Social Science Jou nal o Ad anced
Resea ch
2025 Volume 5 Numbe 5 Sep embe
E-ISSN:2583-0074
Resea ch A icle
Colo Line
Publishe
www.singhpublica ion.com
Scien i ic Racism and he “Colou Line”
Pa hak J
1*
DOI:10.5281/zenodo.17300364
1* Jyo sna Pa hak, Associa e P o esso , Depa men o English, Delhi Comme ce o A s and Comme ce, Uni e si y o Delhi, Delhi, India.
Skin colou is a isual ma ke o di e ence and has been employed o jus i y he ensla emen o
people and hei exploi a ion o build he empi es o he wes e n wo ld. Sla e ade is an in eg al
pa o he s o y o ‘ci ilisa ion’ and conques . Though he impac o acial disc imina ion un olded in
di e en ways in di e en pa s o he wo ld, he a gumen s u ilised o deny hei humani y and
p esen he ‘colou ed’ people o he wo ld a e e y simila . This pape will analyse he de elopmen
o Scien i ic and Biological Racism om he w i ings o Be nie , Linnaeus and he hinke s hey
in luenced. I will also ocus on he manne in which hese a gumen s we e used o jus i y he
b u ali y o colonisa ion, sla e y and social exclusion. The challenges o his supe s uc u e o acial
supe io i y h ough King J ., Du Bois, Malcolm X will be s udied. The Ci il Righ s Mo emen in
Ame ica, he eedom mo emen s in wo ldwide, and o he s uggles o equi y, powe and jus ice
need o be seen in his ligh .
Keywo ds: colo line, decolonisa ion, King J ., Malcolm X, acism
Co esponding Au ho How o Ci e his A icle To B owse
Jyo sna Pa hak, Associa e P o esso , Depa men o
English, Delhi Comme ce o A s and Comme ce,
Uni e si y o Delhi, Delhi, India.
Email:
Pa hak J, Scien i ic Racism and he “Colou Line”. Soc
Sci J Ad Res. 2025;5(5):51-59.
A ailable F om
h ps://ssja .singhpublica ion.com/index.php/ojs/a i
cle/ iew/294
Manusc ip Recei ed Re iew Round 1 Re iew Round 2 Re iew Round 3 Accep ed
2025-08-12 2025-08-29 2025-09-19
Con lic o In e es Funding E hical App o al Plagia ism X-checke No e
None Nil Yes 3.46
© 2025 by Pa hak J and Published by Singh Publica ion. This is an Open Access a icle licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0
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1. In oduc ion
In an e o o unde s and he wo ld man has
consis en ly eso ed o classi ica ion and pu hings
in o o de ed ca ego ies. This p ocess se es o build
new ca ego ies e en as i simul aneously assigns
“unknown cases o exis ing classi ica ions”
(B ennan, 201). Such s anda dising nomencla u e
assis s in na iga ing biodi e si y and c ea ing a
‘na u al’ iew o he wo ld ha o e ime ca ies
cul u al weigh . This aises he spec e o alsely
p esen ing p ejudice as scien i ic ac he eby
s igma ising en i e communi ies and aces and
o cing hem o ace nega i e social consequences.
The ad ancemen o knowledge since he
Renaissance when men a elled o new lands and
disco e ed new lo a and auna mean ha i
became inc easingly di icul o make sense o he
he e ogenous da a. Racial classi ica ion became one
way o making sense o his ple ho a o in o ma ion
and subsequen ly p esen ed social hie a chies as
na u al ac . In he 18 h and 19 h cen u ies as
Eu opean powe s colonised he wo ld, hese
sys ems o classi ica ions and he unde lining acial
biases we e employed o c ea e seemingly
unchallenged na a i es o acial supe io i y ha
jus i ied plan a ion sla e y, genocide and
exploi a ion o na i e popula ions.
2. Be nie ’s Classi ica ion
Be nie was a physician o Aga Danechmend Khan
he Mughal cou o 12 yea s. He suppo ed he
monogene ic iew o his o y o mankind which
s a ed ha all mankind had one o igin. This
complemen ed he Asia ic mig a ion heo y abou
he o igin o he Ame icas. He a gued ha physical
cha ac e is ics like “skin colou , acial ype and
bodily shape” (S uu man, 4) we e scien i ic ways o
classi ying man. O he ou aces he Eu opean and
“all a eas o high ci iliza ion” (including Indians)
(S uu man, 4) we e he ‘ i s ’ ace. Though he ne e
uses he wo d ‘whi e,’ he does say ha hey look
like ‘we’ do. The ‘us’ and ‘ hem’ bina y exis s wi hin
he ‘ i s ’ ace: unlike he Eu opean, he Sou h Asian
and Middle Eas e ne has da kish skin colou due o
exposu e o he sun. In he la e ca ego ies he ai
‘Mogol’ and he ‘F anguis’ we e supe io o he
b own Indians. This bina y is laid ba e when he
alks abou he ‘pe i jaune’ ‘whi e like’ women wi h
exquisi e complexion o Laho e and Kashmi who
we e sold as cou esan sla es o O oman sul ans.
Be nie was dismissi e o he adminis a i e and
mili a y acumen o he Mughals. His ep esen a ion
o ‘O ien al despo ism’ in s a k con as o Eu opean
e icien and p ospe i y was u ilised by Mon esquieu
and o he s o jus i y colonisa ion o India. Simila ly
he na i e Ame icans a e ‘oli a es’ whose ace ha e
sligh a ia ions om ‘ou s’ and had mig a ed o e a
land b idge o he new wo ld. Howe e hei peculia
cus oms, ‘ ude manne s’, nudi y, a chao ic social
and poli ical s uc u e mean ha hey we e in e io
o he Eu opean. The A ican neg o wi h hei , hick
lips, oily skin and peculia hai owed hei blackness
o gene ic ac o s. He conside ed hem ‘na u al
sla es’ since hey had de icien men al capaci y and
could be ‘ uled’ by hose wi h supe io in ellec ual
s eng h (aka he Eu opean) o ‘excel in b u e o ce’.
He iewed he A ican as a ‘sa age’ e y ‘like ou
ances o s’ and hus as someone who li ed in an
ea lie s age o social de elopmen and could
he e o e ‘imp o e’. The objec i ica ion o A icans is
closely in e wined wi h he language o sla e y. His
desc ip ions o A ican women emphasise hei
beau y and lush bodies which e ched high p ices in
sla e ma ke s o Eu ope. The Lapps we e ‘nas y
c ea u es’ and ‘ ile animals’ wi h ‘hideous bea -like
aces’ (S uu man, 4).
3. Linnaean Taxonomy
The a he o axonomy Ca l Linnaeus classi ied all
li e on Ea h in o h ee kingdoms o na u e in
Sys ema Na u ae (1735): mine al, ege able and
man. Man was included in he animal kingdom and
classi ied in he Class Quad upeds/Mammals, O de
An h opomo pha/P ima es. This comp ised o he
Genus humans (Homo), apes (Simis) and Slo hs
(B adypus). Acco ding o Linnaeus he p ima y
dema ca ion be ween humans and animals was
Nosce e ipsum i.e. he abili y o “know hysel ”. By
he 1750s he binomial nomencla u e sys em had
named man as Homo Sapiens. Humans we e
di ided in o ou a ian s (Homo a ia ): Eu opaeus
albus (Eu opean whi e), Ame iancus ubescens
(Ame ican eddish), Asia icus uscus (Asian awny)
and A icanus nige (A ican black). In C i ical
Bo anica (1737) Linnaeus w o e:
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[God] c ea ed one human, as he Holy Sc ip u e
eaches; bu i he sligh es ai [di e ence] was
su icien , he e would easily s ick ou housands o
di e en species o man: hey display, namely,
whi e, ed, black and g ey hai ; whi e, osy, awny
and black aces; s aigh , s ubby, c ooked,
la ened, and aquiline noses; among hem we ind
gian s and pygmies, a and skinny people, e ec ,
humpy, b i le, and lame people e c. e c. Bu who
wi h a sane mind would be so i olous as o call
hese dis inc species?
Though Linnaeus did no label hese as s able
‘subspecies’, he did di ide hem on geog aphical
g ounds. In he 1758 edi ion o Sys ema Na u ae he
added skin colo and he humo s o he ou
empe amen s (sanguine: blood, chole ic: yellow
bile, melancholic: black bile, phlegma ic: phlegm) o
his classi ica ion o humans and co ela ed hem o
he majo mo al a ibu es. Though he s a ed ha
skin colo and body pos u e, he majo ea u es
used o his classi ica ion, we e acciden al and a
p oduc o clima e, none heless he sugges ed ha
hey in luenced he di e se empe amen s o hese
a ie as (La in o a ie y). In ac , he associa ed
he ou aces wi h a ying medical disposi ions,
poli ical leanings and psychological and cul u al
endencies. These we e u he e lec ed in hei
beha io s, clo hing and he o ms o go e nmen s
hey p ac iced.
Acco ding o him while he Eu opean was “whi e,
muscula and sanguine”, he was ligh , wise and an
in en o . The p ima y physical cha ac e is ics we e
yellow hai wi h blue eyes. They wo e igh clo hes
and we e go e ned by i es. The Ame ican was “ ed,
chole ic and s aigh ” wi h “s aigh black hai ,
gaping nos ils, eckled ace and bea dless chin”.
He was “unyielding, chee ul, con en and ee” who
pain ed “ ed lines” on his body. He was “go e ned
by cus oma y igh ”. The Asian was “sallow,
melancholic and s i ” wi h “blackish hai and da k
eyes”. He was “s e n, haugh y and g eedy”. He wo e
“loose ga men s” and was “go e ned by opinions”.
The A ican was “black, phlegma ic and lazy”. He
had “da k hai wi h wis ing b aids, silky skin, la
nose and swollen lips”. The women had “elonga ed
labia wi h p o usely lac a ing b eas s”. The A ican
was “sly sluggish and neglec ul” and “anoin ed
himsel wi h a ”. He was “go e ned by choice”.
Though he kep changing he o de o lis ing o he
ou a ie ies he A icanus emained consis en ly a
he bo om wi h a consis en ly nega i e desc ip ion.
Seen in his ligh Linnaeus’ dic um Nosce e ipsum
seems o sugges ha na u e is he p ima y o ce in
de e mining physical a ibu es. These geopoli ical
s e eo ypes can also be in e p e ed as a p i ileging
o a ‘supe io ’ cul u e since hey embody mo al,
e hical and physical supe io i y. This became he
basis o scien i ic acism which would be u ilized o
disas ous e ec in he coloniza ion o he hi d
wo ld. Apologis s o Linnaeus a gue ha o
unde s and li e on a global scale, Linnaeus
segmen ed i based on he con inen s. The e o e,
he blame o he use o his in he 18 h cen u y by
philosophe s and colonize s o jus i y he
dehumaniza ion o people canno be laid on his
doo . None heless he Eu ocen ism o his
classi ica ion laid he g oundwo k o he
ep esen a ion o he na i e as he “noble sa age”
he eby jus i ying sla e y, colonialism and he
genocide o na i e popula ions wo ldwide. The ace
biology behind Scien i ic acism can be seen in
p esen day acism.
4. Impac o Scien i ic Racism
Da winian classi ica ion is ounded on he wo
c i e ia o “simila i y and common descen o
classi ica ion” (Hö andl, p 564). This ollows he
g ouping and anking o axa acco ding o Linnaean
hie a chies. Simila ly Blumenbach employed skull
shape, skin colou and physiognomy o eg ound
compa a i e ana omy. This c ea ion o hie a chies
whe ein biological a ia ions became he ounda ion,
as s a ed ea lie , o a acis discou se on sla e y and
colonisa ion. These ma ke s o physical di e ence
amongs na i e popula ions, as compa ed o he
Eu opean, we e seen as p oo o mo al in e io i y
and ci ilisa ional incapaci y making hem incapable
o go e ning hemsel es and hus ‘pe ec sla es’.
Scien i ic acism supplied he “na u al” g ounds ha
made ensla emen , and he annihila ion o a people
and hei cul u e, a a ional and ine i able ou come
o human in e ac ion. The na a i e ha he colonial
na i e was incompe en and p edisposed o
se i ude was u ilised o o mula e laws ha denied
poli ical igh s and jus i ied dispossession. In he
nine een h and ea ly wen ie h cen u ies, scien i ic
acism also in luenced supposedly neu al disciplines
such as an h opology and psychology.
These ideas o Scien i ic and Biological Racism eed
in o he de elopmen o philosophical hough in he
17 h cen u y.
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Though Roman and G eek ci ilisa ion was amilia
wi h sla e y i was di e en om la e o mula ions
o he ins i u ion. Sla es in hese an iqua ian
ci ilisa ions we e acqui ed as p isone s o wa , o
pay acc ued deb , o we e bo n in o i . They had no
igh s and we e iewed as p ope y. Howe e he
ideological sca olding buil o jus i y colonisa ion
and sla e y om he 16 h cen u y onwa ds was
undamen ally di e en : i emphasised he
‘animalis ic’ o ‘childlike’ na u e o he na i e o
jus i y hei ensla emen and genocide. This
ideology would go on o g an legi imacy o b u al
colonial empi es wo ldwide. I is s ill used o
o mula e a gumen s abou emo ing he “sc ouge”
o illegal immig an s om he Wes e n wo ld.
One can see he cons uc ion o his a gumen in
he Locke’s wo k. In his w i ings he suppo ed
human igh s and he ise o democ a ic ins i u ions.
Howe e his ad ocacy o en ep eneu ial capi alism,
colonialism and sla e y e eal he inconsis encies in
his app oach o equali y and inequi y along acial
lines. Acco ding he Locke, man’s o iginal s a e o
being, a “s a e o pe ec eedom” was one whe e
h ough his ac ions he could “dispose o possessions
and pe sons as hey see i wi hin he bounds o
na u e wi hou asking lea e o any man” (Locke, p
104, pa a 4). He ejec ed his sugges ion o pe ec
equali y since absence o an adjudica ing highe
au ho i y would esul in con lic . The e o e i was
ine i able ha e e y man “di es himsel o his
na u al libe y” (Richa dson, 103) whe ein he could
“join a communi y” (Richa dson, 103) he eby
secu ing his sa e y, com o and p ope y igh s. The
na i e Ame ican in his ‘na u al’ unci ilised s a e was
a an ea lie s age o ci ilisa ional de elopmen ,
akin o he ea lie Asian and Eu opean ones. He
needed o olun a ily abandon his s a e and
subo dina e himsel o he highe au ho i y o he
English o c ea e a ci il socie y unde he u elage o
B i ish impe ialism and colonialism. Thus consen o
he go e ned became a cen al ene o ci ilisa ion
and go e nance in he concep ion o he mode n
s a e. Since all people a e bo n in o socie y and
ne e eally consen o gi ing up hei eedom, his
aised issues o he na u e o he o m and
cons i u ion o go e nance. Locke eso ed o he
pa en -child analogy o jus i y he “go e nance o
bene olen eli es” (Richa dson, 106). He a gued
ha since hey we e he “ables ” (Locke, 150) and
used na u al judgemen and eason and “pa e nal
a ec ion and ca e” (Locke, 150) o “secu e he
p ope y and in e es s” (Locke, 150) o people,
unde hei “ca e” (Locke, 150) hey would be mos
success ul in p o ec ing people om disas e and
c ea e a s onge and mo e p ospe ous
Commonweal h. This idea o he bene olen eli es
collided wi h Locke’s belie ha i was e e y
Englishman’s igh and des iny o inc ease hei
weal h ei he h ough “conques o comme ce”
(Richa dson, 107). The e o e, he asse s ha
“p i a e men’s in e es s ough no hus be neglec ed
o sac i iced o any hing, bu he mani es in e es
o he public” (Richa dson, 107). This mean ha
any agg esso who h ea ened ano he ’s p ope y
igh s su ende ed his igh s and consen . The
cap u ed pe son o ei ed his li e in o sla e y in he
hands o he ic o e en un o dea h. Since whi e
people we e he ‘ ic o s’, i locked na i e Ame icans,
people o colou , especially A icans ou o he ee
wage wo k o ce and in o he edi a y cha el
bondage. The idea o p o ec ion o p i a e p ope y
c ea ed an en enched exploi a i e social s uc u e.
Locke helped w i e and suppo ed The Fundamen al
Cons i u ion o he Ca olinas (1668) which
ensh ined he sale o human labou , sla e y and
he edi a y es a es.
Kan belie ed ha he ou aces we e o med on
he basis o skin colou . Locke’s ideas a e mi o ed
by Kan whose p agma ic acis an h opology
assumes ha people o colou a e cul u ally
“backwa d” which makes hem incapable o li ing in
a ci il manne and hus ad ance socially. They a e
“lazy” since hey wo k only o ul il hei needs and
so only li e in he “ eedom o he sa ages”
(25:1424) which is lawless and ba ba ic. He u he
a gued ha he colou ed pe son lacked mo ali y and
inna e alen . Fu he mo e hei skin colou was a
ma ke o in e io men al capabili ies. He opposed
in e acial mixing since and undesi able since i
would lead o “in e b eeds” who would “mel
oge he ”. These indi iduals wi h ‘ acially in e io ’
cha ac e is ics would esul in acial deg ada ion o
he whi e aces wi hou “p opo iona ely aising he
wo se one”. Thus he A ican, ‘mulla oes’ and o he
colou ed aces we e excluded om his ideal ci izen.
The la e was a ee mo al pe son who consen ed
o be go e ned by laws ha es ablished equali y o
all. He was also an ac i e “ci il pe sonali y” who
pa icipa ed in he o mula ion o public policies
h ough he ballo . They had he powe o
es uc u e ins i u ions in he ace o e ol ing
demands o jus ice. Since he na i e and people o
colou we e denied mo ali y and eedom, hey
exis ed ou side he ambi o his ca ego y.
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hey exis ed ou side he ambi o his ca ego y.
They a e passi e ci izens who li e in ela ions o
dependence. Simila ly Chales Mills in Racial Con ac
s a ed ha he Eu opean once exis ed in a s a e o
hypo he ical sa age y, a s a e heo ised o explain
he de elopmen o ci ilisa ion. In con as he
colou ed na i e in an ac ual “wild and acialized
place” (p 46-47) “ba ed” (p 43) om ci ilisa ion.
Hegel a gued ha he Eu opeans we e ‘he oes’ who
had he igh o colonise na i es and sp ead he
ideas o he Enligh enmen o people li ing in
‘sa age y and un eedom’. Acco ding o him A ica
was ou side his o y and had no his o y o i s own.
In he a icula ion and philosophy o hinke s om
he 17 h cen u y one inds he o igins o he colou
line ha would become deeply en enched in he
Ame ican psyche. W i e s and black ac i is s
o ganised hemsel es o highligh i s exis ence and
o e ase i . This is a s uggle ha con inues o his
day.
5. Racism in Ame ica and he
Colo line
The ea ly se le s o Ame ica came o his ‘ i gin
land’ anxious o secu e hei owne ship o he land
hey had gained. Sla es we e locked ou o any
p ospec o his owne ship and wo ked on
plan a ions whe e hei mas e s had absolu e
dominion o e hem. The Ame ican Re olu ion has
con adic o y s ains: e en as Washing on and
Je e son championed he Lockean ideas o “ igh s
o man” hey we e bo h sla e owne s who ejec ed
he possibili y o hese igh s o Black sla es.
Samuel Johnson no ed his dicho omy and asked:
“How is i ha we hea he loudes yelps o libe y
om he d i e s o neg os?” Race and colou has
played a cen al ole in he making o Ame ica.
Libe al indi idualism and acial solida i y ha e
ma ked he na ion’s his o y.
Locke’s concep ion o ci il socie y is ounded on he
unques ioning belie in whi e sup emacy whe e he
A ican is me e cha el wi hou igh s and humani y.
This aises in e es ing ques ions abou he na u e o
p o es and ci ic engagemen . Any ci ic ac ion
assumes he p esence o legi ima e ex e nal
au ho i y. A social s uc u e g ounded in whi e
sup emacy aises ques ions abou he possibili y o
such an engagemen . Consen o he go e ned is
he co ne s one o Lockean philosophy in he
ela ionship be ween he go e ned and he ule o
c ea e a ci il socie y.
Unlike na i e Ame icans, who Locke iewed as pa
o he los ibe o Is ael; he A ican ‘neg o’ was
subhuman and sub na u al and could no be
educa ed. Since he la e was ba ba ic and
incapable o easonable discou se, he could no
pa icipa e in ci il socie y, he eby jus i ying his
exclusion, non-pa icipa ion and exploi a ion.
Locke’s ole in he legaliza ion and codi ica ion o
sla e y and whi e sup emacy was a i med in he
Robe s s Ci y o Bos on (1850) which allowed he
School Boa d o Bos on o sepa a e “ins uc ion o
colo ed child en”. E en a e his legal p eceden
was o e u ned i e eals he acism embedded in
ins i u ions and social s uc u es. The di icul y o
esol ing acism h ough laws is bes exempli ied by
he a e o he 13 h Amendmen in he Sou he n
s a es. I banned acialized cha el sla e y,
none heless he Sou h e used o en o ce i o
ecognize Blacks as ully human and equal o he
whi e popula ion. I is no ewo hy ha e en as
a emp s o e ase he colo line we e unde way, he
e o was being sabo aged by na ional leade ship.
P esiden And ew Johnson opposed he Amendmen
a gued ha he “neg o” was “less in o med” abou
he ins i u ions in he coun y as compa ed o he
“in elligen , wo hy and pa io ic o eigne s”, and
gi ing oppo uni ies o he o me would be
disc imina o y o he la e .
Simila ly, Kan ’s sugges ion ha people o colo
could “wo k” hemsel es ou om hei s a us
passi e second class ci izens o ac i e ci izenship is
w ong. The Recons uc ion p omised he in eg a ion
o sla es in o he mains eam. Howe e , he Black
communi y was a ge ed wi h iolence and
lynchings which we e exace ba ed when he US
Sup eme Cou e used o in e ene in he name o
“s a es’ igh s”. The KKK es ablished in 1865 began
“a med gue illa wa a e” (Du Bois 674). The
‘g and a he clause’, Jim C ow laws and con ic
leasing we e used o deny Blacks he o e and lock
hem in o in olun a y se i ude o mino c imes.
The Tulsa ace massac e be ween May 31 and June
1, 1921, is one o he wo s ac s o acial iolence in
Ame ica. In 18 hou s, G eenwood Dis ic , he
“Black Wall S ee ” was bu n o he g ound by
membe s o he KKK and whi e sup emacis s. I was
p edica ed by ea o he in e mingling o aces and
he h ea ha black economic success aised o he
idea o whi e mo al, poli ical and economic
supe io i y.
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6. Resis ance o he Colo Line
The e m colo line, i s used by F ede ick
Douglass, was popula ized by Du Bois in his book
The Souls o Black Folk (1903). He w o e ha “ ha
p oblem o he wen ie h cen u y is he p oblem o
he colo line” (p 9). I p oduces a double
consciousness in he A ican Ame ican as he iews
himsel h ough Black and whi e pe spec i es.
Acco ding o Du Bois he Black man is in isible o
whi e Ame ica and i s ins i u ions which a e
o ganized a ound ideas o en enched acism. E en
as he A ican Ame ican in e ac s wi h mains eam
Ame ica, he expe ience is ma ked by seg ega ion,
disc imina ion, unequal access and he cons an
h ea o iolence. He is always cognizan o he ac
ha while his iden i y as an Ame ican g an s him
access o oppo uni ies, his acial iden i y p e en s
him om expe iencing hem. The colo line hen is
he de ining ea u e o li e o he A ican Ame ican.
Du Bois was con inced ha he Ame ican
expe ience was undamen ally a acis one which
p ecluded acial assimila ion as a iable op ion o
he p og ess o he A ican Ame ican. Bo h Douglass
and Du Bois conceded ha all A ican Ame ican
expe ienced a acialized na ion. Thei app oach o
esol ing hese di e ed and e lec he di e se
esponses one inds e en oday. While Douglass
insis ed ha in eg a ion was possible by
in e nalizing Ame ica’s co e alues o sel - eliance,
h i and a ocus on educa ion, Du Bois ejec ed he
no ion. He dismissed Douglass’ belie ha a
‘composi e na ionali y’ ha was equi able and
egali a ian could be cons uc ed h ough a p ocess
o amalgama ion. Du Bois c i iqued his app oach
since i implied an unc i ical accep ance o whi e
alue sys ems. I was ace, wi h i s associa ed
signi ica ions, no economic s a us ha bound he
A ican Ame ican o an in e io s a us in social,
poli ical and legal li e. In his he was in s a k
con as o Booke T Washing on’s belie ha
economic p ospe i y would lead o g ea e
in eg a ion o he A ican Ame ican in o he na ion’s
mains eam. He insis ed ha “was a capi alis
ins i u ion ha was ha dly di e en om indus ial
capi alism” (Shaw, 30) He insis ed ha ace was he
‘p ima y desc ip i e’ o he black man in Ame ica.
In he li e a u e o he ime one can see his play
ou . Du ing he Ha lem Renaissance w i e s like
W igh insis ed ha he economically success ul
man was an impossibili y and li ed in a cons an
se ile s a us akin o he ‘Uncle Tom’ o old.
Fu he mo e, he ejec ed he Kan ian belie o he
Black Ame ican’s in e io i y since he la e ’s
geog aphical displacemen ende ed he
pheno ypical simila i y wi h he A ican as supe icial
and an example o an iblack acism. His ejec ion o
Douglass’ and Washing on’s app oach should be
iewed in ligh o his belie ha he desi e o
in eg a e wi h he mains eam aised he p ospec
o he A ican Ame ican unde mining his own
capabili y and alen . In o he wo ds, he celeb a ed
black dis inc ness.
Malcom X and King’s app oach e lec esponses o
hese ideas. The o me ’s ideology was based on a
esu gen black na ionalism which eac ed agains
in eg a ion and assimila ion. He b ough he issue o
black-on-black iolence o he o eg ound. Black
age and a e usal o engage wi h illusiona y
‘enemies’ a e a ea u e o his speeches and w i ings.
He a icula ed an an i-colonial geopoli ical discou se
o highligh he connec ions be ween powe and
knowledge. He a gued ha his in luenced ques ions
o iden i y, ep esen a ion and di e ence. Malcolm
X’s pos -colonial app oach unde mined all na a i es
o whi e acial supe io i y and cul u e. He was
in luenced by Ma cus Ga ey’s concep s o A ican
na ionali y and A ican pe sonali y o posi he idea
o he A ican Ame ican independen o he whi e
Ame ican. He insis ed ha he acial expe iences o
black Ame ican we e in eg ally connec ed o he
ac ions and belie s o whi e Ame ica. Unlike King he
ejec ed he no ion ha equali y could be achie ed
h ough peace ul means. He w o e ha he had “no
me cy o compassion in me o a socie y ha will
c ush people and penalize hem o no being able
o s and up unde he weigh ” (Tyne , 30). Malcolm
X connec ed he opp ession and exploi a ion o
acialized peoples o he con ol o land, and also o
he psychological dimensions o acis ideologies.
His insis ed ha he acialized expe ience o he
A ican Ame ican was no simple an issue o ci il
igh s. His exploi a ion and subse ien social s a us
we e simila o ha o o he ma ginalized g oups
wo ldwide. He had o align himsel wi h such g oups
o ake on he global indus ial capi alis sys em.
This could only be achie ed h ough a iolen
engagemen . In “Message o he G ass oo s” (1963)
he w o e:
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The e’s no such hing as a non iolen e olu ion.
The only e olu ion ha is non iolen is he Neg o
e olu ion. The only e olu ion in which he goal is
lo ing you enemy is he Neg o e olu ion. I is he
only e olu ion in which he goal is a deseg ega ed
lunch coun e , a deseg ega ed hea e, a
deseg ega ed pa k, and a deseg ega ed public
oile . The e is no e olu ion. Re olu ion is based on
land. Land is he basis o all independence. Land is
he basis o eedom, jus ice, and equali y.
He a gued ha he colo line and seg ega ion we e
p edica ed on he opp ession o mino i ies by
denying hem owne ship o land and esou ces.
Bo h we e means o exe ing con ol and de e mine
he ou come o he li es o he ma ginalized g oups
in he wo ld. The only means o achie ing sel hood
as indi iduals and a g oup was h ough black
na ionalism whe ein con ol o he poli ics and he
poli ician esided wi h he communi y.
Ma in Lu he King J . played an impo an ole in
he Mon gome y o Memphis yea s in he Ci il
Righ s Mo emen . His wo ds and ac ions
p oclaimed, o en using eligious e minology, he
desi e o end seg ega ion. One inds ‘ oice me ging’
in his speeches and w i ings whe ein he ‘bo ows’,
wi hou acknowledging he same, om whi e libe al
p eache s. This dis inc ea u e o black o al cul u e,
along wi h he Black social gospel adi ion and
philosophical pe sonalism is ound in his wo ds. In
Whe e Do We Go om He e, he insis ed on he need
o a “ e olu ion in alues” (138) which would
change “ou ” (138) souls and li es d ama ically.
King a gued ha since laws exis ed wi hin he
poli ical and cul u al milieu, he domain o eason
wi hin which hey we e o mula ed was also
in luenced by he biases o acism. The e o e, he
legi imacy o hese laws and hei mo i a ions,
d i en by a desi e o main ain acial powe , had o
be s udied in o de o c ea e a easonable poli ical
discou se. A colo blind poli ical and legal would be
unable o add ess he discou se o acial
disc imina ion and exploi a ion and ins ead
pe pe ua e i . He insis ed ha he expe ien ial
knowledge o acism was essen ial o ‘ e o ming’ US
laws and add ess acial subo dina ion. He non-
iolen use o he con en ions o he gospel adi ion
allowed o he con e gence o in e es s o Blacks
and libe al whi es so ha he inhumani y o Jim
C ow whi e biological supe io i y, and an i-
miscegena ion laws and seg ega ion could be
o eg ounded.
His ision o he belo ed communi y was based on
he belie ha he peace ul Ci il Righ s Mo emen
would al e he poli ical belie s and consequen ly he
collec i e li e o all Ame icans. The la e would
esul in he “ edis ibu ion o economic and poli ical
powe ” (B andon, 16) which in u n needed o be
e lec ed in an amended Bill o Righ s which
gua an eed social and economic igh s o all.
Con a y o Malcom X’s mo e owa ds a iolen
ace-o be ween he aces, King insis ed ha e hical
appeals and non- iolen coe ci e appeals would lead
o g ea e change. The powe o pe sonal coun e
na a i es o he impac o acial disc imina ion
would make i a ‘mo al issue’ and p e en whi e
socie y om leeing i and change i .
7. Conclusion
The ajec o y om Linnaean “ a ie ies” o mode n
o ms o acial and cas e hie a chy shows how
scien i ic echniques o classi ica ion can be
epu posed in o ins umen s o domina ion. The
colonial s a e’s need o legible popula ions and he
scien i ic communi y’s hunge o gene alizable
axonomies combined in ways ha na u alized social
inequali y. King, Du Bois, and Malcolm X challenged
hese o mula ions and de eloped s a egies o
esis and eimagine social li e.
Racial disc imina ion and he expe ience o he colo
line canno be emo ed only h ough a ‘ e bal
ideology’. I equi es an engagemen wi h
ins i u ions and poli ical ac ion. Locke’s ideology
p i ileging possessi e indi idualism a he expense
o social jus ice needs o be ques ioned. The Ci il
Righ s Mo emen is one way o in e ac ing wi h i .
In li e a u e o he ime no elis s like Langs on
Hughes, Richa d W igh , Coun ee Cullen, Du Bois,
Zo a Neale Hu s on also ackled he issue.
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Disclaime / Publishe 's No e: The s a emen s, opinions
and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o
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Jou nals and/o he edi o (s). Jou nals and/o he edi o (s)
disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o people o p ope y
esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s
e e ed o in he con en .
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