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Physicochemical and mic obiological analysis o wa e quali y o Nwo ie i e in Imo
S a e, Nige ia.
Chioma Ijeoma Udechukwu 1, Sand a Gogo Oke e 1, Emmanuel Anie ie Essien 2, *, Emenonu Chinwenwa
Onyima 1, Ekpenyonganwan Agbo Ekpenyong 3 and Uduak F iday Udo ong 4
1 Depa men o En i onmen al Heal h Science, School o Heal h Technology, Fede al Uni e si y o Technology, Owe i, Imo
S a e, Nige ia.
2 Depa men o Animal and En i onmen al Biology, Facul y o Biological Science, Uni e si y o Uyo, Akwa Ibom S a e,
Nige ia.
3 Depa men o Biochemis y, Facul y o Science, C oss Ri e Uni e si y o Technology, Calaba , C oss Ri e S a e, Nige ia.
4 Depa men o Chemis y, Facul y o Physical Science, Uni e si y o Uyo, Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 1504-1511
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 15 Ma ch 2025; e ised on 23 Ap il 2025; accep ed on 26 Ap il 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.26.2.1491
Abs ac
Wa e can be a h ea o public heal h when he chemical cons i uen s o pollu an s exceed ce ain s anda ds o
h esholds. To ha e sa e d inking wa e , he e is need o assessmen o he wa e quali y and egula moni o ing. This
s udy aimed o in es iga e he physicochemical and mic obiological wa e quali y o Nwo ie i e , Imo S a e, Nige ia.
Wa e samples we e collec ed om wo sampled poin s: ups eam poin 1 a Egbeada b idge and downs eam poin 2
a Umezu ike hospi al o Nwo ie i e . The ollowing Physicochemical pa ame e s [Tempe a u e, pH, DO, Colou ,
Tu bidi y, To al Dissol ed Solids (TDS), To al Suspended Solids (TSS), Elec ical Conduc i i y (EC), Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD5) and ammonia concen a ion (AC)] we e measu ed a he i e wi h hei speci ic me e s, while he
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) was measu ed and mic obiological analysis ( o al bac e ia coun and o al coli o m
coun ), ca ied ou in he labo a o y wi h nu ien and MacConkey aga s espec i ely. The esul o he mean alues o
he Physicochemical pa ame e s we e measu ed as ollows; Tempe a u e (29.60±0.25 and 29.60±0.36 oC), pH
(6.40±0.12 and 6.35±0.24), DO (6.6±0.73 mg/L and 5.35±0.68 mg/L), Colou (82.5±1.46 PCU and 130.50±1.23 PCU),
Tu bidi y (34.49±1.92 NTU and 71.93±1.03 NTU), TDS (66.95±0.56 mg/L and 53.63±0.58(mg/L), TSS (32.55±1.04
mg/L and 63.88±1.09 mg/L), EC (103.00±0.51 µS/cm and 82.50±0.72 µS/cm), BOD5 (2.8±0.94 mg/L and 1.55±1.6) and
ammonia (1.43 mg/L and 1.560 mg/L) o Egbeada and Umezu ike hospi al espec i ely. The esul s o he
mic obiological analysis showed alues o bo h o al bac e ia coun and o al coli o m coun as 8.1×107 c u/ml and
1.48×108 c u/ml and 9.8×107 c u/ml om poin 1 and poin 2 espec i ely. Some o he esul s go en we e abo e he
pe missible limi s se by he Fede al Minis y o En i onmen (FME). This indica ed ha he wa e om he i e we e
unsui able o d inking, swimming, i iga ion o o he domes ic ac i i ies.
Keywo ds: Wa e ; Physicochemical; Mic obiological; Nwo ie Ri e ; Imo S a e
1. In oduc ion
Wa e esou ces a e necessa y o human consump ion, en i onmen al sys ems, sus ainable ag icul u e, economic
g ow h, and li e as we know i . The p ima y causes o su ace wa e pollu ion, pa icula ly in i e s and s eams, a e
indus ial discha ge, ag icul u e, open de eca ion and u baniza ion (Okey-Wokeh e al., 2021, Akpabio e al., 2024).
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D inkable wa e o human use needs o be ee o biological con aminan s such bac e ia, i uses, and p o ozoan
pa asi es. I should no ha e any as e, smell, o colou as ecommended o home use (WHO, 2017). In o de o ha e a
sa e d inking wa e , he e is need ha he quali y o he wa e be assessed and moni o ed (Bekele e al., 2019, Essien e
al., 2024).
Once wa e is con amina ed, i is e y di icul , cos ly, and o en impossible o emo e he pollu an s. S ill oday, 80 pe
cen o global was ewa e eleases un ea ed in o he wa e bodies, con aining e e y hing om human was e o highly
oxic indus ial discha ges (UNEP. 2019, Essien e al., 2025). I has been epo ed ha , wo ldwide, a ound wo million
people die annually due o wa e - ela ed diseases (UNESCO, 2017). Dia hea, which is mos ly sp ead by en e o i uses
in he aqua ic en i onmen , is he mos p e alen illness b ough on by wa e pollu ion (Lin e al., 2022). The e o e, he
physicochemical p ope ies o su ace wa e a e cons an ly changing due o ac i i ies wi hin and a ound i such as
a ming, ishing, indisc imina e dumping o was es, explo a ion and exploi a ion o solid mine als e c. (Fago i e e al.,
2019).
The mos common diseases caused by wa e pa hogens a e dia heal diseases, such as chole a, yphoid, amoebiasis,
gia diasis, and c yp ospo idiosis. Wa e bo ne in ec ious diseases a e linked h ough ecal-o al ansmission, and
in ec ions can be di ec (human o human, animal o human) o indi ec ly h ough con amina ed d inking, ec ea ional
wa e , and ood wi h in ec ious cys s o inhala ion (Oke e e al., 2024). Acco ding o Essien e al., (2025), wa e pollu ion
causes signi ican public heal h implica ions and has aised nume ous conce ns. Hence, he need o assess he
physicochemical and mic obiological wa e quali y o Nwo ie Ri e in Imo S a e, Nige ia.
2. Me hodology
2.1. S udy A ea
Nwo ie Ri e is a eshwa e i e in he sou h-eas e n pa o Nige ia ha passes h ough Owe i and d ains in o he
O ami i Ri e a Nekede. The leng h o he i e om i s sou ce o i s con luence is 9.2 km and i uns app oxima ely 5.0
km cou se h ough Owe i, he capi al o Imo S a e in Nige ia. The i e is o eno mous economic impo ance o
inhabi an s o Owe i as i se es as a wa e sou ce o a ious domes ic uses and also suppo s a subs an ial
ec ea ional and pa - ime ishing o you hs.
Figu e 1 Map o Owe i Township showing he Nwo ie Ri e (Udensi e al., 2014).
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Figu e 2 Image o he ups eam o Nwo ie i e along Egbeda b idge
Figu e 3 Image o he downs eam o Nwo ie i e along Umezu ike hospi al
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2.2. Physicochemical pa ame e s
Some o he physicochemical pa ame e s we e measu ed on si e. They include he ollowing and hei espec i e
ins umen s empe a u e (me cu y-in-glass he mome e ), pH (pH me e), EC (conduc i i y me e ), DO (Model Ha man
DO me e), u bidi y ( u bidime e ) and ammonia concen a ion a he i e . While, ex-si u pa ame e s such as BOD
and TDS we e measu ed in he labo a o y using he espec i e ins umen s
Fo BOD5, he wa e samples we e incuba ed in an ambe bo le and s o ed in a da k place o 20oC o 5 days, a e
which a DO me e was used o measu e he amoun o dissol ed oxygen in he wa e samples. Fo AC, 25 ml o wa e
sample was added in o 100 ml conical lask, hen 1ml o phenol solu ion, 1ml o sodium ni op usside, and 2.5 ml o
oxidizing eagen we e added and was kep inside a ume cupboa d o 1 hou o de elop a blue colou . The eadings o
he abso bance we e measu ed using a spec opho ome e .
2.3. Bac e iological/Mic obiological Analysis
2.3.1. P epa a ion o Media
Mic obial analyses we e conduc ed immedia ely o a oid inc ease o bac e ial load in he wa e samples. Two media,
Nu ien aga ( o o al bac e ia coun ) and MacConkey aga ( o o al coli o m coun ) we e p epa ed and used o
analyze he samples.
2.3.2. Innocula ion o he wa e sample
Innocula ion was ca ied ou by he use o mic o pipe e, 0.1ml and pou ed in o he pe i dish wi h media, hen, he
sp ead pla e me hod was used o he innocula ion. A e inocula ion o he samples, he pe i dishes we e incuba ed in
he incuba o a 37 oC o 18-48 hou s, using colony coun e o coun he colonies on he pe i dishes.
3. Resul s
3.1. Physicochemical pa ame e s o he wa e samples collec ed om Nwo ie Ri e
These esul s e ealed ha bo h ups eam (Egbeada) and downs eam (Umezu ike hospi al) poin s had a empe a u e
o 29.6°C, which is wi hin he FME limi (20-30°C). The ups eam pH (6.40) and downs eam pH (6.35) we e sligh ly
acidic and below he ecommended ange (6.50-8.50). The DO le el o ups eam (6.6 mg/L) and downs eam (5.35
mg/L) we e below he equi ed minimum (>7.50 mg/L). Fo colou and u bidi y, 82.5 PCU and 130.5 PCU and 34.49
NTU and 71.93 NTU we e eco ded o ups eam and downs eam espec i ely. Which exceeded he accep able limi s
(5 PCU and 10 NTU, espec i ely). Fo TSS, bo h ups eam (32.55 mg/L) and downs eam (63.88 mg/L) exceeded he
accep able limi (<10 mg/L). TDS and EC alues we e wi hin pe missible limi s. BOD5 eco ded 2.8 mg/L and 1.55 mg/L
alues o ups eam and downs eam. Ammonia le els o bo h poin s exceeded he limi (0.30 mg/L), wi h 1.43 mg/L
ups eam and 1.56 mg/L downs eam.
Table 1 Mean alues o he Physicochemical Pa ame e s o wa e samples collec ed om he sampled poin s
Physicochemical
Pa ame e s
Ups eam Poin 1
(Egbeada)
Downs eam Poin 2
(Umezu ike hospi al)
FEM. Limi
Tempe a u e (oC)
29.60±0.25
29.60±0.36
20.00-30.00
pH
6.40±0.12
6.35±0.24
6.50-8.50
DO (mg/L)
6.6±0.73
5.35±0.68
>7.50
Colou (PCU)
82.5±1.46
130.50±1.23
5.00
Tu bidi y (NTU)
34.49±1.92
71.93±1.03
10.00
To al Dissol ed Solids
(mg/L)
66.95±0.56
53.63±0.58
500.00
To al Suspended Solids
(mg/L)
32.55±1.04
63.88±1.09
<10.00
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 1504-1511
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Elec ical Conduc i i y
(µS/cm)
103.00±0.51
82.50±0.72
1000.00
BOD5 (mg/L)
2.8±0.94
1.55±1.6
NS
Ammonia (mg/L)
1.43±0.08
1.560.06
0.30
(NS-No s a ed, FEM. - Fede al Minis y o En i onmen )
3.2. Mic obiological Analysis
The To al Bac e ia Coun alues (8.10 × 10⁷ c u/ml) a bo h loca ions exceed he FME limi (<2.2 c u/ml). While he
To al Coli o m Coun alue o ups eam (1.48 × 10⁸ c u/ml) and downs eam (9.80 × 10⁷ c u/ml) coli o m coun s we e
signi ican ly high, whe eas he accep able limi is 0.
Table 2 Mic obiological Analysis o he wa e samples collec ed om Nwo ie Ri e
Mic obiological Analysis
Ups eam Poin
1 (Egbeada)
Downs eam Poin 2
(Umezu ike hospi al)
FME
To al Bac e ia Coun (c u/ml) (in he nu ien aga ) showed
he p esence o a c eamy colo and a size o 2-3mm egula
shape
8.10×107
8.10×107
<2.2
To al Coli o m Coun (c u/ml) (in he MacConkey aga )
showed he p esence o a pale pinkish colo o size 2-4mm
wi h a ound shape
1.48×108
9.80×107
0
Key: FME - Fede al Minis y o En i onmen .
4. Discussion
Ri e wa e is used o di e en pu poses such as swimming, washing clo hes and as a esul can be used as a medium
o sp ead diseases. Nwo ie Ri e is used o domes ic and ec ea ion pu pose, ishing, washing clo hes and cooking
when he e is inadequa e wa e supply. Fu he mo e, when i ains wa e un-o s ca ying ag icul u al and human
was es a e discha ged di ec ly in o he i e , hence a channel o sewage and solid was e disposal.
The empe a u e o he wa e samples collec ed om bo h poin 1 and poin 2 (ups eam and downs eam) we e wi hin
he FME s anda d which was in compa ison o he alues eco ded by Ogolo e al., (2017) which had mean alues
be ween 30.0°C and 31.0°C. These alues indica e ha he wa e is wi hin he pe missible empe a u e ange o aqua ic
li e and domes ic use.
The pH alue eco ded om he wa e samples collec ed om he i e a poin 1 and poin 2 du ing his s udy we e
wi hin he FME s anda d which was suppo ed by a p e ious s udy (Njoku–Tony e al., 2016). The colou o he wa e
samples was highe and abo e he accep ed limi se by FME s anda d. These we e simila o Umedum e al., (2013)
ha epo ed a ligh yellowish colou . A sligh ly acidic na u e o he wa e can ha e ecological implica ions, po en ially
a ec ing aqua ic o ganisms and he solubili y o me als, making some oxic o aqua ic li e.
The DO alues ob ained om poin 1 and poin 2 du ing his esea ch had he a e ages o 6.50 mg/l and 5.30 mg/l,
espec i ely, and hey we e wi hin he FME s anda d, bu we e highe in compa ison o he esul s o he s udy by Ogolo
e al., (2017) which showed a mean DO alue o 0.75±0.9 mg/l in one s a ion and 2.55±1.1 mg/l in ano he . The decline
in DO downs eam sugges s inc eased o ganic ma e decomposi ion, likely due o pollu ion om an h opogenic
sou ces such as hospi al was e and domes ic discha ges.
The inc ease in colou in ensi y downs eam sugges s pollu ion om e luen s, suspended solids, and possibly o ganic
o indus ial con aminan s.
The u bidi y alues we e abo e he FME s anda d, which we e in con as o esul s eco ded om O ami i Ri e
(Okeke and Adinna, 2013), which had a highe alue o 96.2 NTU in he ainy season. O High u bidi y alues indica e a
high le el o suspended pa icles, which may educe ligh pene a ion, a ec ing aqua ic pho osyn hesis and o e all
ecosys em heal h.
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The TDS eco ded om poin 1 and poin 2 we e below he FME s anda d and which was di e en om o he indings
o Mu heka (2011), who also epo ed highe TDS alues o 221.00 mg/l o 3534.00 mg/l o i e wa e . The p ima y
causes o a highe TDS alue in i e wa e migh be due o he discha ge o domes ic was e, sewage and o he human
ac i i ies like washing o clo hes wi h de e gen , pa king ehicles nea he i e , e c. The i e low a e and olume also
play a pa in he le el o o al dissol ed solids o he i e . The TSS alues ob ained du ing his s udy om in poin 1
and poin 2 we e abo e he FME s anda d. These esul s we e highe han he s udy conduc ed by Umedum e al., (2013)
o 0.14±0.12mg/L o 0.32± 0.01mg/L. The signi ican dec ease in he TSS and TDS con en o wa e samples obse ed
a he ups eam sec ion could be linked o he obse ed co espondingly low coun o he e o ophic bac e ia
enume a ed a hese sampling poin s. This esul sugges s low le els o dissol ed ionic subs ances, making he wa e
sui able o a ious applica ions. This sugges s low le els o dissol ed ionic subs ances, making he wa e sui able o
a ious applica ions. Howe e , high TSS le els may esul om uno , sedimen a ion, and o ganic ma e accumula ion,
which could nega i ely impac aqua ic o ganisms by clogging ish gills and educing wa e cla i y.
The alues o EC we e wi hin he accep able limi se by FME s anda d, bu we e lowe han he alues eco ded by
Ogolo e al., (2017) (438.00±86.49 µs/cm and 4793.50 ±1394.324 µs/cm) om a i e . This sugges s low le els o
dissol ed ionic subs ances, making he wa e sui able o a ious applica ions.
BOD5 is a measu e o mic obial ac i i ies ha consume dissol ed oxygen in he wa e . The alue ob ained om his
s udy we e simila wi h he mean alue o 3.27 ± 1.76 mg/l eco ded in he s udy by Okey-Wokeh e al., (2021). A low
BOD alue a he downs eam si e migh indica e educed mic obial deg ada ion o o ganic ma e , which could be
a ibu ed o lowe DO le els.
The eco ded alue o ammonia ob ained in his s udy we e abo e he FME s anda d. On like esul om simila s udy,
Osokpo e al., (2014) epo ed e y low alues wi hin he anges o 0.09 mg/L - 0.26 mg/L.
The TBC indica es se e e mic obial con amina ion, likely om human ac i i ies such as sewage discha ge, hospi al
was e, and uno . While he p esence o TCC indica es ecal con amina ion, making he wa e unsa e o di ec
consump ion wi hou ea men .
P e ious s udies ha e demons a ed ha wa e quali y and eed composi ion signi ican ly in luence he g ow h and
nu i ional quali y o aqua ic species (Okon e al., 2020; Essien e al., 2024; Inyang e al., 2024). The e o e, main aining
good wa e quali y is c ucial o sus aining aqua ic biodi e si y and local ishe ies, making i impe a i e o assess he
physicochemical and mic obiological cha ac e is ics o i e s like he Nwo ie."
5. Conclusion
The esul submi s ha as a esul o pollu ion om hospi al was e, sewage, and o ganic ma e decomposi ion he e is
wa e quali y de e io a ion downs eam, which is e idenced by he inc eased u bidi y, colou , TSS, and mic obiological
con amina ion beyond pe missible limi s. High bac e ial coun s pose se ious heal h isks, indica ing ha he wa e is
unsa e o di ec human consump ion.
The e o e, he wa e om Nwo ie i e in Imo S a e, Nige ia equi es ea men be o e use, including il a ion,
disin ec ion, and pH co ec ion.
In u he ance, en i onmen al heal h scien is s/o ice s and s ake holde s should egula ly moni o wa e bodies and
d inking wa e sou ces, o p e en wa e -bo ne diseases. Indigenes o a ious communi ies a ound he i e should
emba k on good wa e sani a y and hygiene (WASH) p ac ices o a heal hy and sus ainable en i onmen o p e en
en i onmen al pollu ion.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla ed ha NO con lic o in e es was disclosed.
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