces a se o challenges. Howe e , he
undamen al p oblems o he a alanche b eakdown phenom-
enon a e he ab ica ion s a egy and in eg a ion o high-quali y
2D ma e ials on o FET a chi ec u es.
247
So a , sus aining he
c ys alline in eg i y, consis ency, and scalabili y o hese ma e-
ials has emained an issue o ci cui in eg a ion and limi ed
powe . The quali y o he in e ace be ween 2D ma e ials and
subs a es is also c i ical o de ice pe o mance. The de ec s,
esidue, o incompa ible in e aces may esul in subop imal
elec ical pe o mance o de ice ins abili y.
248
The a alanche
FETs inhe en ly depend on egula ed a alanche b eakdown;
a aining an equilib ium be ween subs an ial gain and
low noise wi hou comp omising he de ice is echnically
demanding.
249
The e o e, he quan um enginee ing o ma e i-
als and de ice con igu a ions a he nanoscale le el a e essen-
ial o mi iga e he andom beha iou o he a alanche p ocess.
This would help o con ol he hea dissipa ion effec du ing
a alanche mul iplica ion in he channel ma e ials.
250,251
The
2D ma e ials ha e good conduc i i y, bu s ill, he ol age
o e shoo , op ical c oss alk and eliabili y unde high s ess
can cause he b eakdown ol age d i , which can po en ially
damage he de ices. In addi ion, a alanche FETs should sus-
ain a high ‘‘SNR’’ o p ac ical sensing applica ions. Reducing
noise and main aining uni o mi y may be echnically indis-
pensable o ad anced eal-wo ld applica ions.
252,253
Long- e m
s abili y and pe o mance eliabili y a e essen ial o comme -
cial sensing applica ions. Mo eo e , ensu ing he eliable and
s able ope a ion o de ices o e a long pe iod unde di e se
en i onmen al condi ions ( empe a u e and humidi y) is a
majo challenge o 2D-based a alanche FETs.
254,255
The 2D
ma e ials a e suscep ible o en i onmen al de e io a ion, such
as oxida ion in he a mosphe e, which may impai hei
pe o mance.
256,257
Despi e all, he p omising elec ical ans-
po ea u es o 2D ma e ials ha e signi ican po en ial in
sensing applica ions.
258,259
Owing o hei ex ensi e su ace
a ea and elec ical cha ac e is ics, 2D ma e ials can achie e
high sensi i i y and selec i i y o a ious analy es (e.g., gases
and biomolecules).
260,261
Fu he o enhance he pe o mance
o he de ices i is essen ial o de elop ul ahigh-efficiency
a alanche de ices o a ious applica ions in op ical commu-
nica ions, biomedical imaging, and g een ene gy. P o ec ion
solu ions, including encapsula ion, should be de ised wi hou
impai ing de ice pe o mance. Ongoing in es iga ion o inno-
a i e 2D ma e ials and hei he e os uc u es may p o ide
unique ad an ages o a alanche FETs. The ongoing in es iga-
ion o a ious ma e ials beyond g aphene, such as h-BN, BP o
hyb id o ganic-2D sys ems, may p o ide dis inc bene i s
o bandgap enginee ing, b eakdown ol ages, and elec ical
cha ac e is ics. Employing no el manu ac u ing p ocesses,
including CVD, MOCVD,
262
a omic laye deposi ion (ALD),
and molecula beam epi axy (MBE), can enhance he quali y
and scalabili y o 2D ma e ials, which may pa e he way o he
u u e o a alanched FETs. Also, he ad ancemen s in ans e
sys ems and he inco po a ion o 2D ma e ials wi h cu en
silicon-based echnologies will be c ucial o he p og ession o
a alanche FETs. A alanche FETs using 2D ma e ials may
become essen ial o nex -gene a ion senso s in IoT applica-
ions, en i onmen al moni o ing, and heal hca e diagnos ics.
The dis inc i e cha ac e is ics o 2D ma e ials ende hem
ideal o he de ec ion o gases and biomolecules wi h unpa -
alleled sensi i i y and eac ion imes.
A alanche ansis o s demons a e a g oundb eaking and
obus app oach o he de elopmen o mul i unc ional de ices,
making hem a p omising on ie o mode n and as elec o-
nics o nex -gene a ion. Recen ly, 2D ma e ials ha e become an
ideal con ende o u u e so elec onics, acili a ing di e si y
in high- equency and high-powe applica ions.
263–265
The a a-
lanche e ec by impac ioniza ion can be exploi ed o es ablish
no el echnologies in op ical, chemical and bio-senso y appli-
ca ions. Such senso s could be connec ed wi h heal hca e, eal-
ime diagnos ics, and en i onmen al moni o ing. Also, he
op imiza ion o APD pe o mance can lead o de ices wi h
enhanced pe o mance as compa ed o adi ional a alanche
designs by selec ing 2D ma e ials wi h p omising band align-
men s and s uc u es ha allow o he use o Scho ky junc-
ions o educe da k cu en s and inc ease ope a ional
wa eleng hs unde ligh . In he u u e, he machine lea ning
and in eg a ion o an i ouling echnology may be linked wi h
a alanche FET-based senso s o augmen da a p ocessing and
in i o and in i o diagnos ics. Wi h he ad ancemen o 2D
ma e ial-based a alanche FETs, indus ies such as elec onics,
heal hca e, en i onmen al moni o ing, and de ence could see a
signi ican shi in senso echnology. High-pe o mance, low-
powe , and minia u ized sensing de ices could open new
possibili ies in indus ial au oma ion, sma ci ies, and mo e.
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By mi iga ing he cu en issues in bo h ma e ial and de ice
designs, he u u e o a alanche FETs using 2D ma e ials seems
auspicious o ad anced sensing applica ions.
11. Conclusion
In his e iew, we ho oughly discussed he mechanism and
ecen p og ess o a alanche ansis o s especially mani es ed
by 2D ma e ials. In addi ion, we explo ed he eme ging de el-
opmen s in pho o-, bio- and gas sensing applica ions employ-
ing a alanche pho ode ec o s/pho odiodes (APDs). Also, i is
concluded ha he 2D ma e ials offe no el app oaches o he
ad ancemen o APDs due o effec i e ca ie mul iplica ion a
he nanoscale, which po en ially acili a es hei scope in so
wea able senso s, o gan-on-a-chip applica ions and cell-based
senso s o d ug sc eening. Such in eg a ion o 2D ma e ials
in o a alanche FETs ma ked signi ican p og ess in ad anced
de ec ion echnologies o he con empo a y e a. Finally, we
highligh ed he challenges o a alanche ansis o s and hei
possible solu ions o compe e in he ace o ad anced sensing
echnology. Fu he mo e, we p o ided ou u u e pe spec i es
on 2D ma e ial-based a alanche FETs ega ding ma e ial selec-
ion and de ice con igu a ion. Howe e , many challenges and
p inciples a e elusi e, so we expec ha he inco po a ion o
2D ma e ials in supe junc ion MOSFETs also pa es he way o
high- equency d i ing pho oca hodes o as -ga ing image
in ensi ie s.
Au ho con ibu ions
E. E. and MFK: w i ing – o iginal d a , e iewing and edi ing;
J. A. and U. A.: alida ion; P. C. and M. A. A.: isualiza ion;
K. J. S. and U. A.: p oo ead he manusc ip ; and Z. S.: supe -
ision and unding acquisi ion.
Con lic s o in e es
The e a e no con lic s o decla e.
Da a a ailabili y
No p ima y esea ch esul s, so wa e o code ha e been
included and no new da a we e gene a ed o analyzed as pa
o his e iew.
Acknowledgemen s
Zdenek So e was suppo ed by he ERC-CZ p og am (p ojec
LL2101) om he Minis y o Educa ion You h and Spo s
(MEYS). The au ho s acknowledge he assis ance p o ided by
he Ad anced Mul iscale Ma e ials o Key Enabling Techno-
logies p ojec , suppo ed by he Minis y o Educa ion, You h,
and Spo s o he Czech Republic. P ojec No. CZ.02.01.01/00/
22_008/0004558, Co- unded by he Eu opean Union. This
wo k was suppo ed om he g an o Speci ic uni e si y
esea ch – g an No A1_FCHT_2025_013. K. J. S. was suppo ed
by he Johannes Amos Comenius P og amme, Eu opean S uc-
u al and In es men Funds, p ojec CHEMFELLS VI (no.
CZ.02.01.01/00/22_010/0008122). The au ho s ex end hei
app ecia ion o he Deanship o Resea ch and G adua e S udies
a King Khalid Uni e si y, Saudi A abia, h ough La ge
Resea ch P ojec unde he g an numbe RGP-2/673/46.
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