47
Rena a GRAF(*),Lech KACZMAREK(**),Sławomi KRÓLEWICZ(*),
Włodzimie z RĄCZKOWSKI(***) & Lidia ŻUK(***)
(*)Adam Mickiewicz Uni e si y in Poznań - Ins i u e o Physical Geog aphy and En i onmen al Planning - Poznań, Poland
(**)Adam Mickiewicz Uni e si y in Poznań - Biological Spa ial In o ma ion Labo a o y - Facul y o Biology - Poznań, Poland
(**) Adam Mickiewicz Uni e si y in Poznań - Facul y o A chaeology - Poznań, Poland
Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed]
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE:
RISK IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING OF A LAKESHORE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE IN SMUSZEWO (POLAND) - A CASE STUDY
ExTENDED AbSTRACT
Il cambiamen o clima ico app esen a una minaccia c escen e pe il pa imonio cul u ale, in pa icola e pe i si i a cheologici si ua i sulle
sponde dei laghi, do e le lu uazioni dei li elli dell’acqua e i cambiamen i nell’equilib io id ico in luenzano di e amen e le condizioni
di u ela. Il documen o p esen a una s a egia di iden i icazione e moni o aggio del ischio a più li elli, s iluppa a pe un insediamen o
o i ica o dell’e à del B onzo Finale / P ima E à del Fe o a Smuszewo, in Polonia, come pa e del p oge o TRIQUETRA. Il si o, si u-
a o all’in e accia a ambien i e es i e acqua ici, è ca a e izza o da s u u e in legno ben conse a e, iden i ica e lungo la sponda
o ien ale e nel Lago di Czeszewo, così come all’in e no dell’insediamen o o i ica o. La conse azione di ques i epe i dipende dalla
s abili à id ologica del lago, che è s a a in luenza a da cambiamen i clima ici a lungo e mine e da a i i à umane.
La ice ca si basa su una me odologia di alu azione del ischio a e asi, che in eg a analisi di da i s o ici, ecniche di ele ile amen o e
moni o aggio in loco. Sono s a i analizza i documen i ca og a ici s o ici, o og a ie ae ee e immagini sa elli a i pe accia e i cambiamen i
ambien ali, e idenziando l’impa o delle modi iche nell’uso del suolo dal XIX al XXI secolo, le a i i à di boni ica e i cambiamen i clima ici.
Inol e, i da i me eo ologici plu iennali hanno o ni o app o ondimen i sulle minacce indo e dal clima nella egione. Una s ida impo an e
du an e lo s udio è s a a la mancanza di misu azioni sis ema iche dei li elli dell’acqua nel Lago di Czeszewo, che ha impedi o di s abili e una
co elazione di e a a i cambiamen i id ologici osse a i e il ischio associa o alla conse azione dei epe i a cheologici.
Pe a on a e ques e limi azioni, nel 2023 è s a o a ia o un sis ema di moni o aggio che include banche da i geospaziali ema iche,
l’acquisizione di immagini ae ee con d oni e misu azioni di e e dei li elli dell’acqua. Ques e a i i à mi ano a quan i ica e i p incipali
a o i che in luenzano le lu uazioni del li ello dell’acqua e il lo o impa o sull’in eg i à s u u ale del si o. I da i accol i suppo ano
la c eazione di una mappa dinamica del ischio, necessa ia pe lo s iluppo di s a egie di conse azione a lungo e mine.
I isul a i p elimina i indicano che sia a o i clima ici che an opici con ibuiscono in modo signi ica i o ai cambiamen i id ologici nel
bacino del lago. La a iabili à plu iennale e s agionale delle p ecipi azioni, l’aumen o delle empe a u e e i pe iodi p olunga i di sicci à accen-
uano la a iabili à del li ello dell’acqua, accele ando po enzialmen e il deg ado delle s u u e in legno. Allo s esso empo, i p oge i s o ici di
boni ica e d enaggio hanno modi ica o la capaci à na u ale di i enzione id ica, des abilizzando ul e io men e l’id ologia del lago.
Ques o s udio me e in e idenza la ulne abili à dei si i a cheologici sulle sponde dei laghi ai cambiamen i clima ici e all’impa o
dell’a i i à umana. U ilizzando un app occio in e disciplina e che combina analisi di ma e iali ca og a ici s o ici e con empo anei, da i di
ele ile amen o e moni o aggio in loco, i isul a i dell’analisi possono o ni e una base pe la mi igazione del ischio e la p o ezione del pa i-
monio a cheologico. La me odologia del p oge o TRIQUETRA è in esa come un modello pe condu e ice che simili in u a Eu opa, e iden-
ziando la necessi à di miglio a e l’acquisizione e la accol a dei da i, la modellizzazione p edi i a e le poli iche di conse azione ada a i e.
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen
www.ijege.uni oma1.i
IJEGE, Special Issue 1 (2025): 47-64, DOI: 10.4408/IJEGE.2025-01.S-04
E-ISSN 2035-5688 | ISSN 1825-6635 / ©Au ho (s)
48 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
R. gRa , L. KaCZMaREK, S. KRÓLEWICZ, W. RĄCZKOWSKI & L. ŻUK
AbSTRACT
The aim o his pape is o p esen a mul i-le el app oach
o isk iden i ica ion and moni o ing s a egies o he lakesho e
a chaeological si es. Wi hin a ange o he cul u al he i age
ypologies ha a e add essed by he TRIQUETRA p ojec , he
La e B onze Age/Ea ly I on Age o i ied se lemen a Smuszewo
(Poland) occupies a ansi ional posi ion be ween mainland
and wa e en i onmen . A chaeological exca a ions and o he
su eys conduc ed be ween he 1950s and 2010s e ealed well-
p ese ed wooden s uc u es on land and on he eas sho e o
Czeszewo Lake. C ucial o hei p ese a ion is he wa e logged
en i onmen which is di ec ly ela ed o he condi ion o he lake,
wa e balance and pa icula ly he wa e le el. The p oblem o
de e io a ing wa e condi ions (e.g. dec easing wa e le el) in
neighbo ing a eas - esul ing in ecu en d ough s – has al eady
been iden i ied. Howe e , i s impac on he agile wooden elics
o he o i ied se lemen has no ye been assessed.
Keywo ds: clima e change, cul u al he i age, isk assessmen ,
lakesho e a chaeology, emo e sensing, hyd ological moni o ing,
Smuszewo
INTRODUCTION
I is di icul o dispu e he iew ha we a e expe iencing
an h opogenic clima e changes ha impac he wo ld a ound
us, leading o nume ous challenges. The mul i ace ed na u e o
clima e change di ec ly and indi ec ly modi ies he condi ions
in which we li e, a ec ing en i onmen al con ex s, economic
ac i i ies, social ela ions, and he b oade cul u al sphe e.
A chaeological he i age is one such a ea ha is and will con inue
o be a ec ed by he consequences o clima e change (Cassa ,
2005; Hollesen, 2018). Conside ing ha his he i age is non-
enewable , he challenges associa ed wi h i s p o ec ion become
e en mo e signi ican (Hea hco e e alii, 2017; Rockman &
H i z, 2020). Among he mos ulne able cul u al esou ces a e
a chaeological si es loca ed in ansi ional en i onmen s, such
as lakesho es, whe e changes in wa e balance and hyd ological
dynamics di ec ly h ea en he p ese a ion o o ganic s uc u es
(Holden e alii, 2006; Bonazza e alii, 2021).
This issue is inc easingly ecognized, leading o he
o mula ion o esea ch p ojec s (bo h na ional and in e na ional)
aimed a iden i ying h ea s on local and egional scales and
de eloping s a egies o minimize he nega i e impac s o ongoing
clima e and en i onmen al changes (Boshe e alii, 2019;
Howa d e alii, 2016). TRIQUETRA: Toolbox o assessing and
mi iga ing Clima e Change isks and na u al haza ds h ea ening
cul u al he i age is cu en ly one o he p ojec s add essing he
iden i ica ion, assessmen , and mi iga ion o isks o cul u al
he i age esou ces as a consequence o ongoing clima e changes.
The iden i ica ion o h ea s o cul u al he i age in ol es
he need o pinpoin he mos signi ican ac o s and de e mine
me hods o ecognizing and assessing hei impac (Sesana e
alii, 2020; O e alii, 2021). This can be done a bo h egional
and local le els. Regional conside a ions pe mi he c ea ion
o gene al models ha indica e ends ac oss di e en a eas o
Eu ope. In he con ex o indi idual a chaeological si es, gene al
models p o ide a b oade con ex o conside a ions, bu he
analysis o local condi ions also seems pa icula ly impo an
(Daly, 2014). Taking his aspec in o accoun in he assessmen o
a speci ic a chaeological si e, i is wo h iden i ying local ac o s
deemed signi ican . These can be ca ego ized in o ela i ely s able
ac o s (i.e., hose no subjec o apid p ocesses) and dynamic
ac o s, which can be obse ed ela i ely con inuously.
The objec i e o his s udy is o p esen a mul i- ie ed
app oach o isk assessmen and moni o ing a lakesho e
a chaeological si es, using he o i ied se lemen a Smuszewo
(Poland) as a case s udy. This ex was c ea ed as pa o he
TRIQUETRA p ojec and con ibu es o i s goal by in es iga ing
how en i onmen al a iabili y a ec s he s uc u al in eg i y o
o ganic (including wood) a chaeological emains.
The di e si y and speci ici y o elics om pas human ac i i ies
shape how ques ions a e o mula ed. In he case o Smuszewo,
si e 3, he loca ion o he a chaeological emains pa icula ly hei
posi ion along he lakesho e gi es ise o a ange o si e-speci ic
ques ions (Fig. 1). C ucial o hei p ese a ion is he wa e logged
en i onmen which is di ec ly ela ed o he condi ion o he lake,
wa e balance and pa icula ly he wa e le el (e.g. B oda &
Hill, 2021; Lucejko e alii, 2020). The esea ch add esses key
ques ions: (1) how do wa e le el dynamics in lake in luence he
p ese a ion o wooden elics, (2) wha a e he main clima ic and
an h opogenic ac o s a ec ing hyd ological condi ions in he
egion, (3) can p edic i e ools and moni o ing sys ems imp o e
long- e m conse a ion s a egies? These ques ions a ise om a
b oade need o unde s and how dynamic and s a ic en i onmen al
a iables in e sec a ulne able a chaeological si es.
Fig. 1 - Loca ion o he Smuszewo a chaeological si e (No 3) on he
o hopho o map and hypsome ic map o Poland (sou ce: Head
O ice o Land Su eying and Ca og aphy, o hopho o map
o Poland 2023, hypsome ic map 2024. A ailable a : h ps://
www.geopo al.go .pl)
49
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
CASE STUDY
The assump ions o he TRIQUETRA p ojec led o he selec ion
o a case s udy in Cen al Eu ope. The Smuszewo si e 3 (AZP 42-
32/95) consis s o he emnan s o he La e B onze Age/Ea ly I on
Age o i ied se lemen . These emains we e iden i ied in 1863 and
e e ed o as he Czeszewo lake-dwelling, in e e ence o p e iously
disco e ed pile dwellings in Ge many and Swi ze land. The wooden
s uc u es obse ed a ha ime we e loca ed in he coas al zone o
he eas e n pa o he lake and we e ound unde wa e and in pea
sedimen laye s ou side he embankmen su ounding he se lemen .
They we e e ealed due o he lowe ing o he lake’s wa e le el
esul ing om d ainage wo ks (Libel , 1870-1871; Łepkowski,
1871). A chaeological exca a ions conduc ed in he 1950s and 1960s
indica ed he p esence o wooden s uc u es wi hin he se lemen ,
simila o hose ex ensi ely exca a ed in Biskupin (Kos zewski,
1938; Du czewski, 1985). These wooden s uc u es ela ed o
in e nal buildings we e loca ed app oxima ely 0.80–1.10 me e s
below he cu en g ound le el (Rajewski, 1957; Malinowski,
1961), which oughly co esponds o an ele a ion o 88.60/89.00
me e s abo e sea le el (Polish e ical da um – KRON86). Non-
in asi e in es iga ions (geophysical su eys and in e p e a ion o
ae ial pho og aphs) conduc ed in 2004 and 2010 showed a e y clea
plan o in e nal s uc u es (wooden buildings, pa ed wooden s ee s,
hea hs, e c.) (Ha ding & Rączkowski, 2010). Only a ew such
se lemen s ha e been eco ded, bu all o hem sha e simila h ea s.
APPROACH AND DATASETS
The complexi y o en i onmen al a iables equi es an
in e disciplina y app oach. This in ol es geomo phological, soil,
hyd ological, me eo ological, lo a and auna, a chaeological
da a, as well as con empo a y human ac i i ies. All hese ac o s
a e in e connec ed bu may highligh di e en aspec s o h ea s.
The ulne abili y o ma e ial elics o cul u al he i age o
h ea s is in e p e ed as he deg ee o which an objec is exposed
o damage o des uc ion due o na u al ac o s o human ac i i ies
(Sabbioni e alii, 2008). Assessing ulne abili y is a complex
p ocess ha equi es conside ing many in e ela ed ac o s
(B imblecombe e alii, 2006). In his s udy, i was conduc ed
based on he analysis o selec ed componen s o he na u al
en i onmen and an h opogenic p essu e ac o s (Table 1).
To assess he ole o indi idual ac o s om a his o ical
pe spec i e, we u ilized a wide ange o da a: a chaeological,
opog aphical, en i onmen al ( hema ic), clima ic, and emo e
sensing da a (Table 2).
Addi ionally, in he yea s 2023–2024, de ailed da a abou he
immedia e su oundings o he si e we e acqui ed h ough egula
moni o ing using RGB and he mal ae ial pho og aphs om an
al i ude o up o 120 me e s (UAV) (Fig. 2). Simul aneously,
egula wa e le el measu emen s we e conduc ed using
a p obe ha measu es he wa e le el and eco ds i wi h a
Da alogge DL/N se ies 64.
His o ical ca og aphic da a we e used in he analysis o
en i onmen al componen ans o ma ions, while emo e sensing
and UAV-based su eys we e employed in moni o ing landscape
Tab. 1 - Fac o s conside ed in cul u al he i age ulne abili y assess-
men (Smuszewo case)
Fig. 2 - Examples o UAV’s ae ial su ey/o hoimages o moni o ing
en i onmen al condi ions; wi h da es o acquisi ion
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE: RISK IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING OF A LAKESHORE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
IN SMUSZEWO (POLAND) - A CASE STUDY
50 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
R. gRa , L. KaCZMaREK, S. KRÓLEWICZ, W. RĄCZKOWSKI & L. ŻUK
and hyd ological changes. Remo e sensing da a o his a ea
ha e been a ailable since 1966 and include ae ial pho og aphs
wi h a spa ial esolu ion o up o 25 cm collec ed in Poland o
ca og aphic pu poses, lase scanning used o de elop a highly
accu a e e ain su ace model, sa elli e spy images om he
Co ona and Hexagon p og ams, medium- esolu ion images om
he Landsa p og ams (app oxima ely 1000 cloud- ee e ms om
1984 o he p esen wi h he spa ial esolu ion 15/30m), and om
he Sen inel p og am (bo h ada and mul ispec al, wi h a spa ial
esolu ion o up o 10 m), as well as comme cial high- esolu ion
images (e.g., Wo ldView, Ikonos, QuickBi d, Plane Lab).
Me eo ological eco ds, including da a om he Ins i u e
o Me eo ology and Wa e Managemen – Na ional Resea ch
Ins i u e’ (IMGW-PIB) me eo ological s a ions and his o ical
clima e da a se s, we e used o assess ends in ai empe a u e,
p ecipi a ion, and ex eme wea he e en s. Hyd ological
da abases suppo ed he analysis o wa e egime ans o ma ions
wi hin he o i ica ion’s ange and ca chmen a ea, as well as
changes in he lake’s wa e le el o assess hei impac on he
si e’s wooden elics. Geological and soil da a we e used in he
analysis o s abili y and suscep ibili y o he e ain o e osion and
wa e e en ion o long- e m en i onmen al balance assessmen .
Tab. 2 - Da a a ailable and acqui ed o esea ch pu poses
51
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE: RISK IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING OF A LAKESHORE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
IN SMUSZEWO (POLAND) - A CASE STUDY
IDENTIFICATION OF CONTExTS AND PROCESSES
Geomo phological and geological con ex s
The a chaeological si e in Smuszewo is loca ed by Czeszewo
Lake, a ibbon lake o med du ing he Bal ic glacia ion. I s
mo phology esul s om gene ic condi ions and subsequen
p ocesses ha ans o med he lake and i s su oundings (Koza ski,
1981). The e ea o he ice shee le behind a deep dep ession
illed wi h mine al sedimen s and su ounded by a mo aine upland
zone (K ygowski, 1961; Ba kowski, 1965).
Du ing he la e glacial pe iod, Czeszewo Lake ook he o m
o a la ge p oglacial lake, illing almos he en i e ibbon lake
dep ession. S udies by Sołowiej (1975) in he 1970s showed
ha he lake occupies only a small pa o he o iginal dep ession,
ex ending along an eas -wes axis. O e ime, he wa e le el in
he lake dec eased, pea lands o med, and ege a ion g adually
enc oached on he shallowe a eas, as documen ed by he p esence
o gy ja (lake sedimen ) di ec ly deposi ed on clays. The layou
and s uc u e o he lake basin and i s immedia e su oundings we e
ans o med by na u al p ocesses such as sedimen a ion, ege a ion
succession, and he accumula ion o pea laye s, as well as e osion
p ocesses, which we e la e in ensi ied by human ac i i ies (land use
changes, d ainage wo ks, cu ing eeds, digging pea o hea ing).
Conside ing he hypsome ic c i e ion, h ee dis inc le els
we e iden i ied wi hin he ibbon lake o Czeszewo Lake
(Sołowiej, 1975) (Fig. 3):
• he lowe le el (app oxima ely 87 m a.s.l.), cons i u ing he
con empo a y bo om o he ibbon lake;
• he highe le el (2.5-5.0 m abo e he bo om), wi h hills
o ming a kind o ‘islands’ in he pea - illed ibbon lake;
• he edges o he ibbon lake, mo e p onounced on he
sou he n side ( ela i e heigh o e 12 m) han on he
no he n side (7.5-9.5 m).
The deposi ion o o ganic and ino ganic ma e ials o e
cen u ies has led o he g adual illing o he lake. Cu en ly, he
lake bo om, illed wi h o ganic and mine al sedimen s, has a
sligh slope owa ds he wes and is cha ac e ized by cons ic ions
made o mine al o ma ions su ounded by pea . The sedimen s
each a hickness o up o 0.5 me e s, and ege a ion co e s 98%
o he sho eline and 25% o he lake basin (Fig. 1).
The coexis ence o sedimen a ion p ocesses and ege a ion
g ow h has con ibu ed o he o ma ion o pea lands in shallow
a eas and, in some places, o he quasi-s abiliza ion o he
sho eline, educing e osion ac i i y. The no he n edge o he
ibbon lake, mo e geomo phologically s able, limi s e osion
and an h opogenic in luences. In con as , he sou he n edge
ea u es nume ous e osional incisions, which d ain he upland.
This zone is cha ac e ized by mo e in ense e osion p ocesses.
Addi ional mo phological elemen s inc easing he dynamics o
he slope zone include an h opogenic sca ps and denuda ion
basins, while wi hin he ibbon lake and ke le holes, he e is a
dense ne wo k o d ainage di ches and channels ha emphasize
he ea u es o he discussed landscape.
Mo phological changes in he Smuszewo si e a ea a e
associa ed wi h he p esence o wo gene ically dis inc g oups
o su ace o ms: pos glacial (o ganic accumula ion plains, d y
and we closed dep essions, e osional alleys, e osional edges,
allu ial ans) and an h opogenic (pea ex ac ion pi s, exca a ions,
ampling and plowing e aces) (Sołowiej, 1975).
The geological-li hological s abili y (quasi-s abili y)
o he a ea esul s, among o he hings, om he na u e o
mo phological s uc u es, li hological ypes, and sedimen s
o ming he deepe geological subs a e. The analysis o
he geological and soil-ag icul u al maps o he Smuszewo
se lemen a ea and i s su oundings (Fig. 4) highligh s key
ea u es o he a ea ela ed o he p esence o a ious li hological
ypes, such as sands and glacial ills, he appea ance o
Fig. 3 - Geomo phological ske ch o he su oundings o Czeszewo
Lake. Legend: 1) ibbon lake bo om, 2) d ainless dep es-
sions, 3) mo aine ou c ops in he channel bo om, 4) undu-
la ing mo aine pla eau, 5) dead - ice mo aines, 6) su ace
wa e s, 7) edge o he subglacial channel. Sou ce: own s udy
based on DTM 5 x 5 m (h ps://geopo al.go .pl) and explana-
ions o he De ailed Geological Map o Poland
(h ps://geologia.pgi.go .pl/ka o_geo)
Fig. 4 - Li hological map o he su oundings o Czeszewo Lake. Leg-
end: 1) clays, 2) clayey sands, 3) sands on clays, 4) sands, 5)
pea and muck soils, 6) no da a (bo om o he ibbon lake),
7) su ace wa e s. Sou ce: own s udy based on digi al soil-
ag icul u al map a a scale o 1:5k (h ps://geopo al.go .pl)
52 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
R. gRa , L. KaCZMaREK, S. KRÓLEWICZ, W. RĄCZKOWSKI & L. ŻUK
o ganic soils, and p oduc s o washing and leaching in closed
dep essions and he ibbon lake. This indica es he dynamics
o p ocesses leading o changes in he li hology o o ma ions
and, indi ec ly, changes in soil condi ions ela ed o li hology.
The o ganic deposi s and pea lands su ounding mos o he
lake a e associa ed wi h we land a eas. Compa ed o mine al soils,
hey a e gene ally less s able; pea i sel is p one o compac ion,
subsidence, and oxida ion upon d ying. The sands and sandy
soils nea he lake indica e pas lu ial o glacial p ocesses. Sandy
soils p o ide mode a e s abili y bu a e suscep ible o e osion,
especially on slopes o a eas wi h concen a ed wa e low. In
con as , glacial ills, common in he mo aine upland su ounding
he lake, p o ide a mo e s able subs a e. Thei s abili y can be
comp omised by human ac i i ies ha dis up hei s uc u e.
The analysis o he s abili y o he edges o he Czeszewo Lake
ibbon lake, conside ing he li hology o he o ma ions, indica es
signi ican di e ences be ween i s sou he n and no he n pa s.
The sou he n edge o he ibbon lake, cha ac e ized by a highe
p opo ion o loose sandy o ma ions and g ea e slope, is mo e
p one o e osion p ocesses and po en ial landslides, especially
du ing hea y ain all. The slope map (Fig. 5) con i ms ha a eas
wi h he highes slopes (>12°) a e ound in his pa o he ibbon
lake, making hem pa icula ly ulne able o deg ada ion.
The no he n edge o he ibbon lake is gen le (slopes <9°),
wi h a highe p opo ion o glacial ills ha s abilize he slope
s uc u e. An addi ional ac o limi ing e osion is he ege a ion
co e , which educes su ace uno and soil loss.
The slope map wi h enhanced con as (Fig. 6) con i ms ha
he sou he n edge is mo e suscep ible o des uc i e p ocesses,
and his is e idenced by he p ese a ion s a e o ano he
o i ied si e (Smuszewo, si e 1, no h side) da ed o he ea ly
medie al pe iod (Fig. 6). Field s udies by Sołowiej (1975)
showed he p esence o esul s o ab asion p ocesses. In he
pas , hese p ocesses may ha e led o he des uc ion o pa o
he o i ica ion (si e 3), as seen in he analyzed e ain p o iles.
Clima e changes and moni o ing
Cu en ly, i seems ha clima e change can be conside ed a
signi ican ly dynamic ac o shaping en i onmen al condi ions
in he egion o Czeszewo Lake. His o ical, con empo a y,
and p ojec ed changes a e obse ed, which may be c ucial o
he unc ioning o he lake’s ecosys em and he p ese a ion
o a chaeological elics. A chaeological elics a e pa icula ly
suscep ible o clima e- ela ed changes. Thei wooden s uc u es
a e loca ed in he lake’s coas al en i onmen and ‘islands’ in he
pea - illed ibbon lake, whe e wa e le el luc ua ions, seasonal
changes in p ecipi a ion, and ai empe a u e a ia ions play a
signi ican ole in hei conse a ion p ocesses.
The clima ic egion (cen al G ea e Poland), in which he
Smuszewo o i ied si e is loca ed, is cha ac e ized by mo e
equen occu ences o e y wa m and simul aneously cloudy
wea he wi hou p ecipi a ion compa ed o o he egions o Poland
(Woś, 1999). Measu emen s o basic me eo ological pa ame e s –
p ecipi a ion and ai empe a u e – allow us o iden i y he main
ends in his pa o Poland. The nea es measu emen s a ion o he
o i ica ion is he IMGW-PIB s a ion in Gołańcz (9 km no hwes
o he o i ica ion), whe e p ecipi a ion is eco ded. The nea es
IMGW-PIB measu emen s a ion whe e ai empe a u e is eco ded
is in Ch ząs owo (32 km no h o he o i ica ion).
The a e age annual p ecipi a ion o he Gołańcz s a ion in
he pe iod 1954-2023 is 511 mm, one o he lowes in Poland – he
a e age o Poland is 600 mm (Table 3). The igu e (Fig. 7) shows
he annual p ecipi a ion o als o he Gołańcz s a ion, di ided in o
he win e -cold hal -yea (mon hs om No embe o Ap il) and he
summe -wa m hal -yea (mon hs om May o Oc obe ). Annual
p ecipi a ion o als show an upwa d end, pa icula ly no iceable
a e 2000, bu also exhibi signi ican a iabili y, anging om
290 o 720 mm. Du ing he measu emen pe iod, h ee yea s
Fig. 5 - Hypsome ic map o he su oundings o Czeszewo Lake. Leg-
end: 1) hypsome ic colo scale ( alues in me e s abo e sea
le el), 2) s eep slopes (>12°), 3) su ace wa e s. Sou ce: own
s udy based on a 5×5 m DTM (h ps://geopo al.go .pl)
Fig. 6 - The e osion o he sho eline slopes has led o he des uc ion
o pa s o he o i ied se lemen s, as shown on he syn he ic
slope g adien map. Smuszewo, si e 1 (ea ly medie al hill o )
– he no h sec ion o he ampa (on he lakeside) is missing.
Smuszewo, si e 3 (La e B onze Age/Ea ly I on Age o i ied
se lemen ) – he mos se e e damage a ec s he wes e n pa
o he ampa s on he lakeside
53
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CLIMATE CHANGE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE: RISK IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING OF A LAKESHORE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
IN SMUSZEWO (POLAND) - A CASE STUDY
wi h p ecipi a ion o als exceeding 700 mm we e eco ded,
namely 1967, 1970, and 2017. The lowes p ecipi a ion o als
we e eco ded in 1982 and 1989 (Fig. 7). F om he pe spec i e
o Czeszewo Lake’s wa e balance, he amoun o p ecipi a ion
du ing he cold season, along wi h pe iods o pe sis en snow
co e ha delay su ace uno and con ibu e o e en ion, is
signi ican . The p ecipi a ion o al in he cold hal -yea shows an
upwa d end, in con as o he end o p ecipi a ion o als in he
wa m hal -yea , which shows a weak downwa d end. The g aph
in he igu e (g ay line) shows ha he e may be pe iods when he
p ecipi a ion o al in he cold season may be close o o less han
100 mm, wi h an a e age o 189 mm (1995/1996 and 1996/1997).
The highes p ecipi a ion o al in he cold hal -yea was eco ded
o he 2023/2024 season, 339 mm. P ecipi a ion change o ecas s
o Poland un il 2100 indica e ha in u u e clima e condi ions,
he p ecipi a ion o al may u he inc ease, bu wi h no iceable
seasonali y (Rapo , 2020). Fo ecas s based on clima e change
scena ios sugges mo e in ense p ecipi a ion du ing he au umn-
win e pe iods and a po en ial dec ease in summe p ecipi a ion
o als. Howe e , obse a ional da a om he Gołańcz s a ion
(Fig. 7) show only weak ends wi h high in e annual a iabili y
and do no ye clea ly con i m hese p ojec ed seasonal shi s.
Figu e 8 shows he a e age mon hly ai empe a u es o he
Ch ząs owo S a ion om 1981 o 2024, loca ed 34 km no h o
he Smuszewo si e. An upwa d end in ai empe a u e is isible,
wi h a no able inc ease in a e age mon hly empe a u es du ing
he win e mon hs. In he 1980s, he a e age mon hly empe a u e
in win e (Janua y/Feb ua y) e en d opped below −10°C. This
inc ease in e apo a ion and dec ease in wa e accumula ion
du ing he cold pe iod o Czeszewo Lake may, in u n, a ec he
minimum wa e le el in he summe season.
Hyd ology and i s dynamic
Acco ding o he hyd og aphic di ision o Poland, Czeszewo
Lake is loca ed in he Wełna Ri e ca chmen a ea (a ibu a y
o he Wa a Ri e ), wi h which i is connec ed ia he Wapno–
Laskownica Canal lowing in o he Gołaniecka S eam (a ibu a y
o he Wełna Ri e ) (Fig. 9). The wa e shed delinea ing he o al
ca chmen a ea o he lake, co e ing 81.9 km² (JCWP Czeszewo
Lake Ca d: h ps://wody.isok.go .pl/pd /JCW/LW10215.pd ),
is mos ly clea ly ma ked in he e ain’s opog aphy. The di ec
ca chmen a ea o he lake cons i u es only 3.3% o he o al
ca chmen a ea. In he immedia e icini y o Czeszewo Lake,
abou 0.4 km o he eas , lies Małe Lake (o Smuszewo, o
Kujawki) wi h which i is connec ed by a sec ion o he Wapno–
Laskownica Canal. Ex ending wes wa d om Czeszewo Lake a e
la ge pea land a eas, in e sec ed by d ainage di ches and canals,
while closed dep essions a e p esen in he upland a ea.
Fig. 7 - Annual p ecipi a ion a Gołańcz s a ion (1954–2023), wi h di id-
ed in o cold (mon hs X–III) and wa m seasons (mon hs IV–IX)
Fig. 8 - Annual p ecipi a ion a Gołańcz s a ion (1954–2023), wi h di id-
ed in o cold (mon hs X–III) and wa m seasons (mon hs IV–IX)
Tab. 3 - A e age o al p ecipi a ion o Gołańcz s a ion by decades o
he pe iod 1954–2023
Fig. 9 - To al (1) and di ec (2) ca chmen a ea o Czeszewo Lake wi h
hyd og aphic objec s: 3) su ace wa e s, 4) we lands, 5) Wapno-
Laskownica Canal, 6) main s eams, 7) o he s eams and d ain-
age di ches. O he designa ions: 8) meadows and g assland, 9)
o es s, 10) buil -up a eas. Sou ce: own s udy based on he Da a-
base o Topog aphic Objec s 1:10k (h ps://geopo al.go .pl)
54 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
R. gRa , L. KaCZMaREK, S. KRÓLEWICZ, W. RĄCZKOWSKI & L. ŻUK
The a ea is cha ac e ized by an un a o able wa e balance
s uc u e. The a e age annual p ecipi a ion he e is among he
lowes in Poland, amoun ing o 508 mm o he Gołańcz s a ion
o he pe iod 1961-2000, and 511 mm o he yea s 1954-2023
(see abo e). Addi ionally, he egion is in a low uno zone,
wi h uno le els e en below 100 mm, compa ed o he a e age
uno o Poland o a ound 165 mm. The a e age uni uno
alues in he Czeszewo Lake ca chmen a ea a e abou 2 l/s km²,
compa ed o he Polish a e age o 5.5 l/s km². These low alues
esul om e y high e apo a ion in he lake’s ca chmen a ea
and weak con ac be ween he canal wa e s and g oundwa e .
The d ainage s eams in he egion a e shallowly incised in o he
upland a ea, hus usually d aining only he shallow and ypically
poo ly endowed aqui e s. Addi ionally, he main s eam, he
Wapno–Laskownica Canal, has been egula ed o he needs o
he Wapno mine and he de eloping ag icul u e in he egion.
Resea ch conduc ed in his a ea by Spo akowski (1969)
al eady con i med high e apo a ion (477 mm) and e y low
uno (85 mm) du ing ha pe iod, despi e signi ican d ainage
wo ks being ca ied ou in he egion. This si ua ion esul s
om he cons ic ion in he lake’s ibbon, which hinde s low.
La ge a eas o pea lands and he lake, hus a eas o inc eased
local e apo a ion, undoub edly con ibu ed o educed uno .
The e ec s a e deepening wa e de ici s, p olonged pe iods o
low wa e le els in he lake, and pe iodic wa e disappea ance
in he canal and o he smalle s eams.
Acco ding o Gilly’s opog aphic map, he so-called Special
Ka e on Sudp eussen (1802-1803), he a ea a ound Czeszewo
Lake was ma ked as swamps. Thei a ea was app oxima ely
300 ha a ha ime (sołowiej, 1975). Measu emen s om 1955
showed ha 2/3 o he swamp a eas had been ans o med by
humans. This p ocess began in he i s hal o he 19 h cen u y
when d ainage led o a apid educ ion in he lake’s a ea, by abou
1/4 o i s o iginal a ea (Libel , 1870-1871). The a e o sh inkage
o he o iginal basin a ea, due o sedimen illing, signi ican ly
accele a ed in he las decades o he 20 h cen u y. This is
e idenced by he educ ion in he wa e su ace a ea om 148.3
ha in 1961 (The S anisław Sakowicz Inland Fishe ies Ins i u e in
Olsz yn) o 125 ha in 1989 (Choiński, 1992) (Fig. 10).
Gene ally, i can be s a ed ha in e ms o hyd og aphic changes
in he s udied a ea o e he las 150-200 yea s, he e has been a
lowe ing o g oundwa e le els, a educ ion in he ex en and dep h
o he lake, and he elimina ion o pos -glacial ke le holes in he
upland (mos o he ‘ke le holes’ ha e become pea lands). In he
o me we land a eas in he immedia e icini y o Czeszewo Lake,
small wa e bodies ha e o med as a esul o pea ex ac ion.
In i s cu en o m, Czeszewo Lake can be classi ied as a
dimic ic s a i ied lake: max dep h 8 m and a e age dep h 3.7 m
Fig. 10 - His o ical changes in he su ace o Czeszewo Lake and su ounding we lands and pea lands based on maps om he 19 h o he 21s cen u y
55
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CLIMATE CHANGE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE: RISK IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING OF A LAKESHORE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
IN SMUSZEWO (POLAND) - A CASE STUDY
se lemen embankmen , bo h om he lake side and he eas e n
side. An inc ease in soil mois u e wi hin he embankmen s was
also eco ded. In Augus (Augus 6 h, 2024) and Sep embe , he
wa e le el in he lake s abilized a 88.30 m abo e sea le el, while
om No embe , i began o ise slowly.
The wa e le el in Czeszewo Lake shows clea seasonal
changes in he annual cycle ( he ampli ude o luc ua ions exceeds
1 m), as con i med by hyd ological moni o ing da a conduc ed in
2024. The dynamics o wa e le el luc ua ions in he lake a e
ela ed o bo h me eo ological condi ions and changes in he
lake’s wa e balance s uc u e. The highes le el was eco ded a
he end o win e , and he lowes a he end o au umn (Fig. 11).
The win e -sp ing pe iod is cha ac e ized by an inc ease in wa e
le el due o snow- ain all eplenishmen . G adual lowe ing o
he wa e le el, associa ed wi h in ense e apo a ion and limi ed
su ace wa e in low, is obse ed in he summe -au umn season.
Howe e , wi h he in ensi ica ion o a mosphe ic p ecipi a ion a
he u n o au umn and win e , a slow inc ease in he wa e le el
in he lake occu s. In ea ly au umn 2024, despi e he inc ease in
p ecipi a ion o als, g oundwa e uno and e en ion caused a
u he lowe ing o he wa e le el in he lake, esul ing in he
ex ension o he lowes le els un il mid-No embe 2024.
Seasonal changes a e ela ed o he manne and in ensi y o
ese oi eplenishmen p ocesses, especially in ex eme si ua ions
such as loods o d ough s, when eplenishmen is limi ed o slowed
(a mosphe ic and hyd ological d ough s). The lake’s esponse o
inc eased o limi ed eplenishmen can be in e ed om di e ences
in he lake’s sho eline ex en iden i ied based on ma e ials om
di e en pe iods and in e p e ing he sp ead o wa e logged a eas
in i s su oundings. Sa elli e images and UAV o hopho os clea ly
iden i y empo al-spa ial changes in he eas e n pa o Czeszewo
Lake (Fig. 12). A he si e, changes in land use ( om a able land o
egula ly mowed meadow) can be obse ed, p e en ing sho eline
ege a ion om enc oaching on i s a ea. This allows i o emain
well isible in he ield. Ele a ed pa s o he embankmen
o en ha e sepa a e mowing ea men s, and in hese places, he
ege a ion co e is less dense. Consequen ly, a e some ime (up
o one mon h), hese su aces a e mo e p one o e osion by e y
in ense ain all. All subsequen images show a g adual inc ease
(Choiński, 2007). Howe e , he wa e s illing he lake basin a e
con inuously mixed by wind ac ion (wa y wa e su ace is o en
isible in a ailable emo e sensing da a), making i e ec i ely
a polymic ic pond- ype lake (Kajak 1989; Szybowski &
Tonde , 1989). Du ing he peak summe seasons, he maximum
empe a u e di e ences be ween he su ace and bo om laye s
do no exceed 5.50°C. The e ha e also been ins ances whe e
he empe a u e di e ence did no exceed 0.20°C (Zię kowiak
& Choiński, 1991; Szymańska, 1993). The e is no obse ed
s a i ica ion o he lake wa e s, o i is e y sho -li ed. F equen ,
comple e mixing o he lake wa e s means ha he lake basin has
an ac i e bo om h oughou . This inc eases he lake’s abili y
o sel -pu i y i s wa e s, al hough i also hinde s he deposi ion
o suspended ma e ial in he wa e . The high in ensi y o wa e
exchange in he lake (170% pe yea ), in ol ing he en i e
wa e mass, is a ac o ha limi s he accumula ion o nu ien s
(Szybowski & Tonde , 1989). Since he 1980s and 1990s,
no changes ha e been obse ed in he species composi ion o
eme gen and subme ged plan s in Czeszewo Lake. The educ ion
in he ange o some o hem was mo e ela ed o he in oduc ion
o in ensi ely eeding sil e ca p in o he lake han o he slow
inc ease in wa e mine aliza ion (Zię kowiak e alii, 1995).
The polymic ic na u e o he lake ( equen mixing o wa e due
o wind) p e en s long- e m s a i ica ion, esul ing in signi ican
dynamics o he he mal and hyd ological egime. Wa e le el
luc ua ions in he low- h ough lake, such as Czeszewo Lake,
a e ela ed o he seasonal a iabili y o me eo ological ac o s
(p ecipi a ion and ai empe a u e) and he dynamics o he i e
ne wo k. The cha ac e and a ea o he di ec ca chmen , as well
as he mo phome y o he lake basin (a ea and dep h), he ex en
o sho eline ege a ion, and he deg ee o lake o e g ow h
(de elopmen phase), also in luence i .
Local moni o ing o wa e le els in Czeszewo Lake, conduc ed
since May 2024 as pa o he TRIQUETRA p ojec , has shown
hei dynamic na u e (Fig. 11). F om Janua y o Decembe 2024,
he ampli ude o wa e le el luc ua ions was 0.96 m, wi h a
maximum o 89.20 m abo e sea le el eco ded on Feb ua y 23 d
and a minimum o 88.24 m abo e sea le el no ed on Janua y 5 h,
2024. The highes wa e le els in Feb ua y and Ma ch we e he
esul o win e ain all and snow all in he p eceding mon hs. A
he u n o Feb ua y and Ma ch 2024, some o he highes wa e
le els in he lake in ecen decades we e eco ded. Me eo ological
da a con i m ha p ecipi a ion o als om Oc obe 2023 o Ma ch
2024 we e among he highes since 1954 o he Gołańcz s a ion.
F om Janua y 5 h, 2024, o Feb ua y 23 d, 2024, he wa e le el in
he lake inc eased by 0.96 m, while om Feb ua y 23 d, 2024, o
Augus 6, 2024, a sys ema ic dec ease o 0.80 m was eco ded.
This e y high-wa e le el (la e Feb ua y and Ma ch) was
also eco ded using UAV ae ial pho og aphs (Fig. 2). The UAV
image om Ma ch 13, 2024, shows he high-wa e le el unde he
Fig. 11 - Changes in wa e le els in Czeszewo Lake in 2024-2025
62
R. gRa , L. KaCZMaREK, S. KRÓLEWICZ, W. RĄCZKOWSKI & L. ŻUK
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
imp o ing mapping me hodology o inc ease he accu acy
o ulne abili y assessmen s and isk modeling. The cu en
s udy es ablished p elimina y amewo ks o o e laying
ulne abili y zones on po en ial h ea a eas, p o iding insigh s
in o spa ial isk pa e ns. The hema ic isk p o iles gene a ed
in his s udy o e a isualiza ion o mul i ace ed h ea s,
combining clima ic and an h opogenic in luences. Fu he
in eg a ion o high- esolu ion emo e sensing da a, long-
e m moni o ing, and p edic i e modeling may be necessa y
o imp o e isk assessmen and de elop a ge ed p o ec ion
s a egies o lakesho e a chaeological si es like in Smuszewo
and i s su ounding en i onmen .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This wo k is based on p ocedu es and asks implemen ed
wi hin he p ojec “Toolbox o assessing and mi iga ing
Clima e Change isks and na u al haza ds h ea ening cul u al
he i age – TRIQUETRA”, which is a P ojec unded by he
EU HE esea ch and inno a ion p og amme unde GA No.
101094818. h ps:// ique a-p ojec .eu/
e osion a es and no he n a eas acing wa e e en ion challenges.
In he isk assessmen o he a chaeological si e, a ious le els
o da a analysis we e conside ed: 1) in he immedia e icini y
o he a chaeological si e, 2) in he i e and lake ca chmen
a ea, and 3) landscape le el. These allowed o iden i ying he
main ends in bo h his o ical and con empo a y dimensions.
This does no mean ha all aspec s ha e been esol ed and
discussed. Fo example, he undamen al assump ion abou
he impo ance o he lake wa e le el o he p ese a ion o
a chaeological elics equi es a mo e ho ough examina ion o
hei p ese a ion s a e and bu ial le el. This equi es addi ional
geophysical esea ch. Addi ionally, indica ing he impo ance
o seasonal p ecipi a ion does no ye esol e he issue o he
impac o sho - e m in ense ain all. I is necessa y, on he one
hand, o moni o he si ua ion and, on he o he hand, o model
he uno a e in he ca chmen unde gi en condi ions.
The TRIQUETRA p ojec has allowed o he o mula ion
o en i ely new esea ch and conse a ion ques ions and
a emp s o add ess he challenges will lead o he o mula ion
o u he ques ions. Fu u e esea ch should ocus on
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