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Publishe : EDUCATION GENIUS SOLUTIONS
Re iew Type: Double Blind Pee Re iew
Muhammad Saim Im an
Independen Resea che , Email: Sa o.im [email protected]
D . A i Ul Haq (Co esponding Au ho )
Depa men o Managemen Sciences, Islamia College, Peshawa
Email: a i [email protected]
D . Samina Rooh
Depa men o Managemen Sciences, Uni e si y o Bune
[email p o ec ed]
[email protected]
Vol. 3 No.1 2025
Ins i u ional Voids and En ep eneu ial Agency: A Quan i a i e
S udy o T ansgende -Led SMEs in Pakis an
Resea ch Conso ium A chi e
P(ISSN) : 3007-0031
E(ISSN) : 3007-004X
h ps:// c-a chi e.com/index.php/Jou nal/abou
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En ep eneu ship is a pa hway o economic empowe men , ye signi ican ba ie s o en
exclude ma ginalized communi ies om ull pa icipa ion. This s udy examines he
en ep eneu ial mo i a ions and p oblems aced by ansp eneu s in Pakis an, a
de eloping economy cha ac e ized by subs an ial ins i u ional cons ain s. Based on a
ime lagged, wo wa es su ey da a om 250 ansgende en ep eneu s, we employ
s uc u al equa ion modeling o es a concep ual amewo k ha inco po a es o mal
and in o mal ins i u ional oids as mode a ing a iables. The indings indica e ha
en ep eneu ial mo i a ion is a signi ican posi i e p edic o o en ep eneu ial beha io .
Su p isingly, he di ec e ec o challenges on beha io was no signi ican . The
analysis also e eals ha bo h o mal and in o mal ins i u ional oids signi ican ly
mode a e he ela ionship be ween mo i a ion and beha io , illus a ing how ex e nal
en i onmen al ac o s shape he ansla ion o in en in o ac ion. This esea ch ad ances
he li e a u e on mino i y en ep eneu ship and ins i u ional heo y by p o iding
empi ical e idence om a c i ically ma ginalized communi y in a Sou h Asian con ex .
The esul s sugges he need o a ge ed policy in e en ions o add ess inancial
disc imina ion and social s igma o build inclusi e en ep eneu ial ecosys em o
empowe ansgende en ep eneu s.
Keywo ds: T ansgende En ep eneu ship, Ins i u ional Voids, En ep eneu ial
Mo i a ions, Pakis an, SME De elopmen
1.In oduc ion
En ep eneu ship is ecognized as a powe ul d i e o economic empowe men , job
c ea ion, and indi idual empowe men (Au io e al., 2013; B u on, Ahls om, & Li,
2010;), which enable indi iduals o c ea e sus ainable li elihoods and achie e sel -
de e mina ion. Howe e , ma ginalized communi ies like ansgende indi iduals, o en
ace sys emic ba ie s ha limi hei access o en ep eneu ial oppo uni ies (Gende
and Economy, 2024; Jennings & B ush, 2013; Ma low & McAdam, 2013). T ansgende
people ace ex eme social exclusion, iolence, and disc imina ion, o en elega ing
hem o sex wo k o begging (Gende and Economy, 2024; G an e al., 2011; Ci icus,
2021; Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme [UNDP], 2022; The Dawn, 2023;
Deu sche Welle, 2023). While en ep eneu ship is a ely associa ed wi h he
ansgende communi y, i can se e as bo h an economic necessi y and a means o
esis ance, sel -exp ession, and iden i y building (Da idson, 2016; Schil , 2010).
In Pakis an, he 2018 T ansgende Pe sons (P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac legally ecognizes
ansgende iden i y and p ohibi s disc imina ion in employmen and public spaces
(Na ional Assembly o Pakis an, 2018). Despi e his, deep oo ed cul u al and social
no ms pe pe ua e s igma and iolence (Muhammad, Aqeel, & Zoh a, 2023). Al hough
o icial census da a eco ded o e 10,000 ansgende indi iduals, ac i is s es ima e he
ac ual numbe o be in he hund eds o housands, wi h mos li ing on he economic
ma gins (Pakis an Bu eau o S a is ics, 2017).
Despi e hese challenges, a g owing g oup o ansgende en ep eneu s is eme ging.
They ace no only uni e sal en ep eneu ial hu dles bu also he compounded obs acles
o ansphobia and ins i u ional neglec . These en ep eneu s ope a e in "ins i u ional
oids," whe e gaps in egula o y sys ems and socie al p ejudice inhibi hei en u es
(Khanna & Palepu, 1997; Mai & Ma í, 2009). These oids a e o mal (e.g.,
ABSTRACT
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disc imina o y banking p ac ices) and in o mal (i.e., exclusion om ne wo ks and
amily ejec ion) (No h, 1990).
While li e a u e on women’s en ep eneu ship in de eloping economies is expanding
(B u on e al., 2013; Hecha a ía & Ing am, 2019), esea ch on ansgende
en ep eneu ship, pa icula ly in Sou h Asia, emains limi ed. P e ious s udies ha e
explo ed en ep eneu ial mo i a ions and challenges (Ki kwood, 2009; Segal, Bo gia,
& Schoen eld, 2005; Singh, 2019), bu ew add ess how ansgende indi iduals’
mo i a ions in e ac wi h he ins i u ional oids hey ace. This s udy aims o ill his
gap by examining: 1) how en ep eneu ial mo i a ions a ec ansgende
en ep eneu ship in Pakis an, 2) he impac o unique challenges on en ep eneu ial
beha io , and 3) he mode a ing ole o ins i u ional oids.
Based on su ey da a om 250 ansgende en ep eneu s in h ee Pakis ani ci ies, his
s udy employs s uc u al equa ion modelling (SEM) o es a amewo k ha posi ions
ins i u ional oids as ac i e mode a ing ac o s be ween en ep eneu ial in en ion and
ac ion. The indings o his esea ch con ibu e o mino i y en ep eneu ship,
ins i u ional heo y, and gende s udies and also o e p ac ical insigh s o
policymake s, de elopmen agencies, and ansgende communi ies o de ise mo e
inclusi e and equi able en ep eneu ial ecosys ems.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
This e iew syn hesizes li e a u e ac oss ou domains o cons uc ou heo e ical
amewo k i.e., he eme gen ield o ansgende en ep eneu ship, heo ies o
en ep eneu ial mo i a ion and beha io , he dis inc challenges acing ma ginalized
en ep eneu s, and he ole o ins i u ional en i onmen s. In eg a ing hese s eams
allows us o de elop a model ha explains no only he d i e s o ansgende
en ep eneu ship in Pakis an bu also how he ins i u ional con ex ac i ely shapes hem.
T ansgende En ep eneu ship: An Eme gen Field o S udy
Globally, esea ch on unde dog en ep eneu ship is expanding, ye i emains
disp opo iona ely ocused popula ions in Wes e n, educa ed, indus ialized, ich, and
democ a ic (WEIRD) con ex s (Gende and Economy, 2024; Schlagel & Koenig, 2014).
Schola ship speci ically add essing ansgende en ep eneu s is excep ionally sca ce
which ende his communi y la gely in isible wi hin mains eam en ep eneu ship
li e a u e (Qadi & Chaudh y, 2024). This absence bols e s he e oneous assump ion
ha ansgende indi iduals lack en ep eneu ial capaci y o ambi ion, he eby
ein o cing hei economic ma ginaliza ion.
The limi ed ex an esea ch sugges s ha ansgende en ep eneu s, akin o o he
mino i y g oups, a e o en d i en by a con luence o "push" and "pull" ac o s. "Push"
ac o s include p onounced employmen disc imina ion, wo kplace ha assmen , and
socie al ejec ion, which can o ce indi iduals in o en ep eneu ship as a mechanism
o su i al (Da idson, 2016). "Pull" ac o s encompass he desi e o au onomy, he
need o c ea e a sa e and a i ming wo k en i onmen , and he pu sui o economic sel -
de e mina ion ee om p ejudice (Qadi & Chaudh y, 2024; Schil , 2010). In many
de eloping economies, push ac o s a e equen ly so o e whelming ha hey domina e
he en ep eneu ial calculus (Ki kwood, 2009). This dynamic is likely ampli ied in
Pakis an whe e adi ional socie al s uc u es o e scan legi ima e economic
oppo uni ies o ansgende people, c ea ing a po en impe us o en u e c ea ion as
a means o secu ing basic subsis ence and digni y (Mu ad & Rambely, 2024).
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En ep eneu ial Mo i a ions and Beha io
The psychological cons uc o mo i a ion is cen al o unde s anding why indi iduals
emba k on he unce ain pa h o en ep eneu ship (Shane, Locke, & Collins, 2003).
While ea ly heo ies emphasized pe sonali y ai s (McClelland, 1961), con empo a y
esea ch has shi ed owa d unde s anding cogni i e p ocesses and in en ions (Bi d,
1988; K uege , Reilly, & Ca s ud, 2000). TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) has become a dominan
amewo k, posi ing ha en ep eneu ial beha io is p edica ed on in en ion, which is
i sel shaped by a i udes owa d he beha io , subjec i e no ms, and pe cei ed
beha io al con ol.
Mo i a ions a e ypically ca ego ized as ei he oppo uni y-based (pull) o necessi y-
based (push) (Acs, 2006; Block & Wagne , 2010). Pull mo i a ions align wi h posi i e
aspi a ions like independence, weal h c ea ion, and sel -ac ualiza ion. Push mo i a ions,
con e sely, a e eac i e, d i en by job dissa is ac ion, unemploymen , o a lack o
al e na i e ca ee op ions (Ami & Mulle , 1995). Fo ma ginalized g oups, his
dicho omy is o en o e ly simplis ic; hei mo i a ions can ep esen a complex
amalgam o necessi y and he oppo uni y o build a li e o espec and iden i y
a i ma ion (Jennings & B ush, 2013). En ep eneu ial beha io , consequen ly, is he
mani es a ion o hese mo i a ions h ough conc e e ac ions: oppo uni y ecogni ion,
esou ce acquisi ion, and en u e launch (Ga ne , 1988).
The Landscape o Challenges o T ansgende En ep eneu s
T ansgende en ep eneu s na iga e a gaun le o challenges ex ending a beyond
ypical ma ke isks. These can be unde s ood h ough an in e sec ional lens (C enshaw,
1989), which ecognizes ha o e lapping iden i ies o gende non-con o mi y and
economic ma ginaliza ion c ea e a unique, compounded expe ience o disc imina ion.
The challenges a e mul i ace ed. Fi s , disc imina o y lending p ac ices by o mal
inancial ins i u ions pose a signi ican ba ie . S udies in con ex s like E hiopia ha e
shown ansgende applican s denied c edi despi e supe io c edi a ings (Sindh &
Belwal, 2008), o cing eliance on exploi a i e in o mal lende s. Secondly, socie al
s igma and iolence whe e pe asi e ansphobia mani es s in he shape o cus ome
bias, supplie disc imina ion, and physical iolence, jeopa dizing bo h pe sonal sa e y
and business iabili y (G an e al., 2011). Thi d one is he limi ed human and social
capi al. Family ejec ion and social os aciza ion can unca e educa ion and es ic
access o p o essional ne wo ks c ucial o business success (Da idson, 2016). This
de iciency cons i u es a signi ican "in o mal ins i u ional oid." Las key challenge is
legal and adminis a i e hu dles. Despi e p o ec i e laws, bu eauc a ic p ocesses o en
emain gende ed and disc imina o y which c ea e obs acles in business egis a ion,
licensing, and accessing public se ices (Muhammad, Aqeel, & Zoh a, 2023).
These challenges o m a o midable ba ie , po en ially supp essing en ep eneu ial
beha io e en when mo i a ion is high.
Ins i u ional Theo y and he Concep o Voids
Ins i u ional heo y p o ides a powe ul lens o analyzing he en i onmen in which
en ep eneu s ope a e. Ins i u ions a e he " ules o he game" (No h, 1990, p. 3)— he
o mal ules (laws, egula ions) and in o mal cons ain s (no ms, ideologies) ha
s uc u e socio-economic in e ac ions.
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In de eloped economies, hese ins i u ions a e ypically obus , p o iding s abili y and
educing unce ain y. In many de eloping economies, howe e , hese s uc u es a e
weak o absen , c ea ing ins i u ional oids—gaps ha make ma ke ansac ions mo e
di icul , isky, and cos ly (Khanna & Palepu, 1997). En ep eneu ship in such con ex s
o en in ol es c ea i ely na iga ing o building al e na i es o missing ins i u ions
(Mai & Ma í, 2009). We di e en ia e be ween:
Fo mal Ins i u ional Voids: De iciencies in he legal and egula o y
amewo k. In Pakis an, his includes weak en o cemen o an i-disc imina ion
laws, a lack o go e nmen suppo p og ams o ansgende -owned
businesses, and a disc imina o y inancial in as uc u e (Shephe d, Williams,
& Zhao, 2021).
In o mal Ins i u ional Voids: The absence o suppo i e social no ms and
ne wo ks. This encompasses pe asi e socie al p ejudice, a lack o us ed
business associa ions o ma ginalized g oups, and cul u al no ms ha deny
he legi imacy o ansgende people as economic ac o s (Webb, B u on,
Tihanyi, & I eland, 2013). These in o mal oids can be p o oundly
debili a ing.
Hypo hesis De elopmen
In eg a ing he li e a u e, ou model p oposes ha ansgende en ep eneu ial beha io
(TEB) is di ec ly in luenced by hei mo i a ions (EM) and he challenges hey ace
(PFTE). C ucially, we a gue ha he s eng h o hese ela ionships is mode a ed by he
ex en o o mal (FIV) and in o mal (IFIV) ins i u ional oids.
H1: En ep eneu ial mo i a ion has a posi i e and signi ican ela ionship wi h
ansgende en ep eneu ial beha io .
Based on TPB and mo i a ion li e a u e (Ajzen, 1991; Shane e al., 2003), we expec
ha s onge mo i a ions will lead o a highe likelihood o en ep eneu ial ac ion. The
necessi y-d i en con ex sugges s his ela ionship may be pa icula ly po en .
H2: P oblems aced by ansgende en ep eneu s ha e a nega i e and signi ican
ela ionship wi h hei en ep eneu ial beha io .
D awing om li e a u e on ba ie s o mino i y en ep eneu ship (Jennings & B ush,
2013; Singh, 2019), we hypo hesize ha he se e e challenges ou lined will inhibi he
ansla ion o mo i a ion in o beha io , cons aining en u e de elopmen and g ow h.
H3: Fo mal ins i u ional oids mode a e he ela ionship be ween en ep eneu ial
mo i a ions and en ep eneu ial beha io .
We posi ha s ong o mal oids (e.g., no access o jus ice o capi al) will condi ion
he mo i a ion-beha io link. While mo i a ion may be high, he absence o o mal
suppo s uc u es weakens an en ep eneu 's abili y o ac , as pe cei ed beha io al
con ol is diminished (Es in, Mickiewicz, & S ephan, 2016).
H4: In o mal ins i u ional oids mode a e he ela ionship be ween
en ep eneu ial mo i a ions and en ep eneu ial beha io .
Simila ly, we a gue ha s ong in o mal oids (e.g., ex eme social os acism, lack o
communi y suppo ) will weaken he mo i a ion-beha io ela ionship by inc easing
he social and psychological cos s o en u e c ea ion and e oding sel -e icacy.
H5: Fo mal ins i u ional oids mode a e he ela ionship be ween p oblems aced
by ansgende en ep eneu s and hei en ep eneu ial beha io .
We sugges ha s ong o mal oids will exace ba e he nega i e e ec o challenges.
Fo ins ance, he p oblem o inancial disc imina ion is magni ied whe e no al e na i e
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c edi mechanisms o legal ecou se exis s (Khanna & Palepu, 1997).
H6: In o mal ins i u ional oids mode a e he ela ionship be ween p oblems
aced by ansgende en ep eneu s and hei en ep eneu ial beha io .
We p opose ha s ong in o mal oids (e.g., socie al no ms condoning disc imina ion)
will in ensi y he nega i e impac o p oblems, making each challenge appea mo e
insu moun able and isola ing he en ep eneu (Webb e al., 2013).
3. Me hodology
Resea ch Design and Con ex
This s udy employed quan i a i e su ey esea ch o examine he ela ionships among
he hypo hesized cons uc s. A su ey s a egy was selec ed as he mos app op ia e o
collec ing da a om a su icien ly la ge sample o ha d- o- each popula ion, he eby
enabling s a is ical gene aliza ion and he applica ion o s uc u al equa ion modeling
(SEM) (Malho a, Nunan, & Bi ks, 2017). While his design e icien ly cap u es a
snapsho o he phenomena unde in es iga ion, i s limi a ions o in e ing causali y
a e acknowledged.
The esea ch was conduc ed in Pakis an ac oss h ee u ban cen e s: Islamabad ( he
ede al capi al), Laho e (a majo cul u al and economic hub in Punjab), and Mul an (a
la ge ci y in Sou h Punjab). These loca ions we e chosen o cap u e a sample ha ing
di e se geog aphic and socio-economic le els o pa icipan s, inco po a ing
expe iences om a capi al e i o y, a me opoli an comme cial cen e , and a la ge ci y
in a mo e adi ional egion.
Pa icipan s and Sampling P ocedu e
The a ge popula ion consis ed o ansgende indi iduals in Pakis an who we e
ac i ely engaged in en ep eneu ship, ope a ionally de ined as owning and managing a
business ha p o ided a p ima y o signi ican sou ce o income.
Gi en he absence o a eliable sampling ame o his ma ginalized and hidden
popula ion, a non-p obabili y pu posi e sampling echnique was u ilized. This
app oach is ecognized as a necessa y and alid s a egy o accessing g oups whe e
adi ional p obabili y sampling is in easible (Babbie, 2020). Access o pa icipan s was
acili a ed h ough collabo a ion wi h us ed non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs)
and key communi y leade s (gu us) wi hin he ansgende communi y in each ci y.
These ga ekeepe s we e ins umen al in iden i ying po en ial esponden s who me he
eligibili y c i e ia and in es ablishing he us necessa y o pa icipa ion.
E hical Conside a ions
The esea ch adhe ed o he e hical p inciples ou lined in he APA Code o Conduc
ega ding esea ch wi h human pa icipan s. In o med consen was sough om all
esponden s be o e he su ey adminis a ion. The consen p ocess in ol ed e bally
explaining pu pose o he s udy, p ocedu es, and po en ial isks and bene i s. Fu he ,
hey we e assu ed o hei igh o wi hd aw wi hou penal y. Gi en he sensi i e na u e
o he popula ion and he po en ial isks associa ed wi h b each o con iden iali y,
w i en consen was deemed inapp op ia e. Ins ead, e bal consen was me iculously
documen ed by he esea ch eam o each pa icipan .
To ensu e sa e y and con iden iali y, all su eys we e conduc ed in p i a e se ings
ag eed upon wi h communi y leade s. No pe sonally iden i iable in o ma ion was
collec ed on he su ey ins umen s. Da a we e anonymized immedia ely a e
collec ion, and all digi al iles we e s o ed on a passwo d-p o ec ed secu e se e . These
measu es we e explici ly communica ed o pa icipan s o alle ia e conce ns and
621
encou age candid esponses.
Measu es and Ins umen De elopmen
The su ey ins umen was designed o measu e he i e la en cons uc s in he
heo e ical model. All mul i-i em scales we e adap ed om es ablished scales in
en ep eneu ship and ins i u ional heo y li e a u e o ensu e cons uc alidi y. I ems
we e ca e ully ewo ded o i he speci ic con ex o ansgende en ep eneu s in
Pakis an. All cons uc s we e measu ed on a se en poin s Like scale (1 deno ing s ong
disag eemen and 7 deno ing s ong Ag eemen ).
En ep eneu ial Mo i a ions (EM): A 4-i em scale was adap ed om s udies
on push-pull mo i a ions (Ki kwood, 2009; Robichaud, LeB asseu , &
Naga ajan, 2010). A sample i em is: “I s a ed my business o achie e g ea e
independence.”
P oblems Faced by T ansgende En ep eneu s (PFTE): A 4-i em scale
was de eloped based on quali a i e insigh s om li e a u e on mino i y
en ep eneu ship ba ie s (Jennings & B ush, 2013) and con ex ualized o
Pakis an. A ep esen a i e i em is: “I ace di icul ies in accessing bank loans
because o my gende iden i y.”
Fo mal Ins i u ional Voids (FIV): A 3-i em scale was adap ed om he wo k
o Khanna & Palepu (1997) and Webb e al. (2009). A sample i em is: “The
go e nmen does no p o ide speci ic suppo p og ams o en ep eneu s like
me.”
In o mal Ins i u ional Voids (IFIV): A 4-i em scale was adap ed om No h
(1990) and Peng & Khou y (2008), ocusing on social no ms and accep ance.
A sample i em is: “Socie y does no accep people like me as legi ima e
business owne s.”
T ansgende En ep eneu ial Beha io (TEB): A 4-i em scale was adap ed
om en ep eneu ial beha io and implemen a ion in en ion scales (Ga ne ,
1988; K uege e al., 2000). A sample i em is: “I am ac i ely in es ing
esou ces o g ow my business.”
The ques ionnai e was d a ed in English, ansla ed in o he na ional language U du,
by a p o essional ansla o , and hen e ansla ed in o English by a second independen
ansla o o ensu e concep ual equi alence and accu acy. I was p e- es ed wi h a small
g oup o i e ansgende en ep eneu s and wo academic expe s o assess cla i y,
ele ance, and cul u al app op ia eness. Thei eedback was used o e ine he wo ding
o se e al i ems.
Da a Collec ion P ocedu e
Da a we e collec ed ia a sel -adminis e ed ques ionnai e. To accommoda e a ying
li e acy le els and ensu e consis ency, esea ch assis an s ained in he e hical conduc
and sensi i i y le el o he pa icipan s, we e p esen o ead he ques ions aloud o
pa icipan s who could no ead well o p e e ed o eco d hei answe s. This
p ocedu e helped p e en missing da a and ensu ed he ques ions we e unde s ood as
in ended. A o al o 265 ques ionnai es we e dis ibu ed. A e da a sc eening, 250
622
comple e and usable esponses we e e ained o analysis.
Da a Analysis S a egy
The da a analysis was conduc ed in a phased app oach using SPSS 26 and AMOS 26
so wa e. The da a we e sc eened o missing alues and uni a ia e and mul i a ia e
ou lie s. No mali y was assessed h ough skewness and ku osis s a is ics. Desc ip i e
s a is ics we e compu ed o all i ems and cons uc s. C onbach’s alpha was used o
assessmen o he in e nal consis ency o he scales. A CFA was conduc ed o
alida ion o he measu emen model wi h con e gen alidi y (AVE > 0.5), and
es ablished disc iminan alidi y using he Fo nell-La cke me hod.
The hypo hesized s uc u al model was es ed using he maximum likelihood es ima ion
me hod. This included es ing he di ec e ec s (H1, H2) and he mode a ing e ec s
(H3-H6). Mode a ion was es ed using he la en mode a ed s uc u al equa ions (LMS)
app oach wi hin AMOS, which is obus o es ing in e ac ions be ween la en
a iables (Li le, 2013). The sample o 250 is deemed obus o SEM analysis,
exceeding he minimum equi emen o 10 obse a ions pe es ima ed pa ame e (Kline,
2015).
4. Resul s
P elimina y Analysis and Measu emen Model
The ini ial da ase consis ed o 265 esponses. A igo ous sc eening p ocess was
conduc ed o ensu e da a quali y and mee he assump ions o mul i a ia e analysis.
Fi een cases wi h excessi e missing da a (>10 alues) we e emo ed. The emaining
250 cases had minimal missing da a, which was add essed using he mode subs i u ion
me hod o indi idual i ems o p ese e he sample size and minimize dis ibu ion
impac (Hai e al., 2019). Uni a ia e and mul i a ia e ou lie s we e iden i ied using
Mahalanobis dis ance. A small numbe o ou lie s we e eplaced wi h he mean alue
o hei espec i e i ems o educe undue in luence on pa ame e es ima es. Pos -
ea men , all i ems demons a ed skewness and ku osis wi hin he accep able ange o
±2, ul illing he assump ion o no mali y o maximum likelihood es ima ion (Kline,
2015).
Composi e sco es o each la en cons uc we e calcula ed by a e aging he sco es o
hei espec i e measu emen i ems. The desc ip i e s a is ics o hese composi e
a iables a e p esen ed in Table 1. The high mean sco es indica e s ong consensus
among esponden s ega ding he p esence o mo i a ions, challenges, and ins i u ional
oids. The s anda d de ia ions sugges a mode a e deg ee o a ia ion in esponses,
pa icula ly o he pe cep ion o ins i u ional oids.
Cons uc
No.
o
I ems
M
SD
Skewness
Ku osis
1. En ep eneu ial Mo i a ions. (EM)
4
6.11
0.66
-0.92
1.18
2. P oblems Faced by T ansgende s
En ep eneu s. (PFTE)
4
6.12
0.63
-0.87
1.45
3. Fo mal Ins i u ional Voids. (FIV)
3
5.99
0.78
-0.87
0.76
4. In o mal Ins i u ional Voids. (IFIV)
4
6.05
0.71
-0.94
1.42
5. En ep eneu ial Beha io . (TEB)
4
6.03
0.66
-0.86
1.54
No e: N = 250. Composi e sco es a e calcula ed as he means o all i ems o
each cons uc .
The measu emen model was assessed ia CFA. All cons uc s showed eliabili y
623
(C onbach's α and composi e eliabili y (CR) exceeding 0.70. A e age a iance
ex ac ed alues > 0.50, which con i med con e gen alidi y. To es ablish disc iminan
alidi y, he Fo nell La cke me hod was employed. The squa e oo o each cons uc 's
AVE was g ea e han i s co ela ions wi h o he cons uc s (see Table 2). The i e-
ac o model showed an accep able i o he da a: χ²/d = 2.81, CFI = .92, TLI = .91,
RMSEA = .065 (90% CI: .055, .075). All s anda dized ac o loadings we e s a is ically
signi ican (p < .001) and we e ound > 0.50.
Table 2: Validi y, Reliabili y, and Disc iminan Validi y
Cons uc
α
CR
AVE
1
2
3
4
5
1. EM
0.8
0.87
0.63
0.79
2. PFTE
0.75
0.84
0.57
0.42
0.76
3. FIV
0.75
0.84
0.56
0.39
0.54
0.75
4. IFIV
0.84
0.89
0.68
0.36
0.5
0.61
0.82
5. TEB
0.86
0.9
0.69
0.49
0.32
0.29
0.27
0.83
No e: Diagonal elemen s (in boldened on ) a e he squa e oo o he AVE.
Hypo hesis Tes ing: Di ec E ec s
The s uc u al model was analyzed o es he di ec hypo heses. The model i indices
we e sa is ac o y (χ²/d = 2.95, CFI = .91, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .068). The pa h-
coe icien s a e p esen ed in Table 3. The esul s suppo ed H1, indica ing ha
en ep eneu ial mo i a ion (EM) had a posi i e and s a is ically signi ican e ec on
en ep eneu ial beha io (TEB) (β = .075, p = .005). Con e sely, he pa h om
p oblems aced (PFTE) o TEB was nega i e bu no s a is ically signi ican (β = -.028,
p = .357). The e o e, H2 was no suppo ed.
Table 3: Hypo hesis Tes ing o Di ec E ec s
Hypo hesis
Pa h
β
p
Resul
H1
TEB ← EM
0.08
0.01
Suppo ed
H2
TEB ← PFTE
-0
0.36
No Suppo ed
Hypo hesis Tes ing: Mode a ing E ec s
The mode a ing hypo heses we e es ed using la en mode a ed s uc u al equa ions
(LMS). The esul s a e p esen ed in Table 4.
Table 4: Hypo hesis Tes ing o Mode a ing E ec s
Hypo hesis
In e ac ion
β
p
Resul
H3
TEB ← EM × FIV
0.113
0.014
Suppo ed
H4
TEB ← EM × IFIV
0.098
0.026
Suppo ed
H5
TEB ← PFTE × FIV
0.023
0.702
No Suppo ed
H6
TEB ← PFTE × IFIV
0.095
0.127
No Suppo ed
The in e ac ion e ec o en ep eneu ial mo i a ions wi h o mal ins i u ional oids
(EM × FIV) on beha io was posi i e and s a is ically signi ican (β = .113, p = .014),
suppo ing H3. Simila ly, he in e ac ion o mo i a ions wi h in o mal ins i u ional
oids (EM × IFIV) was also posi i e and signi ican (β = .098, p = .026), suppo ing
H4. P obing o hese signi ican in e ac ions e ealed ha he posi i e ela ionship
630
De elopmen P og amme.
Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme. (2022, May 17). P omo ing inclusion and
p o ec ion: Pakis an’s na ional s a egic amewo k o ansgende pe sons.
UNDP Pakis an. h ps://www.undp.o g/pakis an/blog/p omo ing-inclusion-
and-p o ec ion-pakis ans-na ional-s a egic- amewo k- ansgende -pe sons
Webb, J. W., B u on, G. D., Tihanyi, L., & I eland, R. D. (2013). Resea ch on
en ep eneu ship in he in o mal economy: F aming a esea ch agenda. Jou nal
o Business Ven u ing, 28(5), 598–614.
Webb, J. W., I eland, R. D., & Ke chen, D. J. (2009). Towa d a g ea e unde s anding
o en ep eneu ship and s a egy in he in o mal economy. S a egic
En ep eneu ship Jou nal, 3(3), 221–234.
