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ISRG PUBLISHERS
Abb e ia ed Key Ti le: ISRG J A s Humani Soc Sci
ISSN: 2583-7672 (Online)
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Volume – III Issue -V (Sep embe -Oc obe ) 2025
F equency: Bimon hly
Th ea s o SDGs 3 and 6: Explo ing His o ical, Cul u al, and Po e y-Rela ed D i e s
o Open De eca ion in Ru al Abuja, Nige ia
Sule Magaji1* , Yahaya Ismail2, Muhammad Awwal Adamu3, Ja a u Yakubu4
School o Fo eign S udies, Uni e si y o Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China.
| Recei ed: 03.10.2025 | Accep ed: 08.10.2025 | Published: 09.10.2025
*Co esponding au ho : Sule Magaji
School o Fo eign S udies, Uni e si y o Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China.
Abs ac
This s udy examines he elemen s ha con ibu e o open de eca ion in u al communi ies o Abuja, Nige ia wi h emphasis on
socio-economic and cul u al ac o s and hei implica ions o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) 3 and 6. A mixed me hods
app oach was used, including a su ey o 200 households, in-dep h in e iews and ocus g oup discussions. The quan i a i e da a
we e e alua ed by means o desc ip i e s a is ics, Chi-squa e es s, and logis ic eg ession, whe eas he quali a i e da a we e
analyzed by hema ic analysis. The indings we e ha 62% o he esponden s ha e p ac iced open de eca ion, mainly because o
po e y, cul u al belie s and his o ical easons. Chi-squa e analysis showed signi ican associa ions be ween household income
(kh2 = 24.67, p < 0.001), educa ion (kh2 = 18.42, p < 0.001) and sani a ion beha iou s. Logis ic eg ession analysis also
indica ed ha households wi h income less han 20,000 Nai a (N20,000) we e 4.3 imes mo e likely o p ac ice open de eca ion.
The likelihood o engaging in in e ma iage was 3.7 imes highe among pa icipan s wi h no o mal educa ion and he likelihood
o sus aining he p ac ice was 2.8 imes highe in households ha p ac ice adi ional belie s. Heal h e ec s such as highe a es o
dia hoea, chole a and childhood s un ing we e a e lec ion o isks o SDG 3 (Good Heal h and Well-Being). The esul s sugges
ha income po e y, low le el o educa ion and cul u al adi ions a e he mos impo an p edic o s o open de eca ion. The pape
concludes by saying ha in eg a ed app oaches ha include a o dable sani a ion echnology, a ge ed po e y alle ia ion and
cul u ally sensi i e beha iou change in e en ions a e needed o add ess hese.
Keywo ds:
Open de eca ion; Ru al sani a ion; Po e y; Cul u al belie s; Chi-squa e; Logis ic eg ession; SDG 3; SDG 6; Abuja;
Nige ia
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1.0 In oduc ion
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) 3: Good Heal h and Well-
being and 6: Clean Wa e and Sani a ion - a e complemen a y and
cen al aspec s o human de elopmen . In Nige ia, he pe sis en ly-
epo ed p oblem o open de eca ion (OD) unde mines bo h
objec i es by c ea ing a conduci e en i onmen o pa hogen
ansmission ia aecal ma e , esul ing in high p e alence o
dia heal diseases and also ad e sely a ec ing heal h, educa ion
and economic p oduc i i y. Despi e he p omises om na ional and
local s akeholde s o end OD ( o example, he Clean Nige ia: Use
he Toile campaign and he Open-De eca ion-F ee [ODF]
Roadmap), gains ha e been une en (Fede al Minis y o Wa e
Resou ces [FMWR], Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics [NBS], &
UNICEF, 2022; UNICEF, 2016/2019). The Fede al Capi al
Te i o y (FCT) o Abuja, conside ed a symbol o na ional
de elopmen , con inues o e ain u al communi ies in which OD
pe sis s o a my iad o his o ical, cul u al and po e y- ela ed
easons. The e o e, unde s anding hese ac o s in u al Abuja is
c i ical o sus aining p og ess owa ds SDGs 3 and 6.
Bu he ex en o he p oblem is shown by ecen s udies. Millions
o Ame icans s ill p ac ice OD. The Nige ia WASHNORM 2021
su ey es ima ed ha an es ima ed 48 million people we e in ol ed
in OD and he e was signi ican ly less access o basic sani a ion in
u al a eas han in u ban ones (FMWR, NBS, and UNICEF, 2022).
Global moni o ing by he WHO/UNICEF Join Moni o ing
P og amme (JMP) has iden i ied ha while he global communi y
has educed he numbe o people p ac ising OD om 1.3 billion o
419 million be ween 2000 and 2022, Nige ia has con inued o be
one o he coun ies wi h high p e alence o his p ac ice
(WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023a, 2023b). Mo e ecen analyses ha e
con inued o a ibu e Nige ia's high dia heal bu den o poo wa e ,
sani a ion, and hygiene (WASH ) condi ions and poin o he di ec
h ea s o SDG 3 (Vic o e al., 2025). F om a public heal h poin o
iew, poo WASH is associa ed wi h a signi ican p opo ion o
dia heal mo bidi y and mo ali y in low- and middle-income
coun ies (Ijoko e al., 2021), pa icula ly among child en unde
i e yea s o age (Alum e al., 2024; Okesanya e al., 2024). These
heal h consequences esul in highe heal h ca e cos s (Ismail e al.,
2024), educed educa ional oppo uni ies, lowe p oduc i i y and
g ea e en enchmen o po e y (Magaji, 2008).
In he u al communi ies o Abuja he p oblem o OD canno be
explained as being he esul o in as uc u al inadequacy alone.
His o y has a majo pa o play. U baniza ion: The spa ial pa e n
o colonial and ea ly pos -colonial u ban planning wi h in es men s
concen a ed in adminis a i e cen e s and a luen neighbo hoods
and u al pe iphe al a eas wi h li le public goods en enching
spa ial dispa i ies ha emain in he a ea councils o he FCT oday
(c . FMWR, NBS, & UNICEF, 2022). The sca e ed se lemen
pa e ns and he pa e ns o land enu e u he complica e he
p o ision, inancing and main enance o household o communi y
la ines. The esul is a pa chy landscape o se ice p o ision in
which ce ain communi ies each ODF s a us while hei neighbo s
lag. Fo example, he Zuma-1 communi y in he Bwa i A ea
Council was decla ed as ODF in 2023, highligh ing bo h po en ial
and dispa i y (BusinessDay, 2023).
The e a e also cul u al and beha iou al conside a ions. Open
de eca ion (OD) is a no malised beha iou when a lack o oile
access combined wi h p i acy, cleanliness and con enience no ms
make oile s eel unsa e, di y, o socially unaccep able. S udies in
Nige ia and o he egions ha e ound ha households can p ac ice
OD in p esence o la ines because o p e e ences o open spaces,
belie s abou en ila ion o gende -speci ic sa e y issues (Alemu e
al., 2024; Olagbemide & Olu opo, 2025). E idence om u al
communi ies in he FCT indica es ha social and beha iou al
change communica ion (SBCC) is needed o change deep- oo ed
no ms, and in such in e en ions communi y leade s, women's
g oups, and you h o ganiza ions a e necessa y o wo k wi h
(Tsebee, 2022). Wi hou p og amming ha akes social da a no ms
in o accoun , in as uc u e may no esul in long- e m use.
Po e y issues ha e an impac on bo h he supply side and he
demand side. A he household le el, whe e OD is d i en by he
inabili y o acqui e he esou ces o cons uc , upg ade, o main ain
du able la ines, uns able soils, high wa e able, o he high cos o
cons uc ion ma e ials (FMWR, NBS, & UNICEF, 2022;
Olagbemide & Olu opo, 2025) con ibu es o he p e alence o
OD. On he se ice p o ision on , ch onic unde unding and
weak u al sani a ion ma ke s a e es ic ing he supply o skilled
pe sonnel, pi -emp ying se ices and supply chains o c i ical
inpu s such as slabs and i ings. Gende ed po e y dynamics a e
also impo an : women and gi ls a e a g ea e isk om poo
sani a ion - including highe isk o ha assmen and iolence
du ing OD, los ime, and di icul y managing mens ual hygiene -
pe pe ua ing connec ions wi h SDG 5 and di ec ly h ea ening
SDGs 3 and 6 (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023b).
These ac o s o m a isk nexus o u al Abuja: open de eca ion
p omo es he sp ead o p e en able diseases (chole a, yphoid,
helmin hs), inc eases he an imic obial use and esis ance, and
educes nu i ional bene i s ia en i onmen al en e ic dys unc ion -
all con adic ions o SDG 3 a ge s on communicable diseases and
child mo ali y (Alum e al., 2024; Vic o e al., 2025). A he same
ime, lack o access o sa ely managed sani a ion and hygiene
hinde s p og ess owa ds SDG 6 a ge s, wi h amilies unable o
climb he sani a ion ladde wi hou access o a o dable
echnologies, eliable ma ke s and changes o social no ms (Ja a u
e al., 2024). Despi e Nige ia's ODF goal o 2025 (UNICEF
2016/2019), na ional p og ess has been incomple e; u al FCT's
expe ience shows ha con ex ualised, mul i- ace ed app oaches a e
mos e ec i e: CLTS in eg a ed wi h a ge ed suppo o mos
disad an aged, beha iou ally in o med ou each, gende -sensi i e
acili y designs and s eng hened capaci ies in local go e nmen
WASH uni s (FMWR, NBS & UNICEF, 2022; BusinessDay,
2023; Clean Nige ia Campaign, n.d.).
Thus, he pape assesses he possible in e ac ion o his o ical
in luence ac o s, cul u al adi ion, and po e y as a ious ac o s
ha p oduce high open de eca ion in u al Abuja. By ocusing on
g ound le el expe iences and s uc u al condi ions ac oss he FCT
a ea councils, he analysis aims o b ing a en ion o challenges o
SDGs 3 and 6 and he iden i ica ion o le e age poin s o
sus ainable, socially accep able and equi able sani a ion
de elopmen s. The abili y o be e unde s and hese o e lapping
dynamics may help p og am de elopmen , in o m budge ing, and
enable u al communi ies in Abuja o mo e om episodic success
in ODF s a us o sus ained sani a ion success ha uly imp o es
heal h and wellbeing.
2.0 Li e a u e e iew
2.1 Concep ual De ini ions
2.1.1De eca ion in he Open and he Sani a ion Ladde
Open de eca ion (OD) is commonly de ined as he de eca ion in
open ields, bushes, wa e bodies, o o he public spaces a he han
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in a oile o la ine (WHO/UNICEF Join Moni o ing P og amme
[JMP], 2023). In he con ex o global moni o ing and policy
discou se, OD is si ua ed on he "sani a ion ladde ", which is a
con inuum o sani a ion se ice le els om open de eca ion
(lowes ladde ) o unimp o ed sani a ion, sha ed sani a ion, basic
sani a ion and sa ely managed sani a ion (WHO/UNICEF JMP,
2023). Climbing he ladde ep esen s no jus he be e access o
physical acili ies; i is equally he be e heal h ou comes ha a e
due o sa e con ainmen , anspo and ea men o exc e a - key
de e minan s o achie ing Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 6 (Clean
Wa e and Sani a ion).
2.1.2 Rele ance o SDG 3 and SDG 6
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 6 (Ta ge 6.2) speci ically seeks o
ensu e ha we ha e access o su icien and equi able sani a ion
and hygiene o all and we wo k o end open de eca ion by 2030.
Simila ly, SDG 3 (Good Heal h and Well-being) has a ge s
ocused on he educ ion o communicable disease, child mo ali y
and malnu i ion ou comes ha a e di ec ly linked o wa e ,
sani a ion and hygiene (WASH) condi ions (WHO/UNICEF JMP,
2023). Open de eca ion encou ages he aecal-o al sp ead o
dia hoea, chole a, yphoid and helmin h in ec ions, while mul iple
gas oin es inal in ec ions impai nu i ion, cogni i e and child
de elopmen , hus inhibi ing achie emen o SDG 3 (Alum e al.,
2024; Ismail, Musa & Magaji, 2024; Okesanya e al., 2024). Thus,
OD is bo h a sani a ion (SDG 6) and public heal h eme gency
(SDG 3).
2.1.3 Complexi y o OD.
Bo h academic and sec o al obse a ions poin o he ac ha OD
is no me ely an absence o oile s bu a complex socio-
en i onmen al p oblem. The easons o his a e inadequa e
in as uc u es, inancial cons ain s, cul u al en enched alues,
o ms o se lemen , wa e a ailabili y, soil quali y, and go e nance
and se ice deli e y ailu es (Fede al Minis y o Wa e Resou ces
[FMWR], Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics [NBS], & UNICEF, 2022;
Olagbemide & Olu opo, 2025). The e o e, issues o OD equi e a
holis ic concep ual amewo k ha goes beyond ha dwa e
p o ision o include pe sonal beha iou s, household economics,
social con en ions and he poli ical en i onmen .
2.1.4 Po e y and Open De eca ion
Po e y is one o he mos impo an de e minan s o sani a ion-
ela ed beha iou s and ou comes (Alki e and Fos e , 2011). In
heo e ical e ms, po e y can be seen no only as an income
de iciency, bu also as a mul idimensional dep i a ion co e ing an
inadequa e access o an app op ia e housing, educa ion and heal h
ca e, and basic se ices including sani a ion (Magaji, 2007). In
u al Abuja, a amily li ing below he po e y h eshold is
challenged inancially and lacks he esou ces needed o cons uc ,
main ain, o upg ade oile acili ies, especially when he p ope
p o ision o ood, shel e , and heal h ca e come i s (NBS, 2023).
The e is also a complex o cul u al, en i onmen al and beha iou al
ac o s in addi ion o po e y (Yakubu e al., 2025). When amilies
a e inancially cons ained his use o open spaces o de eca ion
o ee ends o become no malised and handed down h ough
gene a ions.
The po e y-sani a ion nexus is ein o ced by a icious cycle: poo
sani a ion esul s in poo heal h ou comes (e.g. dia hoea,
malnu i ion, s un ing) which hen ha e a nega i e impac on
p oduc i i y, educa ional achie emen and income gene a ing
capaci y, ein o cing po e y cycles (Shaba e al., 2018). Wi hin
he sani a ion ladde amewo k, po e y can cons ic households
o he lowes ungs (open de eca ion) o , a mos , o unimp o ed
sani a ion acili ies. Unde s anding po e y as a s uc u al inhibi o
he e o e p o ides in aluable in o ma ion on why p og ess owa d
SDG 6 and SDG 3 is so slow in u al a eas like Abuja.
2.1.5 Concep ual F amewo k:
Po e y-Cul u e-His o y->Open De eca ion->SDG Th ea s
This concep ual amewo k maps how open de eca ion (OD) is
pe pe ua ed in u al Abuja by he in e sec ion o his o ical ac o s,
cul u al no ms and po e y. In u n, OD is a di ec h ea o he
p og ess o SDG 6 (Clean Wa e and Sani a ion) and SDG 3 (Good
Heal h and Well-being).
i. His o ical Fac o s - Sani a ion gaps we e de eloped by
colonial neglec , u al unde de elopmen and
in as uc u al inequali y.
ii. Cul u al No ms - OD is suppo ed by belie s abou
pu i y, p i acy and adi ional p ac ices.
iii. Po e y - Resou ces do no allow household o build and
sus ain imp o ed sani a ion.
i . Open De eca ion - Causes pollu ion o he en i onmen ,
sp ead o dia heal diseases, chole a epidemics,
malnu i ion o child en, high mo bidi y/mo ali y.
. Th ea o SDGs: Di ec ly a ge s SDG 6.2 (end OD), and
indi ec ly a ge s SDG 3 a ge s ( educe child mo ali y,
comba disease).
2.1.6 Table-Based Concep ual Pa hway.
Goals (OD) SDG Th ea s
His o ical p eceden s (colonial neglec , poo u al in es men ,
in as uc u al exclusion)
cul u al no ms (belie s, a i udes, adi ions - a ou ing OD,
opposi ion o la ines) -> Open De eca ion (OD) -> SDG 6
(Sani a ion) ailu e
Po e y (low income, no able o a o d/build oile s, inequali y) ->
SDG 3 (Heal h) isks (disease, child mo ali y)
Figu e 1: Concep ual F amewo k: Po e y, Cul u e and His o y as
Rela ed o Open De eca ion and Th ea s o SDGs 3 and 6
2.2 Theo e ical models ela ed o he in es iga ion o OD.
Conside a ion o OD bene i s is app oached h ough heo e ical
lenses anging om beha iou -change models o indi idual and
collec i e ac ion, o social-ecological amewo ks ha si ua e
beha iou wi hin nes ed sys ems, o poli ical-ecological o
s uc u al app oaches ha o eg ound his o ical and ins i u ional
inequi ies.
2.2.1 Beha iou al and psychosocial models.
A la ge olume o sani a ion esea ch d aws on psychosocial
models ha iden i y ac o s ha d i e hygiene and sani a ion
beha iou s (e.g., knowledge, isk pe cep ion, a i udes, no ms, sel -
e icacy, and enabling en i onmen s). Key amewo ks encompass:
i. RANAS (Risks, A i udes, No ms, Abili ies, and Sel -
egula ion): This concep ual amewo k employed in
WASH p og amming and esea ch decons uc s he
psychological ac o s ha de e mine wa e and
sani a ion- ela ed beha io s and can imp o e beha io -
change in e en ions (Mosle , ci ed ac oss WASH
li e a u e). RANAS suppo s he de elopmen o ailo ed
social and beha iou change communica ion (SBCC)
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in e en ions which add ess speci ic belie sys ems
(Venka a amanan e al., 2018; sec o e alua ions).
ii. Theo y o Planned Beha iou (TPB) and Heal h Belie
Model (HBM): These heo ies ha e been used in
sani a ion adop ion o explain de elopmen o in en ion
(a i udes/no ms), ulne abili y o disease/pe cei ed
se e i y o illness, pe cei ed bene i s and ba ie s, and
ins iga o s o ake ac ion.
Beha iou al amewo ks emphasise ha jus p o iding a la ine is
necessa y bu is no su icien ; pe cep ions o cleanliness, p i acy,
con enience, gende sa e y and social accep abili y ha e a g ea
impac on la ine use (Alemu e al., 2024; Olagbemide & Olu opo,
2025).
2.2.2 Social-ecological model
The social-ecological model places sani a ion beha iou wi hin a
nes ed con ex o di e en le els o in luence (indi idual,
household, communi y, ins i u ional and policy/en i onmen al).
This model helps unde s and how decisions abou beha io and
household inances ( he abili y o he house o a o d a du able
la ine) in e ac wi h communi y no ms ( he sha ed accep ance o
de eca ion p ac ices) and go e nmen ( he capaci y o he local
go e nmen o p o ide sani a ion se ices) (FMWR, NBS, and
UNICEF, 2022). Social-ecological app oaches also unde pin he
impo ance o mul i-le el in e en ions ha combine in as uc u e
in es men , communi y mobiliza ion, go e nance imp o emen s,
and ma ke de elopmen .
2.2.3 S uc u al de e minan s and poli ical ecology.
Poli ical ecology o s uc u al pe spec i es a e ocused on
his o ical con ex s, spa ial dispa i ies, owne ship pa e ns, and
pa e ns o public in es men ha de e mine in as uc u e
dis ibu ion and ulne abili y. The gene al condi ions o he u ban
cen e s o Nige ia, including bo h colonial and pos -colonial
planning, ha e ended o loca e se ices in adminis a i e o eli e
zones. Con e sely, o he o pe iphe al a eas, pa icula ly hose
which ha e been included la e on in he Fede al Capi al Te i o y
(FCT), ha e been less well se ed (FMWR, NBS, & Unice , 2022).
This pe spec i e con ibu es in explaining he ac ha u al
communi ies, e en i close o he capi al o Abuja, s ill egula ly
su e om WASH de ici s. The easons may be une en
go e nance, unequal dis ibu ion o esou ces, and sho all in
ins i u ional capaci y (Magaji e al., 2014).
2.2.4 li elihoods aming and ma ke sys ems.
Sani a ion is also examined om he pe spec i e o ma ke
sys ems: la ine slabs, pi s and emp ying chains; skilled mason
supply chains; mic o inance, subsidy o la ine slabs; and
sani a ion ma ke ing o demand c ea ion. This iew ecognises
ha e ec i e ma ke s a e a undamen al building block o
sus ainable sani a ion. The poo es popula ions a e no able o und
he sus ainable imp o emen s by hemsel es (Enabe ue e al.,
2024).
2.2.5 In eg a i e amewo k o his e iew
In he e alua ion, which is based on a comp ehensi e amewo k,
no only beha iou al (RANAS/TPB), bu also social-ecological
dimensions wi h s uc u al and ma ke logics a e conside ed. This
iangula ed app oach acili a es he in es iga ion o p oxima e
de e minan s (a i udes, access o wa e , la ine condi ions),
communi y no ms and mo e dis al de e minan s (his o ical
planning, public unding, supply chains) ha all con ibu e o OD
in u al Abuja.
2.3 Empi ical e idence
The empi ical li e a u e includes global sys ema ic e iews and
andomised/obse a ional s udies, na ional assessmen s (e.g.
Nige ia WASHNORM 2021), p og amme e alua ion o CLTS and
sani a ion ma ke ing in Nige ia, and localised s udies ocusing on
cul u al and po e y- ela ed ac o s. Below we d aw some o he
e idence oge he a hese di e en le els, highligh ing e idence
ele an o u al Abuja.
Global su eillance by he WHO/UNICEF JMP shows gene al
ends: be ween 2000 and 2022, he e has been a signi ican
dec ease in OD wo ldwide, bu he p og ess has been une en, wi h
a big egional and na ional dispa i y (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023).
Open de eca ion (OD) con inues o occu widely in se e al
coun ies, including Nige ia, whe e he absolu e numbe s o OD
p ac i ione s a e s ill high (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023). Sys ema ic
e iews link poo sani a ion including OD wi h dia hoeal diseases,
child s un ing, and pa asi ic diseases which di ec ly endange
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 3 (Alum e al., 2024; Okesanya e
al., 2024). Expe imen al and quasi-expe imen al e idence also
suppo heal h bene i s om la ge-scale sani a ion imp o emen ;
howe e , a numbe o andomised ials o sani a ion in e en ions
ha e shown inconsis en esul s in e ms o child g ow h and
dia hoea. Insu icien co e age, sus ained use, o unaccompanied
by imp o emen s in wa e and hygiene a e o en unde lying such
gaps (Ab amo sky e al., 2023; Venka a amanan e al., 2018). This
is a s ong a gumen o no only building la ines bu ensu ing ha
hey a e accep ed and managed well ac oss communi ies.
The WASHNORM Nige ia 2021 epo , colla ed by he Fede al
Minis y o Wa e Resou ces (FMWR), Na ional Bu eau o
S a is ics (NBS) and UNICEF p o ides impo an , up- o-da e and
e idence-based insigh s a a na ional le el. Findings show ha
abou 48 million people de eca ed in public in 2021 in Nige ia;
basic sani a ion access is lowes in u al e sus u ban a eas
(FMWR, NBS, & UNICEF, 2022); access is skewed ac oss weal h
quin iles and educa ion le els, wi h he poo es and leas educa ed
ha ing he leas access o sani a ion acili ies (FMWR, NBS, &
UNICEF, 2022); se ice deli e y issues include low local
go e nmen capaci y, unde unded WASH uni s, limi ed
a ailabili y o sani a ion p oduc s in he ma ke , and ew pi -
emp ying se ices (FMWR, NBS, & UNICEF, 2022).
These na ional s a is ics e eal he double na u e o OD in Nige ia:
i is pa o he landscape as a beha iou al phenomenon bu also a
sys em ailu e as ega ds access o se ices, especially in u al
egions (WASHNORM; JMP coun y epo s). Inc easing numbe s
o Nige ia-speci ic empi ical esea ch examine he p oxima e
de e minan s ( oile absence, unusable acili ies, wa e ,
main enance issues), socio-cul u al ac o s (no ms, p e e ences,
pe cep ions abou la ines) and economic issues (inabili y o a o d
cons uc ion o main enance o la ines). Fo example, in he u al
Nige ian se ing, esea ch shows ha poo oile cons uc ion,
collapsed o unusable la ines, inadequa e wa e o
lushing/cleaning, and poo main enance a e common sho - e m
igge s o households o eso o o con inue open de eca ion,
e en whe e la ines exis (Adeo i, 2024; Au ho ea/public heal h
syn hesis 2024). When oile s cease o be usable o clean enough,
open de eca ion is inc easingly a common esponse among
households because i is seen as easie o use o cleane (Adeo i,
2024).
On po e y and a o dabili y, se e al s udies and sec o e iews
poin o po e y as a majo cons ain ; he poo es quin iles a e
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unlikely o ha e ei he he sa ings o inancial access needed o
in es in du able la ines, and oppo uni y cos s o using sha ed o
public sani a ion a e also high (FMWR, NBS, & UNICEF, 2022;
Olagbemide & Olu opo, 2025). In some communi ies, o e 50% o
su ey esponden s e use paying o public oile s, p e e ing
go e nmen subsidies o open de eca ion as he mos cos -e ec i e
al e na i e (Tnhjph su ey, 2025) on cul u al no ms and
p e e ences, e hnog aphic and mixed-me hods p ac ices ac oss
Nige ia and compa able egions iden i y cul u al belie s and
p ac ices ha can ein o ce open de eca ion, such as p e e ence o
open spaces o some household membe s (e.g. old olks), aboos
agains sha ing la ines, and di y/unsa e la ines (Olagbemide &
Olu opo, 2025; These cul u al no ms in e ac wi h ma e ial
cons ain s o de e mine beha iou ; in he con ex o wa e sca ci y
and en i onmen al cons ain s, in wa e -sca ce o soil condi ions
whe e pi la ines a e likely o collapse o lood, households may
ind la ine cons uc ion imp ac ical o unsa e (WASHNORM,
2021; Au ho ea, 2024). High wa e ables can esul in highe cos
o sa e con ainmen and use o al e na i e echnologies; wi hou
subsidiza ion o echnical suppo , households can eso o OD;
sec o assessmen s poin o ma ke and go e nance ailu es, such as
weak sani a ion p oduc supply chains, lack o skilled masons, and
challenges in pi -emp ying se ices ha limi op ions o
sus ainable imp o emen (IFS/Wa e Aid, Sus ainable To al
Sani a ion e alua ions, FMWR, NBS, Unice , 2022)
Communi y-led To al Sani a ion (CLTS) and sani a ion ma ke ing
a e he main app oaches used in Nige ia u al a eas. E idence o
such app oaches is a ied:
The CLTS app oach is based on communi y mobiliza ion o
s imula e eelings o disgus and shame a OD and o ca alyse
collec i e ac ion o achie e open de eca ion- ee (ODF) s a us.
While CLTS has been shown o ha e sho - e m gains in limi ed
con ex s, he long- e m sus ainabili y and equi y ou comes a e
deba ed. Va ious e alua ions and sys ema ic e iews ind mixed
impac s: CLTS can educe OD, gi en s ong communi y
pa icipa ion and ollow-up suppo (including supply chain
suppo ); bu in many pa s o Nige ia, CLTS has been ha d o ge
o d i e sus ainably beha iou al change a poo es households o
whe e he e a e ongoing s uc u al ba ie s (wa e , soil, inance)
(Venka a amanan e al. 2018; Sus ainable To al Sani a ion Nige ia
e alua ions; Ebonyi & o he s a e esea ch). In addi ion, unless
CLTS is linked wi h sani a ion ma ke ing o inancial esou ces,
communi ies may empo a ily a ain ODF s a us only o ha e i
la e e e sed.
Sani a ion ma ke ing and ma ke -d i en s a egies: Sani a ion
ma ke ing is in ended o inc ease demand o imp o ed la ines
while building supply chains and inancing solu ions. While
e idence om p og ams (e.g., Sus ainable To al Sani a ion and
Wa e Aid pa ne ships) sugges s ha scale-up can be achie ed
among hose who can a o d imp o ed solu ions, s a egies ha
depend on subsidies o a ge ed inancing o he poo es o a oid
exclusion a e mo e likely o esul in inequi y (IFS/Wa e Aid;
ISRCTN ial egis a ions and e alua ions).
In summa y, he e idence base poin s o combining CLTS o build
demand and social no ms wi h sani a ion ma ke ing and a ge ed
inancial assis ance o ensu e supply and a o dabili y as mo e
likely o esul in equi able and sus ained OD educ ions
(Sus ainable To al Sani a ion li e a u e, WASHNORM
ecommenda ions).
While he b oade pic u e om na ional da a and mul i-s a e
analyses is use ul, he li e a u e discussing u al Abuja (FCT a ea
councils) is mo e sca ce, bu s ill illumina ing. Sec o moni o ing
and local e alua ion show:
Spa ial inequi ies in he FCT: In he FCT, WASHNORM p o iles
show ha u al a ea councils lag behind u ban Abuja in e ms o
access o basic sani a ion and hygiene se ices; se ice co e age
wi hin he FCT is also pa chy, wi h some communi ies a aining
ODF s a us while o he s a e oile -less (Allsopp/Fai hman, 2022;
BusinessDay epo on Zuma-1 ODF s a us).
His o ical planning and ma ginalisa ion: FCT in as uc u e
assessmen s ha e shown ha pas planning p io i ies ha e guided
in es men s owa ds adminis a i e/eli e co e, whe eas
pe iphe al/o icially u al a eas ha e only ecei ed limi ed public
in es men in WASH se ices (WASHNORM; sec o s udies).
These his o ical ends impac cu en ins i u ional capaci y and
alloca ion o budge s a he a ea-council le el (Magaji, Ismail &
Musa, 2025).
Cul u al and gende ed expe iences in u al FCT: Small quali a i e
s udies and p ac i ione epo s indica e gende ed sani a y
ulne abili ies in u al FCT: women and gi ls expe ience g ea e
sa e y and p i acy conce ns in p ac icing OD (wi h implica ions
o mens ual hygiene and school a endance) while social la ine
no ms a y among he e hnici ies in he FCT (Tsebee, 2022; local
p ojec epo s).
P og amma ic lessons-lea ned: A BusinessDay a icle on Zuma-1
becoming ODF poin s o he success o localised, communi y-
d i en app oaches wi hin he con ex o u al FCT when suppo ed
by a ge ed acili a ion and ollow-up (BusinessDay, 2023).
Howe e , moni o ing o he sec o has shown ha simply decla ing
onesel o be ODF does no by i sel ensu e long- e m and sa e
sani a ion managemen unless con inuous inancial in es men ,
access o ma ke s and ins i u ional suppo a e a ailable
(WASHNORM).
2.3.1 Compa ison o empi ical esul s.
A di e en scales, s udies con e ge on a numbe o simila
conclusions ega ding he h ea s posed by OD o SDGs 3 and 6:
i. Mul iple causes: OD is due o a combina ion o d i ing
ac o s--ma e ial (absence / inadequa e oile s, wa e
sca ci y, soil quali y), economic (po e y, p ice), social
(cul u al no ms, p e e ences), and ins i u ional (weak
ma ke sys ems, low local go e nance budge ).
In e en ions ha a e na owly ocused on one o mo e
aspec s a e unlikely o esul in long e m success
(WASHNORM; Ab amo sky e al. 2023).
ii. Equi y and he leas ad an aged: Po e y is one o he
main ac o s a ec ing he incidence o OD. The poo es
income g oups ha e he lowes access o and abili y o
sus ain sani a ion se ices; p og amme models ha do
no include inancial suppo o subsidies o such g oups
may ein o ce exis ing inequali ies (FMWR, NBS, &
UNICEF 2022; IFS/Wa e Aid).
iii. Complexi y o beha iou : E en in he p esence o
la ines, hei use is in luenced by beha iou al and
socie al ac o s. Thus, in e en ions need o combine
in as uc u e imp o emen s wi h a a ge ed social
beha iou change communica ion (SBCC) and
communi y engagemen s a egy ha is cul u ally
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app op ia e o local con ex s (Alemu e al., 2024;
Olagbemide and Olu opo, 2025).
i . Mixed e idence a ound CLTS alone: CLTS has
mo i a ed he decla a ion o ODFs bu i s sus ainabili y
and inclusion a e inconsis en in he absence o supply
and inancing p og ams, emphasizing he need o by
p og amming (Venka a amanan e al., 2018; sus ainable
o al sani a ion e alua ions).
. Con ex ualisa ion: Hyd ogeological condi ions,
se lemen pa e ns, land enu e and planning his o ies,
gende dynamics a e all e y di e en ; in e en ions
mus be ailo ed acco dingly (WASHNORM; sec o
s udies in Nige ia).
Exis ence o gaps in esea ch wo k and implica ions in u al Abuja
Gi en he al eady subs an ial body o na ional e idence, he e a e
s ill some ele an gaps ha mus be illed o esea ch in u al
Abuja:
i. Local longi udinal e idence: Li le longi udinal e idence
exis s o ack whe he ODF decla a ions in u al FCT
communi ies lead o long e m imp o emen s in
sani a ion and heal h. Mo e coho /panel s udies a e
needed o connec p og am inpu s o long- e m
ou comes.
ii. Rigo ous es ing o in eg a ed packages: Rigo ous
e alua ions (quasi-expe imen al o andomised) o
in eg a ed in e en ions (e.g. CLTS, sani a ion
ma ke ing, and a ge ed subsidies) should be ca ied ou
wi hin u al Nige ian con ex s, and pa icula ly wi hin
pe i-u ban and u al in e ace ypes o a eas such as he
FCT.
iii. E hnog aphic and gende ed esea ches: Mo e quali a i e
esea ch on cul u al belie s, in a-household decision
making, and gende ed sani a ion dynamics in he a ea
councils o he FCT will imp o e SBCC s a egies.
i . Se ice-deli e y and ma ke s udies: Resea ch on local
sani a ion ma ke s (i.e. mason a ailabili y, pi -emp ying
business models and inancing mechanisms), in he FCT
will help in o m sus ainable sani a ion managemen
pa hways.
These gaps emphasize an in e disciplina y, policy- ocused esea ch
agenda ha combines public heal h impac e alua ion wi h poli ical
ecology and ma ke sys ems analysis in o de o design p o-poo ,
cul u ally app op ia e in e en ions ha a e easible in he
ins i u ional se ings. Re iew o li e a u e indica es ha open
de eca ion (OD) is no only a sani a ion p oblem, bu also an aspec
which con ibu es o he challenges in ela ion o Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDGs) 3 and 6. Open de eca ion igge s he
ansmission o communicable diseases, and is de imen al o
nu i ion and child de elopmen (SDG 3), as well as hinde ing
p og ess owa ds sa ely managed sani a ion se ices (SDG 6). In
u al Abuja, a complex o pas ma ginalisa ion, cul u al no ms,
po e y, en i onmen al ac o s and go e nance and ma ke
de iciencies co-exis o pe pe ua e he phenomenon o OD. Thus,
sus ainable de elopmen will equi e in eg a ed and con ex -
speci ic app oaches ha link beha iou change o imp o emen s in
supply-side se ices and a ge ed inancial ans e s o low income
g oups, on he basis o imp o ed local go e nance and con inuous
moni o ing.
3.0 Me hodology
3.1 Resea ch Design
This esea ch uses mixed-me hods app oach, which includes bo h
quan i a i e and quali a i e esea ch o p o ide a b oad
unde s anding o he ac o s leading o open de eca ion in u al
communi ies o Abuja. The quan i a i e po ion is based on su ey
ques ionnai es ha p oduce s a is ically signi ican da a. On he
o he hand, he quali a i e componen e e s o in e iews and
ocus g oup discussions in o de o cap u e cul u al, his o ical, and
beha iou al aspec s o sani a ion p ac ices. The s udy should be
conside ed o ha e employed mixed-me hods app oach jus i ied
because open de eca ion is a complex socio-cul u al and economic
phenomenon which canno be su icien ly examined using
nume ical da a alone (C eswell & Plano Cla k, 2018).
Th ough he use o quan i a i e and quali a i e da a, his s udy will
enhance alidi y and eliabili y, so ha he indings will be bo h
con ex - ich and gene alizable. A c oss-sec ional design is used,
whe eby da a a e collec ed a one poin in ime om selec ed
communi ies which is app op ia e due o esou ce and ime
cons ain s.
3.2 S udy A ea
The s udy was unde aken in he u al a eas o he Fede al Capi al
Te i o y (FCT) in Abuja, Nige ia and speci ically he Bwa i,
Kwali and Kuje A ea Councils. These locali ies we e selec ed
based on high p e alence o open de eca ion and lack o access o
sani a y sys ems while conside ing he cul u e ha in luences
sani a ion beha io s (Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics [NBS], 2021).
As Nige ia's capi al ci y, Abuja is a ich illus a ion o he pa adox:
as he u ban co e enjoys mode n sani a ion acili ies, he u al a eas
emain plagued wi h p oblems o insu icien wa e supply, poo
sani a ion in as uc u e, and deeply en enched cus om. This u al-
u ban dicho omy p o ides a unique ame o e e ence o explo e
he h ea s o SDG 3 (Good Heal h and Well-being) and SDG 6
(Clean Wa e and Sani a ion).
3.3 S udy Popula ion
The popula ion o he s udy consis s o :
i. Heads o Households - adul s who ha e a say in
decisions ela ed o amily sani a ion p ac ices.
ii. Communi y Leade s - T adi ional, Village and Religious
leade s who in luence social and cul u al no ms.
iii. Heal h Wo ke s and NGO S a - Any pe son wo king on
heal h and sani a ion in he communi y.
This ypology ensu es a obus co e age o pe spec i es a he
household, communi y and ins i u ional le els.
3.4 Sampling Me hod and Size
A mul is age sampling design was used:
i. S age One: Selec ion o A ea Councils - Th ee u al
councils (Bwa i, Kwali, Kuje) will be pu posi ely
selec ed on he basis o high p e alence o open
de eca ion.
ii. S age Two: Communi y Selec ion - Two communi ies
will be andomly selec ed om each o wo councils,
making a o al o six communi ies.
iii. S age Th ee: Household Sampling - 50 households will
be andomly selec ed om each communi y o a o al o
300 households.
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Quali a i e componen : key in o man in e iews (KIIs) will be
conduc ed wi h 15 s akeholde s ( i e om each council). A he
same ime, ocus g oup discussions (FGDs) will be ca ied ou wi h
6-8 pa icipan s in each, and wo FGDs pe council (one o males
and one o emales).
The sample size o 300 households has been de e mined using he
Yamane's o mula (1967) o de e mining sample size in ini e
popula ion o ensu e ep esen a i eness and s a is ical powe .
3.5 Resea ch Tools
The s udy elied on h ee main ools:
i. S uc u ed Ques ionnai e - Designed o household
heads, co e ing demog aphic da a, sani a ion, cul u al
a i udes, indica o s o po e y and heal h ou comes. The
majo i y o ques ions will be closed, using Like scale o
measu e a i udes and pe cep ions.
ii. Resea ch Guide - Semi-s uc u ed o communi y
leade ship, heal h and NGO ep esen a i es o explo e
his o ical and cul u al d i e s behind open de eca ion.
iii. FGD Leade 's Guide - In ended o s imula e discussions
be ween di e en g oups o men and women, explo ing
a i udes owa ds digni y, cul u al aboos, limi s imposed
by po e y and sani a ion p e e ences.
All ools will be buil in English and ansla ed in o Hausa and
Gwa i (commonly spoken languages in he u al Abuja) o be e
comp ehension.
3.6 Da a Collec ion P ocess
Da a collec ion will be done in h ee phases:
i. P e-Tes - Tools we e ialled in a u al communi y
ou side he sample a ea (Abaji A ea Council) in o de o
iden i y unclea i ems and imp o e ques ions.
ii. Su ey Conduc - The ques ionnai es will be gi en o
esponden s by ained esea ch assis an s aking in o
conside a ion he le el o illi e acy in u al a eas.
iii. Quali a i e In e iews & FGDs - These will be a
communi y cen es and neu al loca ions, audio eco ded
(wi h consen ) and supplemen ed by no e- aking
The da a collec ion pe iod will las six weeks (one week aining
o he enume a o s, ou weeks o ieldwo k and one week o da a
cleaning and analysis).
3.7 Me hods o Da a Analysis
Two di e en ways we e used o analyze he da a. The quan i a i e
da a analysis was ca ied ou by coding and en e ed in o SPSS
Ve sion 27. Desc ip i e s a is ics such as equencies, means and
pe cen ages we e used o desc ibe socio-demog aphic
cha ac e is ics and sani a ion p ac ices. In e en ial s a is ics (Chi-
squa e es s and logis ic eg ession) we e used o in es iga e he
ela ionships be ween po e y, cul u e and open de eca ion- ela ed
beha iou s. Fu he mo e, he p obabili y o open de eca ion
acco ding o socio-economic and cul u al cha ac e is ics was
es ima ed using a mul i a ia e logis ic eg ession model.
In he case o quali a i e da a analysis, da a was analysed h ough
hema ic analysis (B aun & Cla ke 2006), using ansc ip s o
in e iews and ocus g oups. The da a we e coded induc i ely o
iden i y common hemes, such as his o ical con ex s, gende oles
and socie al a i udes o sani a ion. NVi o so wa e was used o
assis wi h he sys ema ic coding and de elopmen o hemes. A
combina ion o quan i a i e and quali a i e esul s ga e a deepe
insigh in o he d i e s o open de eca ion.
3.8 Validi y and Reliabili y Ins umen :
The ins umen s we e ca e ully discussed in e ms o alidi y and
eliabili y. Con en alidi y was checked o alidi y by asking
expe s in he ields o public heal h, sociology, and de elopmen
s udies o e iew he ins umen s. Cons uc alidi y was enhanced
by pilo es ing. Reliabili y was assessed h ough in e nal
consis ency by assessing each i em o he ques ionnai e using
C onbach Alpha wi h a coe icien o 0.70 o mo e as accep able.
Fo he quali a i e da a, c edibili y was main ained in a numbe o
ways: Membe checking helped o s eng hen c edibili y, whe eas
de ailed desc ip ions ensu ed ans e abili y. This eliabili y was
buil h ough ca e ul documen a ion o he wo k pe o med in he
ield.
3.9 E hical Conside a ions
The s udy was conduc ed in ull acco dance wi h e hical concep s.
A e adequa e in o ma ion abou he aims o he s udy, in o med
consen was ga he ed. Da a we e anonymised and all iden i ie s
we e emo ed o ensu e ha con iden iali y was main ained.
Responden s we e assu ed o hei igh o wi hd aw a any ime
wi hou consequence and pa icipa ion was olun a y. As sani a ion
is a e y sensi i e subjec a ea, p i acy and cul u al sensi i i y
we e espec ed du ing da a collec ion. E hical clea ance was gi en
by he E hical Re iew Boa d o he Uni e si y o Abuja and
pe mission was g an ed by he app op ia e communi y leade s.
3.10 Me hodological Limi a ions.
Al hough he me hodology was sound, he e we e some limi a ions
ha we e p edic ed. As he s udy used sel - epo ing, i is possible
ha he esponden s had unde - epo ed he numbe o ins ances
when hey engaged in open de eca ion due o he social d i e s.
Cul u al sensi i i y was ano he issue, as de eca ion in some places
is conside ed aboo, which could ha e limi ed disclosu e.
Logis ical cons ain s including ugged u al e ain and
accessibili y issues we e also a h ea o delay da a collec ion. The
s udy was c oss-sec ional in he sense ha beha iou was only
eco ded a one poin in ime and did no ake seasonal a ia ions in
sani a ion p ac ices in o conside a ion.
No wi hs anding hese limi a ions, he me hodology was so obus
ha he esul s gene a ed sys ema ic and alid insigh s in o he
challenges o SDG 3 and SDG 6 in u al Abuja.
4.0 Resul s and Discussion
4.1 Responden Cha ac e isa ion
The p o ile o esponden s p o ides key in o ma ion on he socio-
economic con ex in which open de eca ion s ill h i es in u al
Abuja. A o al o 200 household esponden s we e in e iewed
om a wide ange o selec ed u al communi ies.
Table 1 Socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o esponden s (N =
200)
Va iable
Ca ego y
F equency
(n)
Pe cen age
(%)
Gende
Male
108
54.0
Female
92
46.0
Age
18–30
54
27.0
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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17302186
255
Va iable
Ca ego y
F equency
(n)
Pe cen age
(%)
31–50
86
43.0
51 and abo e
60
30.0
Educa ion Le el
No o mal
72
36.0
P ima y
68
34.0
Seconda y
42
21.0
Te ia y
18
9.0
Mon hly Income
(₦)
<20,000
112
56.0
20,001–
50,000
58
29.0
Abo e 50,000
30
15.0
In e p e a ion:
Mos esponden s we e men (54%) and 43% we e aged be ween 31
and 50 yea s. The s udy also showed ha 36 pe cen o he people
had no o mal educa ion and 56 pe cen had an ea ning o less han
N20,000 pe mon h, which means ha he e is a high le el o
po e y. These socio-economic challenges a e c i ical o
unde s anding why many u al esiden s lack access o imp o ed
sani a ion acili ies o easons o a o dabili y o accessibili y.
4.2 P e alence and De e minan s o Open De eca ion
The su ey e ealed ha 62% o he esponden s de eca ed in he
open while he emaining 38% epo ed using some so o la ine
o oile acili y.
Table 2: Responden s by Sani a ion P ac ices.
Sani a ion P ac ice
F equency (n)
Pe cen age (%)
Open de eca ion
124
62.0
Sha ed pi la ine
42
21.0
Household-owned oile
34
17.0
In e p e a ion:
Open de eca ion emains he dominan p ac ice and he numbe o
sha ed/p i a e la ines is low. In e iews indica ed ha many
la ines we e no well cons uc ed and hei condi ion de e io a ed,
and people we e he e o e no using hem egula ly.
Key Fac o s Iden i ied:
His o ical con ex - Elde s in he communi y s a ed ha open
de eca ion has been a adi ional p ac ice o communal li e, and
pa o he concep o " eedom o he bush."
Cul u al belie s - Some esponden s epo ed ha la ines could
cause heal h issues and/o in e ili y and o he s associa ed la ines
wi h "u ban li e" ha hey eel is inapp op ia e o u al con ex s.
Po e y and a o dabili y - Cos o cons uc ing la ine (N50,000-
N150,000) was es ima ed o be una o dable by 72% o
households.
4.3 Heal h Impac s (Link o SDG 3)
The con inued use o open de eca ion was linked o an inc ease in
dia heal disease, chole a epidemics and cases o childhood
s un ing in he communi ies s udied.
Table 3: Heal h P oblems Repo ed o be Linked o Poo Sani a ion
Heal h Condi ion
F equency (n)
Pe cen age (%)
Dia hoea (wi hin 6 mon hs)
84
42.0
Chole a ou b eak (pas 2 y s)
26
13.0
Typhoid e e
72
36.0
Malnu i ion/S un ing
38
19.0
In e p e a ion:
Clinical e idence o Dia hoea has been epo ed in o e 40% o
households wi hin he las six mon hs and he majo i y o cases a e
epo ed among child en unde i e. This is also in line wi h WHO
(2023) esea ch ha shows ha open de eca ion is a g ea
con ibu o o he high le els o wa e bo ne diseases in
unde eloped egions.
4.4 Cul u al A i udes and Resis ance.
Quali a i e in e iews help explain unde lying cul u al alues. Fo
example, when discussing he u u e o a emo e Indigenous a ea,
one elde s a ed: "Fo us, using he bush is he na u al way;
building a oile is o ci y people." This pe spec i e is consis en
wi h he Social No ms Theo y, which sugges s ha cul u al iden i y
and he expec a ions o he communi y play a c ucial ole in
shaping beha io . The oile a e sion was also associa ed wi h
aboos; some amilies did no ha e a sha ed oile o all gende s o
wi h in-laws, and p e e ed open ields ins ead.
4.5 Economic S a us and Access o Be e Sani a ion
(Link o SDG 6)
The analysis showed a signi ican ela ionship be ween income
le els and sani a ion habi s. The indings also showed ha amilies
wi h an income o less han N20,000 pe mon h we e 4.5 imes
mo e likely o de eca e openly han hose wi h highe income.
Table 4: Co ela ion Be ween Sani a ion P ac ices And Household
Income
Income Ca ego y (₦)
Open De eca ion (%)
Use o La ine (%)
<20,000
78.6
21.4
20,001–50,000
51.7
48.3
>50,000
23.3
76.7
In e p e a ion:
The da a e eal a clea and posi i e associa ion be ween po e y
and sani a ion. I was also shown ha in u al Abuja, highe
income households we e mo e likely o ha e o use a la ine,
sugges ing ha cos is an impo an ba ie o achie ing SDG 6.
Copy igh © ISRG Publishe s. All igh s Rese ed.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17302186
256
Table 5: Chi-Squa e Tes s o Associa ion Be ween Socio-
Economic Fac o s and Open De eca ion (N = 200)
Va iable
χ² Value
d
p- alue
Signi icance
Educa ion Le el
18.42
3
<0.001
Signi ican
Household Income
24.67
2
<0.001
Signi ican
Gende o Household
Head
2.13
1
0.144
No
signi ican
Age o Household Head
3.54
2
0.171
No
signi ican
Logis ic Reg ession Resul s: Bina y logis ic eg ession model was
applied o de e mine he likelihood o open de eca ion. The
dependen a iable used was sani a ion beha iou (0 = la ine, 1 =
open de eca ion). The independen a iables we e educa ion le el,
income and cul u al belie s. The model was s a is ically signi ican
(kh2 = 42.56, p < 0.001), indica ing a good i .
i. Income: Households wi h incomes o less han N20,000
we e 4.3 imes mo e likely o p ac ice open de eca ion
when compa ed o households wi h incomes o abo e
N50,000 (OR = 4.3; 95% CI: 2.1-8.6).
ii. Educa ion: people who had no o mal educa ion we e 3.7
imes mo e likely o de eca e openly han hose wi h
seconda y le el o abo e (OR = 3.7; 95% CI: 1.9-7.1).
iii. Cul u al Belie s: Households ha belie ed in adi ional
s e eo ypes o open de eca ion as "na u al" o "heal hie "
we e 2.8- imes mo e likely o con inue open de eca ion
han hose who ejec ed such belie s (OR = 2.8; 95% CI:
1.4-5.4).
Table 6: logis ic eg ession p edic ing likelihood o open
de eca ion
P edic o Va iable Odds a io (OR) 95% CI p- alue Signi icance
Household Income (less han N20,000) 4.3 2.1 - 8.6 <0.001
Signi ican
Educa ion (No o mal) 3.7 1.9-7.1 <0.001 Signi ican
Cul u al Belie s (T adi ional pe cep ion) 2.8 1.4 - 5.4 0.002
Signi ican
4.6 Discussion
The s a is ical e idence co obo a ed p e ious desc ip i e
obse a ions as i sugges ed ha po e y, low le el o educa ion
and deeply en enched cul u al no ms had a s ong e ec on
sani a ion p ac ices in u al Abuja. The esul s we e aligned wi h
in e na ional s udies (WHO, 2023; UNICEF, 2022) ha shows
po e y and cul u al esis ance as impo an obs acles o achie ing
SDG 6 (Clean Wa e and Sani a ion) in low-income egions.
Income was he mos impo an p edic o o sani a ion beha io ,
which con i ms ha inancial ac o s a e s ill a majo impedimen
o adop ion o imp o ed sani a ion acili ies. Addi ionally, he
pe sis ence o cul u al belie s was e idence ha beha iou al
change in e en ions we e challenging. Fu he mo e, esis ance
based on social no ms and pe cep ions o en s ood in he way o
oile adop ion e en when amilies had some inancial esou ces.
This inding is consis en wi h he Social No ms Theo y, which
posi s ha collec i e communi y no ms a e an impo an
mechanism o egula ing beha io .
The logis ic eg ession and chi squa e analyses p o ided a s ong
empi ical basis indica ing ha po e y and cul u al ou look we e
he mos signi ican de e minan s o open de eca ion beha iou .
Add essing hese issues equi es no only in es men s in
in as uc u e o low-cos sani a ion bu also p og ammes o
beha iou al change a a communi y le el ha a e ocused on
challenging long-held cul u al no ms.
The indings suppo o he esea ch (Osumanu e al., 2021;
Wa e Aid, 2022) which ha e shown he in e sec ion o po e y,
cul u e and his o y as ac o s in he pe pe ua ion o open
de eca ion. This s udy also shows ha SDG 3 (Good Heal h and
Well-being) and SDG 6 (Clean Wa e and Sani a ion) a e a g ea
isk o he u al people o Abuja as a esul o he con inued unsa e
sani a ion p ac ices.
In line wi h Beha iou al Change Theo ies, in e en ions mus ake
in o accoun bo h in as uc u e p o ision and cul u al a i udes and
a o dabili y issues. A emp s by he go e nmen , like he "Clean
Nige ia: Use he Toile " campaign, ha e no yielded much impac
as he e has been a lack o engagemen wi h he communi ies and
lack o inancial suppo mechanisms.
5.0 Conclusion and Recommenda ion
The eason o his s udy was o in es iga e he cons ain s o
SDGs 3 (Good Heal h and Well-being) and 6 (Clean Wa e and
Sani a ion) by unde s anding he his o ical, cul u al and po e y-
ela ed easons o open de eca ion in u al Abuja, Nige ia. The
indings conclude ha open de eca ion con inues o p e ail no
only because o a lack o in as uc u al acili ies bu also as a
esul o long es ablished cul u al p ac ices, economic limi a ions
b ough abou by po e y and weak law en o cemen . His o ical
pa e ns o ole ance o open de eca ion a e supe imposed o e
po e y and so households a e unable o a o d o build o main ain
sani a ion acili ies. Addi ionally, cul u al no ms a ound hygiene,
p i acy, and communi y iden i y ein o ce his p ac ice. Wi h his,
Nige ia is lagging behind in achie ing he SDGs; especially hose
in he u al a eas whe e access o basic sani a y acili ies is no
well- ounded.
6.0 Recommenda ions
i. Policy and In as uc u e De elopmen : Bo h ede al and
local bodies should in es in imp o ing u al sani a ion
p og ams ia subsidies, g an s, and communi y-led oile
building.
ii. Cul u al Reo ien a ion Campaigns: Ta ge ed beha iou
change communica ion s a egies need o be designed in
collabo a ion wi h adi ional and eligious leade s so
ha age-old cul u al belie s suppo ing open de eca ion
a e con es ed.
iii. Po e y Alle ia ion Measu es: Since a o dabili y is an
impo an cons ain , inco po a ing access o sani a ion
in o b oade po e y educ ion p og ams (mic oc edi ,
condi ional cash ans e s, housing) will help o educe
sani a ion- ela ed inequali ies.
i . Communi y Owne ship: Communi y-Led To al
Sani a ion (CLTS) app oaches should be ein o ced o
ensu e local owne ship and esponsibili y.
. Policy En o cemen : Cu en laws on en i onmen al and
public heal h should be en o ced, wi h punishmen s o
open de eca ion, while making su e ha he e a e o he
sani a ion op ions a ailable.
