Co esponding au ho : Ayomiposi Ayodele.
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
Clima e change and i s e ec s on bi d di e si y in opical ecosys ems: A ocus on he
amazon basin and cen al Ame ica
Ayomiposi Ayodele *
Depa men o Ecology and Conse a ion Biology, Texas A and M Uni e si y, Texas, USA.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 1132-1148
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 30 Ma ch 2025; e ised on 05 May 2025; accep ed on 08 May 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.26.2.1765
Abs ac
Clima e change is eme ging as a signi ican d i e o biodi e si y loss, pa icula ly in opical ecosys ems. The Amazon
Basin and Cen al Ame ica, bo h ich in a ian di e si y, ace p o ound ecological shi s due o ising empe a u es,
al e ed p ecipi a ion pa e ns, and inc easing ex eme wea he e en s. This e iew explo es he impac s o clima e
change on bi d di e si y in hese egions, emphasizing he ulne abili y o species wi h na ow ecological niches and
hose dependen on s able o es ecosys ems. Th ough an examina ion o obse ed and p ojec ed clima e ends,
physiological and ecological esponses o bi ds, and conse a ion s a egies, his pape highligh s c i ical knowledge
gaps and he u gen need o adap i e managemen . I unde sco es he impo ance o in eg a ed, egion-speci ic
conse a ion s a egies and he ole o local communi ies in mi iga ing clima e impac s. The pape calls o a holis ic
app oach o conse a ion ha inco po a es clima e esilience, habi a es o a ion, and long- e m moni o ing o p o ec
he a ian di e si y essen ial o hese opical ecosys ems.
Keywo ds: Amazon Basin; A ian Di e si y; Cen al Ame ica; Ecosys em and Habi a
1. In oduc ion
Clima e change, de ined as long- e m al e a ions in empe a u e, p ecipi a ion, and wea he pa e ns, has become one
o he mos p essing en i onmen al challenges o he 21s cen u y. The e ec s o clima e change a e no only al e ing
he physical en i onmen bu also eshaping biological sys ems, wi h p o ound implica ions o biodi e si y. Among he
mos ulne able ecosys ems o clima e change a e he opical o es s, which a e no only ich in biodi e si y bu also
p o ide c i ical ecosys em se ices [1]. These ecosys ems, including he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica, a e home
o a subs an ial p opo ion o he wo ld’s a ian species, many o which a e endemic and highly specialized o hei
en i onmen s.
Bi ds a e in eg al o he unc ioning o opical ecosys ems, playing c ucial oles in pollina ion, seed dispe sal, pes
con ol, and nu ien cycling. As such, hey a e conside ed i al indica o s o ecosys em heal h [2]. The opical a i auna,
howe e , is acing unp eceden ed h ea s due o clima e change. These impac s mani es in a ious ways, including
shi s in habi a sui abili y, al e a ions o mig a ion o pa e ns, and dis up ions o ep oduc i e cycles. [3]. The cu en
body o esea ch highligh s he g owing conce n ha clima e change will exace ba e he exis ing h ea s o opical
bi ds, such as de o es a ion, habi a agmen a ion, and hun ing.
The Amazon Basin, o en e e ed o as he "lungs o he Ea h," is a as , opical ain o es spanning ac oss se e al
coun ies in Sou h Ame ica, including B azil, Pe u, Colombia, and Venezuela. This egion is one o he mos biodi e se
on he plane , hos ing a ound 1,300 bi d species, many o which a e endemic [4]. Simila ly, Cen al Ame ica, which
includes coun ies such as Cos a Rica, Panama, and Gua emala, is a c i ical biodi e si y ho spo , wi h o e 600 bi d
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species, including nume ous mig a o y species [5]. The ecosys ems o hese egions, howe e , a e unde inc easing
s ess om he combined impac s o clima e change and human ac i i y.
The clima e o he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica has been unde going signi ican changes o e he pas se e al
decades. Tempe a u e inc eases in bo h egions ha e been consis en , wi h he Amazon Basin expe iencing a ise o
app oxima ely 0.6–1.0°C since he 1960s, and p ojec ions indica ing u he wa ming by 2–4°C by he end o he cen u y
unde high-emission scena ios [6]. P ecipi a ion pa e ns a e also unde going al e a ions, wi h some pa s o he
Amazon becoming d ie and o he s expe iencing inc eased ain all a iabili y [7]. Cen al Ame ica, on he o he hand,
has wi nessed a consis en decline in p ecipi a ion, pa icula ly du ing he mid-summe d ough , a phenomenon ha
has leng hened in ecen yea s [8]. These changes no only a ec he o e all ecological balance bu also in luence he
a ailabili y o ood, nes ing si es, and o he c i ical esou ces o bi ds.
The impac o clima e change on bi d species in opical ecosys ems is complex and mul i ac o ial. Bi ds a e pa icula ly
ulne able o clima e change due o hei sensi i i y o empe a u e ex emes, changes in habi a a ailabili y, and
modi ica ions o ood sou ces. A signi ican body o esea ch has highligh ed how ising empe a u es and shi ing
ain all pa e ns ha e al eady esul ed in he misma ch be ween ood a ailabili y and b eeding cycles, pa icula ly o
insec i o ous bi ds, whose ep oduc i e success is highly dependen on he abundance o insec s [9]. Fo ins ance, in
he Amazon, s udies ha e shown ha d ough -induced o es s ess has led o a educ ion in insec popula ions, which
in u n has a ec ed he die and b eeding success o se e al bi d species [10].
Ano he majo e ec o clima e change on opical bi ds is shi s in habi a sui abili y. Bi ds ha a e highly specialized
o pa icula en i onmen al condi ions, such as he Resplenden Que zal in Cen al Ame ica, a e pa icula ly a isk [11].
As clima ic condi ions change, he habi a s ha hese species ely on may no longe be sui able. Fo example, shi s in
empe a u e and humidi y a e causing cloud o es s o ecede upwa ds in ele a ion, o cing mon ane species like he
Que zal o mig a e o highe al i udes in sea ch o sui able habi a s. Howe e , such shi s may no always be easible due
o geog aphical ba ie s, limi ed dispe sal capaci y, o he inc easing agmen a ion o o es habi a s due o
de o es a ion and human enc oachmen [12].
Mig a ion pa e ns a e also being dis up ed by clima e change. Mig a o y bi d species in Cen al Ame ica, such as he
Black- h oa ed G een Wa ble , a e expe iencing al e ed a i al and depa u e imes due o changes in seasonal wea he
pa e ns. The iming o ood a ailabili y is becoming inc easingly unp edic able, leading o misma ches in he iming o
mig a ion and b eeding, which can a ec he su i al and ep oduc i e success o hese species [13]. The dis up ion o
hese mig a o y pa e ns is pa icula ly conce ning as mig a o y bi ds o en ely on a se ies o habi a s ac oss egions,
and changes in one loca ion can ha e cascading e ec s h oughou hei mig a o y ou es.
Despi e he g owing body o esea ch, se e al key gaps emain in unde s anding he ull scope o clima e change’s
impac on opical bi d species. One c i ical a ea is he lack o long- e m moni o ing da a. While some s udies ha e
documen ed he e ec s o clima e change on bi ds o e ela i ely sho pe iods, ew ha e examined long- e m ends
ac oss en i e ecosys ems
[14]. This is pa icula ly p oblema ic in emo e a eas such as he Amazon Basin, whe e access and unding o
comp ehensi e moni o ing p og ams a e limi ed. As a esul , much o he da a on clima e change impac s on bi ds is
pa chy, and i is di icul o p edic how popula ions will espond o e he coming decades.
Addi ionally, many species ha e no been s udied in dep h, pa icula ly mig a o y bi ds and species wi h na ow
ecological niches. While cha isma ic species such as he Ha py Eagle and he Resplenden Que zal ha e ecei ed
a en ion, smalle , less-known species ha play impo an ecological oles a e o en neglec ed in clima e change
esea ch. Fu he mo e, he syne gis ic e ec s o clima e change wi h o he an h opogenic p essu es, such as habi a
agmen a ion, de o es a ion, and pollu ion, ha e no been ully explo ed. These combined p essu es a e likely o ha e
a g ea e impac han clima e change alone, ye mos s udies end o examine hese ac o s in isola ion [15].
The in eg a ion o clima e adap a ion s a egies in o conse a ion planning is ano he challenge. While he e ha e been
e o s o p o ec c i ical habi a s and inc ease he connec i i y o p o ec ed a eas in he Amazon and Cen al Ame ica,
hese e o s a e o en insu icien o coun e he apid pace o clima e change [16]. Mo e esea ch is needed o de elop
conse a ion s a egies ha a e clima e- esilien , conside ing he p ojec ed changes in clima e, land-use pa e ns, and
species dis ibu ions.
This e iew aims o syn hesize cu en knowledge on he e ec s o clima e change on bi d di e si y in he Amazon Basin
and Cen al Ame ica, wi h a ocus on species ulne abili y and conse a ion challenges. The e iew p o ides an in-dep h
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look a he cu en s a e o opical bi d popula ions in hese egions. Fu he mo e, he e iew highligh s key knowledge
gaps in clima e change and biodi e si y esea ch and sugges s u u e di ec ions o esea ch and policy in e en ions.
Ul ima ely, he pape aims o con ibu e o he b oade con e sa ion on how bes o conse e bi d di e si y in he ace
o clima e change, p o iding ecommenda ions o egion-speci ic conse a ion s a egies.
2. T opical Ecosys ems and A ian Biodi e si y
T opical ecosys ems, enowned o hei dense ege a ion, consis en ly wa m empe a u es, and high humidi y, a e
among he mos biologically p oduc i e and di e se ecosys ems on Ea h. These egions a e home o an unpa alleled
a ie y o lo a and auna, wi h opical o es s, mon ane egions, and we lands hos ing he majo i y o he wo ld's
species [17]. A ian di e si y in hese ecosys ems is pa icula ly ema kable, wi h opical bi ds occupying a wide ange
o ecological niches and exhibi ing a a ie y o beha io al and physiological adap a ions [18]. Two egions, he Amazon
Basin and Cen al Ame ica, a e especially signi ican as bo h a e ich in esiden and mig a o y bi d species, making
hem c i ical ocal poin s o unde s anding he impac s o clima e change on bi d popula ions.
The Amazon Basin, o en e e ed o as he wo ld's la ges opical ain o es , spans o e 5.5 million squa e kilome e s
ac oss nine coun ies in Sou h Ame ica, including B azil, Pe u, Colombia, and Venezuela. This immense biome suppo s
a s agge ing 1,300 bi d species, accoun ing o app oxima ely 13% o he wo ld’s o al bi d species [19]. The egion’s
unpa alleled biodi e si y can be a ibu ed o i s complex geog aphy, which includes a as ne wo k o i e s, a
mul i ude o dis inc o es s a a, and a a ie y o mic ohabi a s. These ea u es p o ide a mul i ude o ecological niches
ha suppo an ex ao dina ily high le el o endemism species. Fo ins ance, he canopy and unde s o y guilds, which
include species such as oucans, pa o s, and an bi ds, exhibi specialized adap a ions o he dense, e ical s uc u e o
he o es [20].
Endemism in he Amazon is pa icula ly p ominen in bi d species ha occupy specialized habi a s wi hin hese
di e en o es laye s. Bi ds such as he Ha py Eagle (Ha pia ha pyja) and he G ea Jacama (Jacama alcyon idac yla)
a e p ime examples o species wi h adap a ions ha enable hem o h i e in he Amazon’s laye ed, mul i-s a um o es
ecosys em. These species o en ha e highly es ic ed anges and speci ic habi a equi emen s, making hem
pa icula ly ulne able o dis u bances such as de o es a ion, clima e change, and habi a agmen a ion [21]. In
addi ion o hese esiden species, he Amazon also se es as a c i ical mig a o y s opo e o species a eling along
he Ame icas lyway, such as he Swainson’s Th ush and o he neo opical mig an s [22].
While smalle in geog aphic ex en compa ed o he Amazon, Cen al Ame ica plays a simila ly c i ical ole in global
a ian biodi e si y. S e ching om sou he n Mexico o Panama, his egion is a biodi e si y ho spo ha ha bo s o e
900 bi d species ac oss a ange o habi a s, including mon ane o es s, cloud o es s, mang o es, and coas al we lands
[23]. Cen al Ame ica also unc ions as a i al mig a o y co ido , especially o species a eling be ween No h and
Sou h Ame ica. Species such as he Black- h oa ed G een Wa ble and Ruby- h oa ed Hummingbi d ely on Cen al
Ame ican habi a s du ing hei seasonal mig a ions, u ilizing he egion as a e ueling s a ion du ing long jou neys [24].
One o he dis inguishing ea u es o Cen al Ame ican a ian biodi e si y is i s al i udinal g adien , which p o ides a
di e si y o habi a s a di e en ele a ions. F om he lowland ain o es s o Panama o he cloud o es s o Cos a Rica,
species occupy a ange o ecological niches ied o al i ude and mic oclima e. Mon ane species, such as he Resplenden
Que zal (Pha omach us mocinno), a e pa icula ly abundan in hese highland a eas, whe e he ich lo a suppo s a
ange o specialized bi d species. This g adien also con ibu es o he egion’s high le els o endemici y, as species a e
o en adap ed o speci ic ele a ional zones [25].
Like he Amazon, Cen al Ame ica’s bi d popula ions a e no only subjec o clima e change impac s bu also ace
signi ican h ea s om habi a loss and agmen a ion. T opical de o es a ion, ag icul u e, and u baniza ion ha e
con ibu ed o subs an ial habi a deg ada ion in bo h egions, o cing many species o mo e o adap o inc easingly
deg aded en i onmen s. Cen al Ame ica’s bi d species a e also highly sensi i e o he iming and a ailabili y o ood
sou ces, pa icula ly in mig a o y species. Clima e-d i en shi s in he phenology o lowe ing plan s and insec s can
c ea e misma ches be ween he iming o bi d mig a ion and he a ailabili y o ood, he eby a ec ing ep oduc ion and
su i al a es [26].
Bi ds play an indispensable ole in main aining ecological balance in opical ecosys ems. They con ibu e o a ange o
ecosys em se ices, including pollina ion, seed dispe sal, pes egula ion, and o es egene a ion [27]. Many plan
species in opical ain o es s ely on bi ds o pollina ion, wi h species such as hummingbi ds and ui do es playing
cen al oles in acili a ing plan ep oduc ion. Simila ly, bi ds such as oucans and pa o s a e c ucial o seed dispe sal,
ensu ing he egene a ion o o es co e and main aining plan di e si y. By consuming a a ie y o seeds, bi ds help
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main ain he gene ic di e si y o plan communi ies, enabling o es s o eco e a e dis u bances such as s o ms o
i es [28].
Fu he mo e, bi ds a e in eg al o pes egula ion in opical ecosys ems. Insec s, small mammals, and o he pes s a e
con olled by he p eda o y ac i i ies o bi ds, pa icula ly insec i o ous species. In a eas like he Amazon, whe e insec
popula ions can explode unde a o able condi ions, he absence o decline o insec i o ous bi ds can esul in an
inc ease in pes popula ions, which may nega i ely impac plan heal h and c op yields. This ecological se ice is
inc easingly unde h ea as he popula ions o hese bi ds decline due o clima e-induced habi a changes [29].
Despi e hei c i ical ecological oles, many opical bi d species a e ulne able o he impac s o clima e change and
human ac i i y. Species wi h na ow ecological niches o limi ed dispe sal capaci ies a e especially a isk, as hey a e
o en unable o adap quickly o apidly changing en i onmen al condi ions [30]. Fo example, species ha ely on
speci ic o es ypes o mic oclima es may ind hei habi a s al e ed o educed in size due o changes in empe a u e
and p ecipi a ion pa e ns. Mon ane bi ds, such as he Pink-headed Wa ble in Cen al Ame ica, ace he addi ional
h ea o clima e-induced shi s in cloud o es ele a ions, which o ces hem o mo e upwa ds in sea ch o sui able
habi a , o en wi hou he a ailabili y o adequa e e uges [31].
Mo eo e , mig a ion pa e ns in opical bi ds a e becoming inc easingly unp edic able. S udies ha e shown ha
clima e change is a ec ing he iming and ou es o mig a ion o bo h esiden and mig a o y species. Al e ed iming o
seasonal ains, ood a ailabili y, and empe a u e luc ua ions can cause misma ches in b eeding schedules, which
nega i ely impac bi d su i al and ep oduc i e success. In some cases, mig a o y bi ds may a i e in b eeding
g ounds ei he oo ea ly o oo la e, missing c i ical ood esou ces o encoun e ing unsui able en i onmen al
condi ions [32].
The Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica ep esen some o he mos biologically di e se egions in he wo ld,
pa icula ly wi h ega d o a ian species. Howe e , hey a e also among he mos ulne able o clima e change [33]. As
he clima e con inues o shi , he su i al o many bi d species will depend on hei abili y o adap o apidly changing
condi ions. The combina ion o habi a loss al e ed ood a ailabili y, and changes in b eeding cycles will c ea e
challenges o bo h esiden and mig a o y bi ds. Gi en he impo an ecological oles ha bi ds play, he decline o
opical a ian species would ha e cascading e ec s on he heal h o hese ecosys ems.
Conse a ion e o s mus be ailo ed o he speci ic needs o hese ecosys ems and he species ha depend on hem.
In eg a ing clima e change adap a ion s a egies in o b oade conse a ion planning is c i ical o p ese ing bo h a ian
di e si y and he ecological se ices ha bi ds p o ide. P o ec ing and es o ing habi a s, expanding p o ec ed a eas,
and s eng hening mig a o y co ido s a e jus some o he s a egies ha can mi iga e he impac s o clima e change
on opical bi d popula ions. Long- e m moni o ing and esea ch a e essen ial o unde s and he e ol ing h ea s and
o implemen adap i e conse a ion measu es ha suppo bo h he species and ecosys ems o he Amazon and Cen al
Ame ica.
3. Clima e Change T ends in he Amazon and Cen al Ame ica
Clima e change, d i en p ima ily by ising concen a ions o g eenhouse gases, has signi ican ly impac ed on he
en i onmen al condi ions in opical egions such as he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica. These changes a e
inc easingly e iden in he o m o ising empe a u es, al e ed p ecipi a ion pa e ns, and an inc eased equency o
ex eme wea he e en s [34]. While global clima e models p edic simila ends o opical egions wo ldwide,
localized ac o s such as de o es a ion, land-use changes, and o es deg ada ion exace ba e he ulne abili y o
ecosys ems in hese egions, ampli ying he e ec s o clima e change on biodi e si y [35].
Bo h he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica ha e expe ienced consis en inc eases in a e age annual empe a u es
o e ecen decades. In he Amazon Basin, he a e age empe a u e has isen by app oxima ely 0.25–0.5°C pe decade
since he 1970s, wi h p ojec ions indica ing a con inued ise o 2–4°C by he end o he cen u y unde high-emission
scena ios [36]. These empe a u e inc eases a e no only signi ican on hei own bu also ha e cascading e ec s on
ecological p ocesses. Fo example, highe empe a u es can lead o inc eased e apo anspi a ion, educing soil
mois u e and s essing plan and animal species, including bi ds, ha depend on consis en wa e a ailabili y.
Simila ly, Cen al Ame ica has wi nessed a ise in empe a u es o 0.7–1.2°C be ween 1960 and 2020 [37]. This wa ming
end is accompanied by an inc ease in he equency and in ensi y o hea wa es, which can push species beyond hei
physiological ole ance h esholds. The impac s a e pa icula ly p onounced in egions such as Cos a Rica and Panama,
whe e mon ane and cloud o es ecosys ems a e especially sensi i e o empe a u e luc ua ions. These o es s, which
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ha bo nume ous endemic bi d species, depend on s able clima ic condi ions, including cool empe a u es, high
humidi y, and consis en ain all [38]. Any inc ease in empe a u e dis up s hese delica e balances, h ea ening species
such as he Resplenden Que zal and he Black Guan, which a e al eady limi ed in hei al i udinal dis ibu ion.
In addi ion o ising empe a u es, p ecipi a ion pa e ns in bo h he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica ha e become
mo e unp edic able and a iable. In he Amazon, ain all has become mo e e a ic, wi h p olonged d ough pe iods in
some egions, especially in sou he n Amazonia, while o he a eas a e expe iencing excessi e ain all. D ough e en s in
2005, 2010, and 2015 linked o bo h clima e a iabili y and de o es a ion ha e led o signi ican ly educed i e le els
and inc eased ee mo ali y, al e ing he s uc u al in eg i y o he o es [39]. Fo es canopies, c i ical o many bi d
species, ha e been pa icula ly a ec ed, wi h ee mo ali y esul ing in educed shel e and ood sou ces o a ian
popula ions. These condi ions also a ec o es egene a ion, as a lack o wa e educes he g ow h and su i al a es
o saplings, ul ima ely diminishing habi a a ailabili y o species [40].
The occu ence o looding in some pa s o he Amazon, coupled wi h ising empe a u es, has u he complica ed
hese clima ic impac s. Fo es looding, o en exace ba ed by ex eme ain all, can al e he mic oclima e o o es
habi a s and dis up he ep oduc i e cycles o species ha depend on s able nes ing condi ions. Species such as he
Amazonian Poison F og and a ious bi d species ha b eed in lowland a eas a e inc easingly a isk as ising wa e s
inunda e hei nes s, leading o educed ep oduc i e success and popula ion declines [41].
In Cen al Ame ica, p ecipi a ion pa e ns a e simila ly shi ing. While some egions ha e expe ienced inc eased
ain all, pa icula ly du ing he ainy season, o he s a e acing p olonged d y spells [42]. As wi h he Amazon, hese
shi s h ea en mon ane ecosys ems, including cloud o es s, which ely on a consis en mois u e inpu o he su i al
o bo h lo a and auna. The de o es a ion and deg ada ion o hese high-ele a ion o es s u he exace ba e hese
clima e-d i en dis up ions. The loss o ee co e inc eases he uno du ing hea y ains, leading o soil e osion and
educed wa e e en ion, which, in u n, unde mines he s abili y o cloud o es s [43]
One o he mos conce ning consequences o clima e change in bo h he Amazon and Cen al Ame ica is he inc easing
equency and se e i y o ex eme wea he e en s. D ough s, o es i es, looding, and opical s o ms ha e all become
mo e common in ecen decades [44]. The Amazon Basin has seen an inc ease in he equency o se e e d ough e en s,
such as hose in 2005, 2010, and 2015, which ha e had de as a ing e ec s on bo h he physical s uc u e o he o es
and i s biodi e si y. P olonged d y pe iods and educed ain all con ibu e o he dieback o ees, especially hose
dependen on he we condi ions o he ain o es , which a e c i ical o he su i al o many bi d species [45].
Addi ionally, hese d y condi ions inc ease he isk o o es i es, which, coupled wi h human ac i i ies such as land
clea ing, u he deg ade bi d habi a s. The sou he n and eas e n egions o he Amazon a e pa icula ly ulne able o
hese e en s, whe e de o es a ion has c ea ed a landscape ha is inc easingly suscep ible o i e ou b eaks [46].
Simila ly, in Cen al Ame ica, opical s o ms and hu icanes ha e become mo e equen and in ense. Be ween 2000
and 2020, he egion expe ienced an inc ease in he numbe o ca ego y 4 and 5 hu icanes, which cause de as a ion o
bo h na u al habi a s and human in as uc u e [47]. These s o ms no only esul in di ec mo ali y o bi ds bu also
cause ex ensi e damage o b eeding and o aging habi a s. Mig a o y species, which ely on p edic able s opo e si es
du ing mig a ion, a e pa icula ly a isk as hese s o ms can damage c i ical habi a s o cause displacemen o species
along hei mig a ion ou es. The Ca ibbean coas o Cen al Ame ica is especially ulne able, wi h coun ies like
Hondu as and Nica agua egula ly acing he b un o hese ex eme e en s [48].
The combined e ec s o ising empe a u es al e ed p ecipi a ion, and inc eased equency o ex eme wea he e en s
ha e p o ound implica ions o he bi d popula ions in he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica. Fo esiden bi d species,
such as he Ha py Eagle and he Resplenden Que zal, clima e-induced changes in habi a s uc u e, ood a ailabili y,
and ep oduc i e iming a e inc easing p essu es on hei su i al [49]. Mig a o y bi ds, such as hose a eling along
he Ame icas lyway, ace compounded isks due o unp edic able wea he pa e ns, dis up ions in s opo e habi a s,
and changes in he a ailabili y o ood along hei mig a o y ou es. These dis up ions can lead o inc eased mo ali y,
educed ep oduc i e success, and ange shi s, as species a e o ced o eloca e o new habi a s ha may no be op imal
o su i al [50].
Fu he mo e, he ecosys em se ices p o ided by bi ds, such as pollina ion, seed dispe sal, and pes con ol, a e likely
o be dis up ed by he decline o bi d popula ions. As hese species dec ease in numbe , he abili y o opical ecosys ems
o eco e om dis u bances, such as s o ms o i es, will be hampe ed. The cascading e ec s o educed bi d
popula ions could ul ima ely lead o a decline in o e all biodi e si y, as he balance o ecological in e ac ions is
dis up ed [51].
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The impac s o clima e change on he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica a e complex and mul i ace ed, wi h signi ican
implica ions o a ian biodi e si y and ecosys em s abili y. While empe a u e inc eases, al e ed p ecipi a ion pa e ns,
and ex eme wea he e en s a e a ec ing hese egions, he compounding e ec s o de o es a ion and land-use change
ha e only ampli ied hese impac s. The u gency o add essing hese issues h ough comp ehensi e clima e change
adap a ion s a egies is clea . Long- e m moni o ing, habi a p o ec ion, and es o a ion e o s a e essen ial o mi iga e
he impac s o clima e change and ensu e he esilience o bo h bi d popula ions and he ecosys ems ha sus ain hem.
Figu e 1 and 2 illus a es he empe a u e anomalies and ain all end espec i ely.
Figu e 1 Clima e Change T ends in he Amazon and Cen al Ame ica: Tempe a u e Anomalies (1960-2020)
Figu e 2 Clima e Change T ends in he Amazon and Cen al Ame ica: Rain all T ends (1980-2020)
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Figu e 3 Inc easing F equency o D ough s in he Amazon and S o ms in Cen al Ame ica
4. Impac s o Clima e Change on Bi d Di e si y
Clima e change poses a p o ound h ea o bi d di e si y in opical ecosys ems, pa icula ly in biodi e si y ho spo s
like he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica. A ian species in hese egions a e a ec ed h ough mul iple pa hways,
including habi a loss and ans o ma ion, phenological shi s, ange con ac ions, and al e ed in e speci ic in e ac ions.
These p essu es a e compounded by ongoing land-use changes, leading o inc eased ex inc ion isk o bo h esiden
and mig a o y bi ds [52].
4.1. Amazon Basin Case S udy
The Amazon Basin, wi h i s e ically s a i ied o es a chi ec u e and clima ic he e ogenei y, suppo s one o he mos
di e se a ian assemblages in he wo ld. This egion is home o a complex mosaic o canopy, mids o y, and unde s o y
guilds, wi h many species exhibi ing high deg ees o habi a specializa ion and endemici y. Howe e , he inc easing
equency o d ough s, o es i es, and changing ain all egimes has igge ed ma ked ecological dis up ions [53].
Resea ch shows ha habi a agmen a ion and he deg ada ion o o es edges p ima ily due o wa ming and al e ed
p ecipi a ion disp opo iona ely a ec in e io o es specialis s such as an bi ds (Thamnophilidae), woodc eepe s
(Dend ocolap idae), and manakins (Pip idae). These species ely on he s able mic oclima es o ma u e o es s o
o aging and nes ing. Repea ed d ough s ha e been shown o dis up insec popula ions in he unde s o y, leading o
ood sca ci y and popula ion declines among insec i o ous bi ds [54]. Fo ins ance, a longi udinal s udy conduc ed nea
Manaus, B azil, e ealed signi ican educ ions in he abundance o unde s o y insec i o es a e ecu en d ough and
i e e en s be ween 2005 and 2015, highligh ing he cumula i e impac o clima ic s esso s on a ian communi ies [55].
Addi ionally, many bi d species a e unde going ange shi s mo ing ei he o highe ele a ions o deepe o es in e io s
in an a emp o main ain sui able he mal niches. Howe e , he Amazon’s low opog aphic a ia ion limi s upwa d
mig a ion, and agmen ed landscapes hinde dispe sal, especially o non-mig a o y species wi h small home anges.
Species wi h limi ed physiological ole ance and poo dispe sal abili ies a e hus inc easingly ulne able o local
ex i pa ions [56].
4.2. Cen al Ame ica Case S udy
In Cen al Ame ica, he impac s o clima e change on bi ds a e u he compounded by he egion’s ole as a mig a o y
bo leneck and i s s eep ele a ional g adien s, which suppo dis inc ecological zones wi hin sho dis ances. Rising
empe a u es and shi s in ain all pa e ns ha e dis up ed bo h esiden and mig a o y bi d popula ions [57].
Mig a o y songbi ds such as lyca che s (Ty annidae), wa ble s (Pa ulidae), and i eos (Vi eonidae) a e inc easingly
a i ing ea lie in he sp ing o delaying hei au umn depa u es. This shi , known as a phenological misma ch, o en
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1139
esul s in misalignmen be ween he bi ds’ ep oduc i e cycles and he peak a ailabili y o insec s o ui , educing
chick su i al and b eeding success.
In mon ane egions, wa ming empe a u es a e d i ing cloud o es s upwa d, sh inking sui able habi a s o high-
ele a ion specialis s such as he Resplenden Que zal (Pha omach us mocinno) and Pink-headed Wa ble (Ca dellina
e sicolo ) [58]. These bi ds o en lack he mobili y o adap abili y o ack hese ele a ional shi s, especially whe e
moun ain ops o s eep cli s cons ain u he upwa d mo emen . In Gua emala and Cos a Rica, ange con ac ions o
se e al cloud o es species ha e al eady been documen ed, accompanied by dec easing popula ion ends [59].
Lowland and coas al o es s, including mang o e habi a s, a e inc easingly h ea ened by opical s o ms, hu icanes,
and sea-le el ise. The in ensi ica ion o s o ms obse ed o e he pas wo decades has esul ed in di ec mo ali y o
bi ds, des uc ion o nes ing ees, and long- e m al e a ion o ege a ion s uc u e [60]. F agmen a ion and d ying o
hese o es s, pa icula ly in Nica agua and Hondu as, ha e also educed he numbe o iable s opo e habi a s o
long-dis ance mig an s. This is especially conce ning o species ha depend on a ne wo k o high-quali y si es du ing
hei mig a ions, such as Swainson’s Th ush (Ca ha us us ula us) and Wood Th ush (Hylocichla mus elina) [61].
4.3. Sha ed Impac s Ac oss Bo h Regions
While he Amazon and Cen al Ame ica di e in opog aphy, ecosys em s uc u e, and species composi ion, clima e
change has d i en con e gen impac s on bi d communi ies in bo h egions:
• Phenological Misma ches: Changes in ain all and empe a u e pa e ns ha e led o asynch onous iming
be ween b eeding and ood a ailabili y. This misma ch is pa icula ly ha m ul o insec i o ous bi ds whose
chicks depend on seasonal insec blooms [62].
• Ele a ional Range Shi s and Habi a Comp ession: As species mo e o highe o coole a eas, habi a
becomes comp essed, especially in moun ainous egions whe e he a ailable a ea dec eases wi h ele a ion.
This inc eases in e speci ic compe i ion and may lead o local exclusions [63].
• Inc eased Disease Suscep ibili y: Wa me empe a u es ha e expanded he al i udinal ange o a ian mala ia
and o he pa asi es. Bi ds ha ha e no his o ically been exposed o hese diseases, such as hose in highland
o es s, now ace new pa hogen p essu es, as obse ed in Cos a Rica’s Talamanca Range and pa s o he Andes
[64].
• Shi s in Communi y Composi ion: Clima e change, along wi h habi a deg ada ion, is a o ing gene alis and
in asi e species o e specialis s and endemics. This end leads o bio ic homogeniza ion, educing he
ecological uniqueness o opical o es s and weakening ecosys em esilience [65].
• Reduced Rep oduc i e Success: Uns able wea he condi ions pa icula ly p olonged d ough s and hea y
ain all du ing nes ing seasons ha e led o lowe ledging success a es, inc eased egg p eda ion, and nes
abandonmen [66].
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Figu e 4 Compa ison be ween Obse ed s. Expec ed Ele a ional Range Shi s
5. Conse a ion and Mi iga ion S a egies
The accele a ing pace o clima e change and i s compounding e ec s on a ian biodi e si y in opical ecosys ems
demand p oac i e, in eg a ed conse a ion and mi iga ion s a egies. Bo h he Amazon Basin and Cen al Ame ica,
while dis inc in hei ecological p o iles and go e nance s uc u es, ace pa allel challenges equi ing locally adap ed
ye globally in o med in e en ions [67]. The success o such e o s hinges on main aining habi a connec i i y,
enhancing ecosys em esilience, os e ing communi y pa icipa ion, and embedding biodi e si y conside a ions in o
b oade clima e policies.
5.1. Amazon Basin App oaches
The Amazon Basin, encompassing o e six million squa e kilome e s o opical o es , emains a global p io i y o
biodi e si y conse a ion and clima e egula ion. In ecen decades, conse a ion in he egion has inc easingly
emphasized la ge-scale o es p o ec ion, landscape connec i i y, and i e mi iga ion as cen al esponses o clima e-
d i en biodi e si y loss [68].
A co ne s one o Amazonian conse a ion s a egy has been he REDD+ mechanism (Reducing Emissions om
De o es a ion and Fo es Deg ada ion), which aims o p o ide inancial compensa ion o go e nmen s, communi ies,
and landowne s o main aining o es co e [69]. By engaging indigenous and local communi ies who o en possess
deep ecological knowledge REDD+ p ojec s ha e shown p omise in cu bing de o es a ion while deli e ing co-bene i s
o biodi e si y conse a ion, including he p o ec ion o c i ical bi d habi a s.
Howe e , he e icacy o such ini ia i es is une en. While p o ec ed a eas like he Cen al Amazon Conse a ion Complex
(CAC) in B azil and he Yasuní Na ional Pa k in Ecuado ep esen bas ions o a ian di e si y, hei isola ion wi hin a
ma ix o inc easingly de o es ed landscapes can limi hei e ec i eness [70]. F agmen a ion leads o edge e ec s ha
disp opo iona ely impac o es -in e io bi d species and hose wi h limi ed dispe sal capaci y. Landscape-scale
es o a ion h ough he c ea ion o o es co ido s, bu e zones, and e o es a ion o deg aded lands is essen ial o
acili a ing species mo emen in esponse o shi ing clima e en elopes [71].
Ano he g owing conce n is he inc easing incidence o o es i es, o en exace ba ed by d ough and land con e sion
o ag icul u e. Bi ds inhabi ing he unde s o y and g ound laye , such as inamous (Tinamidae) and an h ushes
(Fo mica iidae), a e especially ulne able o i e- ela ed habi a loss [72]. In esponse, coun ies like B azil ha e
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