En i onmen al pe cep ions, sel - egula ion, and coping wi h noise media e
he associa ions be ween child en’s physical en i onmen and sleep and
men al heal h p oblems
Pe e Le che
a,1
, Angel M. Dzhambo
a,b,1,*
, Ke s in Pe sson Waye
c
a
Ins i u e o Highway Enginee ing and T anspo Planning, G az Uni e si y o Technology, G az, Aus ia
b
En i onmen al Heal h Di ision, Resea ch Ins i u e a Medical Uni e si y o Plo di , Medical Uni e si y o Plo di , Plo di , Bulga ia
c
School o Public Heal h and Communi y Medicine, Ins i u e o Medicine, Uni e si y o Go henbu g, Go henbu g, Sweden
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Ai pollu ion
Emo ion egula ion
G een space
Noise annoyance
Res o a i e quali y
T a ic noise
ABSTRACT
Backg ound: Child en ace a ious challenges in hei home and ex ended neighbo hood se ings. In his s udy, we
examine he impac o he buil and social en i onmen s on sleep/men al heal h and he po en ial media ing ole
o en i onmen al pe cep ions, sel - egula ion, and coping wi h noise.
Me hods: C oss-sec ional da a o 1251 schoolchild en (8–12 yea s) we e sampled in he Ty ol egion o Aus ia/
I aly. Ques ionnai es p o ided in o ma ion on sociodemog aphic and housing ac o s, pe cei ed neighbo hood
quali y, coping wi h noise du ing homewo k, sel - egula ion, sleep, and men al heal h p oblems. A buil en i-
onmen sco e was based on modeled le els o oad and ail a ic noise, ni ogen dioxide, and impe iousness
densi y. Home ga den ep esen ed a ailabili y o accessible g eenspace. Associa ions be ween p edic o s and
men al heal h/sleep p oblems we e examined using quan ile eg essions and s uc u al equa ion modeling
(SEM).
Resul s: In mul i a ia e eg essions, poo neighbo hood quali y, poo sel - egula ion, low a ic sa e y, and
highe coping e o s we e associa ed wi h mo e men al heal h and sleep p oblems. Good amily ela ions ac ed
in he opposi e di ec ion. In SEM, he buil en i onmen sco e was associa ed wi h lowe neighbo hood quali y
and lowe a ic sa e y, which in u n led o highe coping e o s, and hen o men al heal h/sleep p oblems.
Home ga dens ela ed o less sleep p oblems h ough highe pe cei ed neighbo hood quali y and lowe coping
e o s. Good amily ela ions we e associa ed wi h be e men al heal h/sleep di ec ly and ia be e sel -
egula ion and lowe coping e o s.
Conclusions: Child en o ced o engage in coping ac i i ies when dis u bed by noise du ing homewo k show
poo e men al heal h. Good amily ela ions, good neighbo hood quali y, and close-by g eenspace may be ac o s
o alle ia e buil en i onmen s esso s. The nega i e associa ion o equi ed coping wi h noise du ing homewo k
sugges s ha child en, in con as o adul s, may be limi ed in hei coping abili ies. Ou indings call o u he
inqui ies, as child en and hei en i onmen s may a y wi h espec o coping e iciency.
1. In oduc ion
Child men al heal h is a mul i ace ed cons uc ha is dynamically
shaped by ansac ions be ween he child and hei su ounding physical
and social en i onmen s (Pe sson Waye e al., 2023; Gudi-Minde mann
e al., 2023). Th oughou hei de elopmen , child en encoun e a ious
challenges and demands in hei home and ex ended neighbo hood
se ings (Pe sson Waye e al., 2023). Ad e si ies ha can unde mine
psychological unc ioning in ol e o example socioeconomic dep i a-
ion and amily ins abili y, bu physical s esso s can also ha m child
men al heal h ia biological pa hways (Basu and Bane jee, 2020) and
h ough es ic ed oppo uni ies o ec ea ion, psychological es o a-
ion, and senso y and expe ien ial en ichmen (Ch is ian e al., 2015).
Fo example, a ic noise can impai cogni i e de elopmen , eading
* Co esponding au ho . En i onmen al Heal h Di ision, Resea ch Ins i u e a Medical Uni e si y o Plo di , Medical Uni e si y o Plo di , 15A Vasil Ap ilo Bl d.
4002, Plo di , Bulga ia.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed], [email p o ec ed] (A.M. Dzhambo ).
1
Equal i s co-au ho ship.
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
En i onmen al Resea ch
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/en es
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.en es.2024.120414
Recei ed 10 Augus 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 5 No embe 2024; Accep ed 20 No embe 2024
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
A ailable online 21 No embe 2024
0013-9351/© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie Inc. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
comp ehension, sleep and school achie emen (Kla e e al., 2017;
S ans eld and Cla k, 2015; Cla k and Pauno ic, 2018; Fo as e e al.,
2022) as well as neu ode elopmen in gene al, hough he e idence o
ha is he e ogeneous (Za e Sakh idi e al., 2018). Al hough exposu e o
a ic noise a nigh is a known c i ical s esso unde mining no mal
sleep, only ew s udies exis in child en (¨
Oh s ¨
om e al., 2006; B uni
e al., 2011; Tiesle e al., 2013; Sk zypek e al., 2017; Weyde e al.,
2017) and esul s a e inconsis en . I has been sugges ed ha child en
a e less likely o awaken by noise e en s han adul s (Ebe ha d , 1988),
while noise- ela ed ca dio ascula eac ions and mo ili y a e mo e
p onounced (Muze , 2007). A s udy by ¨
Oh s ¨
om e al. (2006) p o ided
con adic i e esul s be ween sel - epo ed da a and ac ig aphy
measu ed sleep in so a ha sleep logs indica ed ha child en epo ed
be e pe cei ed sleep quali y and ewe awakenings han pa en epo s
on child sleep. I is well-known ha he dis up ion o no mal sleep o
child en can esul in a b oade spec um o ad e se heal h e ec s,
among which a e neu ode elopmen al p oblems, poo
emo ional-beha io al egula ion and psychosocial heal h (Chapu e al.,
2017; Ma icciani e al., 2019). Howe e , s udies on noise- ela ed sleep
p oblems in child en ha e linked only classic acous ic indica o s o sleep
p oblems and no in es iga ed po en ial media ing e ec s o sleep on
men al heal h p oblems. This applies also o he li e a u e on he po-
en ial e ec s o ai pollu ion on child en’s sleep. Al hough some s udies
ha e obse ed ela ionships be ween ai pollu ion and sleep (Law ence
e al., 2018; Mayne e al., 2021), e y ew s udies ha e in es iga ed how
ai pollu ion a ec s men al heal h ia sleep.
Coping, which e e s o pu pose ul e o s o egula e p ocesses like
cogni ion, emo ions, beha io , physiology, and en i onmen al con ex
when challenged wi h a s esso (Compas e al., 2017), is impo an o
child adap a ion and no mal de elopmen . Howe e , child en can be
di e en ially a ec ed by s esso s depending on he coping s yles ha
hey employ o manage s ess (Compas e al., 2017). Since child en a e
in a sensi i e neu ode elopmen al s age and exhibi a b oad ange o
ulne abili ies (Dide ichsen e al., 2019), i is impo an o unde s and
how he buil and na u al en i onmen s ha hey g ow up in in luence
cogni i e esou ces and s a egies equi ed o suppo men al heal h.
The abili y o cope wi h s ess e ec i ely o en equi es a en ional
con ol, egula ion o emo ions, beha io , and impulses; hose esou ces
may be unde mined by he home en i onmen h ough inc eased allo-
s a ic load caused by chao ic li ing condi ions, ai pollu ion, and noise
con ibu ing o ch onic s ess and dys egula ing p ocesses in he b ain
(e.g., in he p e on al co ex) ha unde ly execu i e unc ioning and
a en ional p ocesses in ol ed in sel - egula ion (U sache e al., 2022;
Bagais and Pa i, 2023). Con e sely, exposu e o na u al ou doo en i-
onmen s encou ages longe play ime and physical ac i i y, g ea e
exposu e o dayligh , and allows o es o a ion o a en ional mecha-
nisms ha become a igued as a esul o ongoing e o s o adap o
s esso s (Buczyłowska e al., 2023). Sel - egula o y acul ies a e a ini e
esou ce equi ing pe iodic es o a ion (Mu a en and Baumeis e ,
2000). The e o e, s ess-dampening and es o a i e expe iences in en-
i onmen s pe cei ed as calm, sa e, and socially suppo i e can o se
he ac i a ion o physiological s ess pa hways ha dis up no mal
neu ode elopmen , sleep pa e ns, and cogni ion. Na u e con ac can
also dec ease maladap i e emo ion egula ion s a egies such as umi-
na ion and wo y (Vi ale and Bonaiu o, 2024).
Howe e , di ec e idence o he impac o he physical en i onmen
on child sel - egula ion is much mo e limi ed han o psychosocial
s esso s (e.g., U sache e al., 2022). Fo example, li ing in a noisy (Za e
Sakh idi e al., 2018) and ai pollu ed (Cas agna e al., 2022) a eas has
been linked o neu ode elopmen al p oblems. O he in luences can be
p o ec i e, such as g eene neighbo hoods ac i a ing pa hways o be e
cogni i e unc ioning (Buczyłowska e al., 2023) and sel - egula o y
capaci y (Weeland e al., 2019; Vi ale and Bonaiu o, 2024). As a
closely ela ed pe cep ual aspec o he neighbo hood en i onmen , he
sense o sa e y plays a ole in he de elopmen o child en’s emo ional
p ocessing and sel - egula ion (McCoy e al., 2016), engagemen in
physical ac i i y and ac i e mobili y beha io (Ca e e al., 2008), and
in gene al, men al heal h (Mel ze e al., 2007). In a longi udinal UK
s udy, indoo dampness, second-hand smoke, and TV noise p edic ed
emo ional dys egula ion in ea ly and middle childhood (Oloye and
Flou i, 2021), bu ga den access and neighbo hood g eenspace did no
come up as p o ec i e (Muelle and Flou i, 2020; Oloye and Flou i,
2021), e en hough ga den ac i i ies ha e been ound o suppo ado-
lescen s’ wellbeing ( an Lie e al., 2017). O e all, buil en i onmen
indica o s in combina ion wi h coping ac i i ies ha e been explo ed
only in a ew s udies wi h child en. Mo eo e , he e ha e been ew a -
emp s o examine indi ec pa hways be ween he physical en i onmen ,
coping, and men al heal h in an in eg a ed way.
In he p esen s udy, we le e age exis ing da a om schoolchild en
li ing in se e al Alpine alleys (Dzhambo e al., 2024) o examine he
ela i e impac o he buil and social en i onmen s on sleep and men al
heal h and he po en ial media ing ole o en i onmen al pe cep ions,
sel - egula ion, and coping wi h noise. The s udy is embedded wi hin he
Equal-Li e p ojec , pa o he Eu opean Human Exposome Ne wo k,
which unde akes o explo e he e ec s o he exposome on men al
heal h and cogni i e de elopmen in child en and adolescen s ( an
Kamp e al., 2021). Equal-Li e applies an o en neglec ed bu equi ed
holis ic pe spec i e o child en’s men al heal h and cogni ion.
2. Me hods
2.1. S udy p ocedu es and sampling
We collec ed a c oss-sec ional sample o 1251 child en aged 8–12
yea s om 3 d and 4 h g ade. Child en we e sampled in 2004–2005
om 49 public schools in he Ty ol egion o Aus ia and No he n I aly.
The s udy a ea s e ched ac oss se e al alpine alleys including he
Lowe Inn alley, Wipp alley, and h ee side alleys ex ending ou -
wa ds om he Wipp alley. The a ea is mos ly low in u baniza ion and
b ings oge he hea y-du y a ic lines unning along he Lowe Inn and
Wipp alley loo s and high ege a ion co e o he moun ain slopes.
Me eo ological condi ions and local opog aphy a y ac oss hese al-
leys, which leads o di e en ial pa e ns o sound p opaga ion and ai
pollu ion dispe sion. See Dzhambo e al. (2019) o de ails on s udy
design and se ing.
In o ma ion on li ing condi ions, pe cep ions o he neighbo hood
en i onmen , men al wellbeing and o he psychological and con ex ual
a iables was collec ed wi h ques ionnai es ha child en and hei
mo he s illed ou . Su ey da a we e hen linked o geog aphic a iables
cha ac e izing he buil and na u al neighbo hood en i onmen s.
E hical app o al was ob ained om he E hics commi ee o he Medical
Uni e si y Innsb uck (E hics commission numbe 2105/2004).
2.2. Buil en i onmen and g eenspace
T a ic- ela ed noise and ai pollu ion we e calcula ed a he esi-
den ial add ess coo dina es using bespoke modelling ailo ed o he
speci ics o he s udy a ea. Modelling de ails a e epo ed elsewhe e
(Dzhambo e al., 2019). B ie ly, we assigned each add ess
day-e ening-nigh sound le els (L
den
) om a ic on he highway and
o he oads, and ailway a ic in he alleys. Long- e m exposu e o
a ic- ela ed ai pollu ion was ep esen ed by mean annual concen-
a ion o ni ogen dioxide (NO
2
) calcula ed wi h a me eo ological
model, G az Mesoscale Model, a a ho izon al esolu ion o 10 ×10 m
and a e ical esolu ion o 2 m.
G eyspace o buil -up a ea was measu ed as he pe cen age o
a i icially sealed soil in a 100 m bu e a ea a ound he home add ess.
This impe iousness densi y indica o anged om 0 o 100%, and da a
we e sou ced om he Cope nicus eposi o y wi h a pixel esolu ion o
20 ×20 m (h ps://land.cope nicus.eu/use -co ne / echnical-lib a
y/h l-impe iousness- echnical-documen -p od-2015).
Impe iousness densi y was calcula ed using au oma ic de i a ion
P. Le che e al.
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
2
based on calib a ed No malized Di e ence Vege a ion Index (NDVI),
he e o e i s co ela ion wi h NDVI did no allow o es ing bo h a i-
ables oge he . Ins ead, he po en ially posi i e in luence o esiden ial
g eenspace on sleep quali y and men al heal h was ep esen ed by he
p esence o a domes ic ga den (no s. yes) epo ed by he child’s
mo he (c . an Lie e al., 2017). Ga dens included p i a e g eenspace,
g een ya ds, o cha ds, lo al ga dens, o ege able ga dens.
In a sensi i i y analysis, we used NDVI de i ed o a 100 m bu e
a ound he esidence ins ead o home ga den, and excluded impe i-
ousness densi y om he model o a oid collinea i y. B ie ly, NDVI was
calcula ed a a spa ial esolu ion o 30 ×30 m using cloud- ee images
om summe ime (July–Augus in 2003) om he Landsa 4–5 Thema ic
Mappe . All pixels wi h open/su ace wa e as indica ed in Open S ee
Map da a (h ps://www.opens ee map.o g/) we e se o missing alues
o p e en supp essing he e ec o g eenspace (Dzhambo e al., 2019).
Spa ial analyses we e conduc ed in A cMap 10.6 and QGIS 3.8.
2.3. Men al heal h and sleep p oblems
Selec ed i ems om an ea ly e sion o he KINDL ques ionnai e
(Ra ens-Siebe e and Bullinge , 1998) we e used o ope a ionalize
men al heal h p oblems based on he child’s ag eemen wi h s a e-
men s abou (1) eeling alone, (2) laughing a lo and ha ing un
( e e sed), (3) eeling bo ed, and (4) eeling anxious (expe iencing ea ).
The child epo ed he equency o occu ence o hese eelings on a
5-poin Like scale (1 =ne e , 2 =seldom, 3 =some imes, 4 =o en, o
5 = e y o en). McDonald’s
ω
o his scale was 0.57.
Child en we e asked abou ecen (1) p oblems alling asleep, (2)
uneasy sleep, and (3) eeling i ed in he mo ning. These i ems ap he
co e symp oms o insomnia acco ding o he Diagnos ic and S a is ical
Manual o Men al Diso de s Fou h Edi ion and a e ypically a co e pa
o ques ionnai es on sleep quali y (Fabb i e al., 2021). Answe s we e
p o ided on he same 5-poin scale as o men al heal h p oblems. A
summa y sleep p oblems scale was c ea ed om esponses o hese
i ems. McDonald’s
ω
o his scale was 0.55.
2.4. Pe cei ed neighbo hood quali y
Gi en ha pe cep ions o he neighbo hood en i onmen a e likely
o shape ou doo beha io and s ess esponse o child en, we asked
child en o a e neighbo hood cha ac e is ics ha we conside may be
es o a i e and hei sense o oad sa e y. Albei concep ually ela ed,
hese cons uc s can bo h p edic o e all pe cei ed es o a i eness o a
se ing (S ag`
a e al., 2023).
A pe cei ed neighbo hood quali y scale was compu ed as he sum
o esponses o se en i ems asking abou neighbo hood cha ac e is ics
ha could media e he e ec o a ic emissions, buil -up a eas, and
home ga dens. Child en epo ed i hei neighbo hood (1) had a lo o
space o play, (2) meadows and ees, and (3) clean ai , i i was (4)
quie , i (5) child en we e allowed o un a ound, i (6) people we e
help ul o child en, and (7) i child en gene ally enjoyed li ing he e.
Responses we e gi en on a Like scale anging om 1 o 4 (1 =no igh
a all, 2 = a he no igh , 3 = a he igh , 4 = ully igh ). McDonald’s
ω
o his scale was 0.70.
In addi ion, child en we e asked abou hei pe cep ion o sa e y on
he way o school using h ee i ems (“I need o wa ch ou o ca s”, “My
way o school is dange ous”, and “I am a aid o a a ic acciden when
walking o school”). Responses we e gi en on he same ou -poin scale.
The i em sco ing was e e sed and a summa y neighbo hood a ic
sa e y scale was gene a ed. McDonald’s
ω
o his scale was subop imal
(0.55).
2.5. Coping and sel - egula ion
Se en ques ions ela ed o he equency o coping wi h noise we e
asked a e child en epo ed i hey we e dis u bed by oad and ail
a ic noise du ing homewo k (i.e., child en had a esponse op ion “I am
ne e dis u bed by noise du ing homewo k”). I he child epo ed no
noise du ing homewo k, he coping ac i i y i em was se o a alue o
ze o. Fo a sensi i i y analysis, we excluded child en epo ing no noise
exposu e o make su e he coding o he coping a iable did no se e as
a p oxy o noise exposu e. I he e was noise epo ed bu no dis u -
bance epo ed, coping was se o one. O no e, inspec ion o he da a
e ealed ha some child en i s epo ed no dis u bance o he il e ing
ques ion, bu la e hey ma ked a ew coping ac i i ies. In such in-
s ances, we co ec ed he “no dis u bed” esponse o he epo ed e-
quency o he espec i e coping beha io . The lis o coping beha io s
when he child el dis u bed by noise du ing homewo k is shown in
Supplemen a y Sec ion S1. Repo ed equencies o hese beha io s
(ne e , some imes, o en, mos o he ime) we e summed up. Al hough
we ecognize ha di e en classi ica ions o coping s yles ha e been
p oposed (Holen e al., 2012), in ou sample all i ems seemed o e lec a
unidimensional la en cons uc , as sugges ed by an explo a o y ac o
analysis (EFA) (See Supplemen a y Sec ion S1). The i ems we e hus
allowed o o m one la en ac o apping he demands o cope wi h
noise (McDonald’s
ω
=0.92).
Sel - egula ion was p obed wi h i e i ems om he Needleman
ques ionnai e on school beha io (Needleman e al., 1979). School
eache s a ed h ee beha io al and wo emo ional aspec s o
sel - egula ion using a yes/no scale. See Supplemen a y Sec ion S2 o
he wo ding o speci ic i ems. EFA sugges ed ha he i ems belonged o
one ac o (See Supplemen a y Sec ion S2). This scale had accep able
in e nal consis ency (McDonald’s
ω
=0.72).
2.6. Family ela ions
Two i ems e e ing o good amily ela ions du ing he pas week
we e used om he KINDL ques ionnai e (“My child go on well wi h us
as pa en s”, “My child el ine a home”; =0.58) (Ra ens-Siebe e and
Bullinge , 1998). Reponses o hese i ems we e a ed by he pa en on a
i e-poin scale (1 =ne e , 2 =seldom, 3 =some imes, 4 =o en, o 5 =
e y o en) and hese we e summed up o he analysis.
2.7. O he co a ia es
In o ma ion on po en ial con ounding ac o s and e ec modi ie s
was collec ed h ough child and pa en -comple ed ques ionnai es.
Sociodemog aphic a iables included child’s age, sex, and ma e nal
educa ion epo ed by he mo he . Ma e nal educa ion was ca ego ized
as basic o ≤9 yea s o school, skilled labo , oca ional, and highe /A-
le el, and se ed as a p oxy o he amily’s socioeconomic s a us. Noise
sensi i i y was epo ed by he child on a single-i em i e-poin scale (1
=no a all o 5 = e y much).
2.8. S a is ical analysis
Va iables we e i s desc ibed and hei dis ibu ion was examined.
Due o missing da a on di e en a iables, some s a is ical es s used a
smalle analysis sample (i.e., 1190 obse a ions in he main analysis).
We hen ollowed wi h bi a ia e es s o associa ion be ween he a i-
ables using Spea man, poin -bise ial, and phi co ela ions.
Quan ile eg ession was used o examine he associa ions be ween
he main p edic o , media o , and he condi ional median o men al
heal h p oblems and sleep p oblems. This model was selec ed as i makes
no dis ibu ional assump ions abou he dependen a iables. L
den
, NO
2
,
and g eyspace we e en e ed as obse ed a iables in he p edic o se ,
and indi idual i ems measu ing la en psychological cons uc s we e
summed up and used as summa y sco es in he eg essions. Va iance
in la ion ac o s <5 and ole ance alues >0.2 sugges ed no collinea i y.
S uc u al equa ion modelling (SEM) was used as he main echnique
o es how well he da a i ed he concep ual model we de eloped (see
Fig. 1). Fo he main analysis, i.e., a SEM, we cons uc ed a la en Buil
P. Le che e al.
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
3
en i onmen a iable ha loaded on o he h ee indica o s – L
den
, NO
2
and g eyspace. Coping, a ic sa e y, amily ela ions, sel - egula ion,
men al heal h p oblems, sleep p oblems, and pe cei ed neighbo hood
quali y we e also modeled as la en a iables. We an icipa ed ha highe
le el o exposu e o he buil en i onmen and lack o access o a home
ga den would be associa ed wi h mo e men al heal h and sleep p oblems
no only di ec ly bu also ha hese associa ions would be media ed by
mo e un a o able pe cep ions o he esiden ial en i onmen and i s
sa e y, poo e sel - egula ion, and lowe e o s o cope wi h noise. A
he same ime, good amily ela ions would lead o be e men al heal h
and sleep bo h di ec ly and h ough be e sel - egula ion and lowe
equi emen s o cope wi h noise. We also assumed di ec pa hways om
hese a iables o men al heal h and sleep in o de o e alua e how much
o he o al e ec was explained by he pu a i e media o s. High noise
sensi i i y was also hypo hesized o lead o men al heal h and sleep
p oblems and o highe coping e o s. In he sensi i i y analysis wi h
NDVI ins ead o home ga den (concep ual diag am no shown), we
added ano he pa hway om NDVI o a ic sa e y. In ano he sensi-
i i y analysis, we e i ed he SEM a e excluding child en who had
epo ed no noise exposu e.
SEM was used as a con i ma o y echnique o de e mine how well
his heo y-based model i ed he da a. All cons uc s ope a ionalized
wi h mul iple i ems we e speci ied as single- ac o la en a iables
loading on o obse ed i ems. We assumed a-p io y co ela ions be ween
men al heal h and sleep p oblems, be ween pe cei ed neighbo hood
quali y and sa e y, and be ween buil en i onmen and domes ic ga den
p esence.
All obse ed a iables we e s anda dized and he model was es i-
ma ed om polycho ic co ela ions using he diagonally weigh ed leas
squa es es ima o (DiS e ano and Mo gan, 2014). Robus s anda d e o s
and espec i e con idence in e als we e compu ed o all pa h co-
e icien s. P esence o signi ican indi ec e ec s (i.e., he p oduc o he
pa h coe icien s associa ed wi h hei cons i uen pa hs) was assumed
when he 95% con idence in e al a ound he es ima e did no con ain
ze o.
Model i was e alua ed on he basis o a se o commonly used
indices and co esponding cu -o c i e ia p oposed by Hu and Ben le
(1999): non-signi ican
χ
2
(p >0.05); compa a i e i index (CFI) ≥0.95;
oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion (RMSEA) ≤0.06 wi h a 90%
CI ≤0.06; and s anda dized oo mean squa ed esidual (SRMSR) ≤0.08.
A pa simony no med i index (PNFI), which akes in o accoun he
complexi y o he model, was expec ed o be >0.50 (Iacobucci, 2010).
Inspec ion o model esiduals and modi ica ion indices would be used o
e ine he model in case poin s o ill i we e iden i ied.
S a is ically signi ican indings we e e alua ed a he p <0.05 le el
( wo- ailed). SEM was conduc ed using he la aan package . 0.6.17 o
R 4.3.3. S a a MP . 18 was used o all o he s a is ical es s.
3. Resul s
3.1. Sample cha ac e is ics and bi a ia e associa ions
Child en’s cha ac e is ics a e p esen ed in Table 1. The age ange
was a he na ow wi h mos child en being a ound 9 yea s old; almos
hal o hem we e male. Di e en le els o ma e nal educa ion we e
equally ep esen ed in he sample. Mos child en li ed in houses wi h a
ga den and hey we e exposed o mode a e le els o oad and ail a ic
noise and ai pollu ion.
Bi a ia e co ela ions show ha poo men al heal h was associa ed
wi h poo sleep, lowe neighbo hood quali y, highe coping wi h noise,
highe noise sensi i i y, poo amily ela ions, low a ic sa e y, no
ha ing a home ga den, and highe NO
2
. The same pa e ns we e p esen
Fig. 1. Concep ual model o he hypo hesized associa ions be ween child en’s physical esiden ial en i onmen and po en ial media o s leading o men al heal h and
sleep p oblems. No e. A ows in ed indica e in e se hypo hesized associa ions, and g een a ows posi i e hypo hesized associa ions.
Table 1
Summa y o child cha ac e is ics.
Cha ac e is ics Median (Q 25 h-75 h) o N (%)
Socio-demog aphics
Age [yea s] 9.35 (8.85–9.87)
Male sex 623 (49.80)
Ma e nal educa ion
Basic 279 (23.08)
Skilled labo 396 (32.75)
Voca ional 287 (23.74)
A-le el 247 (20.43)
Pe cep ual a iables
Men al heal h p oblems [4–19 scale] 6.00 (5.00–8.00)
Sleep p oblems [3–15 scale] 7.00 (4.00–9.00)
Neighbo hood quali y [10–28 scale] 24.00 (22.00–26.00)
Low a ic sa e y [3–12 scale] 6.00 (4.00–7.00)
Poo sel - egula ion [0–5 scale] 1.00 (0.00–2.00)
Coping wi h noise [0–28 scale] 11.00 (0.00–16.00)
Good amily ela ions [2–10 scale] 10.00 (8.00–10.00)
Noise sensi i i y [1–5 scale] 2.00 (1.00–2.00)
Physical en i onmen
NO
2
[
μ
g/m³] 14.35 (9.86–22.19)
L
den
[dB] 49.89 (42.54–59.54)
G eyspace [0–100%] 26.31 (8.81–46.84)
Home ga den 927 (74.82)
NDVI
100 m
0.43 (0.33–0.53)
No e. Abb e ia ions: L
den
– add ess day-e ening-nigh sound le el om all
a ic sou ces in dB, NDVI – no malized di e ence ege a ion index, NO
2
–
annual mean ni ogen dioxide le el in
μ
g/m³.
P. Le che e al.
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
4
o poo sleep, and in addi ion, i was associa ed o lowe g eenness le el
and highe impe iousness in he 100 m bu e (see Fig. 2). O he
in e es ing co ela ions we e hose be ween he pe cep ual a iables,
whe e en i onmen al cha ac e is ics pe cei ed as un a o able ela ed o
wo se sel - egula ion and coping wi h noise, while good amily ela ions
seemed o coun e poo sel - egula ion, coping, and noise sensi i i y.
Associa ions be ween he geog aphic a iables we e expec ed, wi h
a ic emissions and g eyspace co ela ing s ongly among hem and
in e sely wi h NDVI and home ga den p esence.
3.2. Reg ession modeling
Mul i a ia e associa ions be ween neighbo hood en i onmen , pe -
cep ions, and child en’s men al heal h and sleep p oblems a e gi en in
Table 2. Following mu ual adjus men , poo neighbo hood quali y, low
a ic sa e y, poo sel - egula ion, noise coping e o s, and poo amily
ela ions we e associa ed wi h mo e men al heal h p oblems. In e es -
ingly, highe L
den
was associa ed wi h less men al heal h p oblems. Sleep
p oblems we e p edic ed by poo neighbo hood quali y, low a ic
sa e y, and coping wi h noise. These models did no explain much o he
dependen a iables hough (R
2
=0.07 o men al heal h p oblems and
0.08 o sleep p oblems).
3.3. S uc u al equa ion modeling
The model con e ged no mally a e 102 i e a ions. No pos hoc
modi ica ions we e indica ed as he model had a easonably good i o
he da a:
χ
2 (650)
=1273.143, p <0.001; CFI =0.972; PNFI =0.829;
RMSEA =0.028 (90% CI: 0.025, 0.030); SRMR =0.039. A good amoun
o he a iance in men al heal h p oblems (29%) and sleep p oblems
(23%) was explained by his model.
Be e men al heal h and sleep we e obse ed wi h highe le els o
pe cei ed a ic sa e y, lowe noise sensi i i y, be e amily ela ions,
and lowe demand o cope wi h noise (Fig. 3). Table 3 shows he es i-
ma ed o al and indi ec e ec s o he exposu es o in e es (see Sup-
plemen a y Table S1 and Fig. S1 o all pa hways in he model). High
buil en i onmen sco es we e associa ed wi h poo men al heal h and
sleep p oblems only indi ec ly ia pe cep ions o lowe neighbo hood
quali y and lowe a ic sa e y in he neighbo hood, which in u n led o
highe coping e o s. Ha ing a ga den was ela ed o less sleep p oblems
h ough highe pe cei ed neighbo hood quali y and less coping e o s.
Good amily ela ions we e associa ed wi h be e sel - egula ion and
lowe demand o cope wi h noise, and hus wi h be e men al heal h
and sleep.
O e all, he es ima ed o al e ec s showed ha ga dens and good
amily ela ions ela ed o be e men al heal h and less sleep p oblems,
while highe buil en i onmen exposu e ela ed o mo e sleep
Fig. 2. Spea man co ela ions be ween key a iables in he s udy. No e. Abb e ia ions: L
den
– day-e ening-nigh sound le el om all a ic sou ces in dB, NO
2
–
annual mean ni ogen dioxide le el in
μ
g/m³. Minimum numbe o obse a ions pe a iable pai =1167. The colo amp om da k blue o da k ed colo s ep-
esen s he s eng hs o co ela ion anging om −1 o +1, espec i ely.
Table 2
Mul i a ia e associa ions be ween pe cep ions, neighbo hood en i onmen and
child en’s men al heal h and sleep p oblems.
P edic o s Ou comes
Men al heal h p oblems (N =
1063)
Sleep p oblems (N =
1073)
Neighbo hood
quali y
¡0.10 (-0.16, -0.04)* ¡0.08 (-0.16, -0.003)*
Low a ic sa e y 0.21 (0.13, 0.29)* 0.21 (0.10, 0.33)*
Poo sel - egula ion 0.23 (0.11, 0.36)* 0.12 (−0.05, 0.29)
Coping wi h noise 0.05 (0.02, 0.07)* 0.07 (0.04, 0.10)*
Good amily
ela ions
¡0.24 (-0.42, -0.07)* −0.24 (−0.48, 0.00)
Noise sensi i i y 0.13 (−0.05, 0.31) 0.11 (−0.14, 0.36)
NO
2
0.02 (−0.001, 0.05) −0.01 (−0.05, 0.02)
L
den
¡0.03 (-0.05, -0.003)* 0.03 (−0.01, 0.06)
G eyspace −0.01 (−0.02, 0.0002) 0.01 (−0.01, 0.02)
Home ga den −0.11 (−0.53, 0.32) −0.18 (−0.76, 0.40)
Age 0.003 (−0.27, 0.26) −0.01 (−0.38, 0.35)
Male sex −0.27 (−0.62, 0.08) −0.33 (−0.82, 0.15)
Ma e nal educa ion
Basic Re .
Skilled labo −0.43 (−0.89, 0.04) −0.44 (−1.08, 0.20)
Voca ional −0.18 (−0.69, 0.33) −0.03 (−0.73, 0.67)
A-le el −0.16 (−0.69, 0.37) 0.31 (−0.41, 1.03)
No e. E ec es ima es shown a e uns anda dized be a coe icien s om mul i-
a ia e quan ile eg essions wi h hei 95% con idence in e al (CI). All p eda-
o s a e es ed a he same ime.
P. Le che e al.
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
5
p oblems.
A sensi i i y SEM, using NDVI ins ead o home ga den, also i he
da a well:
χ
2 (612)
=1143.329, p <0.001; CFI =0.976; PNFI =0.827;
RMSEA =0.026 (90% CI: 0.024, 0.029); SRMR =0.038. The indings o
signi ican pa hways did no di e much (see Supplemen a y Fig. S2).
Howe e , NDVI led o be e men al heal h and sleep ia highe neigh-
bo hood quali y and a ic sa e y, and in u n lowe noise coping e o s.
To al indi ec e ec s o NDVI on hese ou comes we e signi ican , bu
no he o al e ec s.
In he o he sensi i i y analysis (N =754) ha excluded child en
epo ing no noise exposu e, he model i was also good:
χ
2 (650)
=
1026.606, p <0.001; CFI =0.963; PNFI =0.794; RMSEA =0.028 (90%
CI: 0.024, 0.031); SRMR =0.044. No ably, his model explained men al
heal h (R
2
=34%) and sleep p oblems (R
2
=30%) o a highe deg ee.
The ole o coping in his model did no di e and i was s ill associa ed
wi h mo e men al heal h and sleep p oblems (see Supplemen a y
Fig. S3).
4. Discussion
4.1. Gene al o e iew o esul s
This s udy in es iga ed pa hways linking physical neighbo hood
cha ac e is ics, coping wi h noise, and amily clima e o men al heal h
and sleep p oblems in schoolchild en. Good amily ela ions we e
obus ly associa ed wi h less p oblems, and he opposi e was obse ed
wi h highe le els o a ic emissions and g eyspace o no ha ing access
o a ga den a home. Unlike amily ela ions, he physical en i onmen
wo ked only indi ec ly h ough a sequence o p ocesses in ol ing pe -
cep ions o neighbo hood quali y, a ic sa e y, and sel - egula ion and
coping wi h noise.
Th oughou childhood, suppo i e and cohesi e amily ela ionships
a e c ucial o no mal neu ode elopmen (Bush e al., 2020). The p o-
nounced ole o he amily-le el ac o in ou s udy is aligned wi h a
la ge body o e idence. We obse ed be e sel - egula ion, lowe coping
e o s, and be e men al heal h when child en had mo e posi i e in-
e ac ions wi h hei pa en s. I is well accep ed ha pa en al suppo
helps child en de elop e ec i e s a egies o egula ing hei beha io
and emo ional esponses o en i onmen al challenges and daily hassles
(Mo is e al., 2007). Addi ionally, he sense o secu i y and s abili y a
home suppo s sleep heal h (Tsai e al., 2018; Co ing on e al., 2021).
Con e sely, p io e idence shows ha child en li ing in dys unc ional
amilies, exposed o chao ic li ing condi ions, abuse, o neglec a e a
highe isk o de eloping psychopa hology such as anxie y and beha -
io al p oblems (Basu and Bane jee, 2020). In pa , his is explained by
he impac o ch onic s ess on he de eloping b ain caused by such
amily condi ions (Bush e al., 2020); he esul ing ch onic dis up ion o
sleep pa e ns u he in ensi ies he nega i e e ec on child men al
heal h (Tsai e al., 2018; Co ing on e al., 2021). Func ional al e a ions
in he p e on al co ex, which exe s op-down con ol o e subco ical
egions (Dixon e al., 2017; F iedman and Robbins, 2022) in ol ed in
adap a ion o si ua ional demands, can ad e sely a ec he abili y o
child en o ac i ely deal wi h s ess ul si ua ions in ways ha con ibu e
o pe sonal g ow h and adap a ion a he han ein o cing s ess
esponse (Zalewski e al., 2011).
The e is g owing app ecia ion ha social in luences do no ac in
Fig. 3. Pa h diag am showing p ominen pa hways linking he neighbo hood en i onmen o child en’s sleep and men al heal h p oblems in he s uc u al equa ion
model (N =1190). No e. Pa h coe icien s shown a e s a is ically signi ican a p <0.05; Pe cen age alues indica e he a iance explained in he espec i e a iable.
Con ol a iables, indica o s o la en a iables, and pa hways om con ol a iables and hose associa ed wi h non-signi ican coe icien s a e no shown o enhance
cla i y. The ull pa h diag am wi h s uc u al and measu emen ela ionships a e epo ed in Supplemen a y Fig. S1.
Table 3
Es ima ed pa hways om he s uc u al equa ion model linking he neighbo -
hood en i onmen o child en’s sleep and men al heal h p oblems.
Pa h Es ima e P 95% CI
Lowe
bound
Uppe
bound
To al indi ec e ec s
Buil en i onmen → Men al
heal h p oblems
0.107 0.000 0.062 0.153
Ga den → Men al heal h
p oblems
−0.013 0.073 −0.027 0.001
Good amily ela ions → Men al
heal h p oblems
¡0.028 0.002 ¡0.046 ¡0.01
Buil en i onmen → Sleep
p oblems
0.093 0.000 0.05 0.136
Ga den → Sleep p oblems −0.004 0.593 −0.017 0.01
Good amily ela ions → Sleep
p oblems
¡0.018 0.042 ¡0.036 ¡0.001
To al e ec s
Buil en i onmen → Men al
heal h p oblems
0.033 0.42 −0.047 0.112
Ga den → Men al heal h
p oblems
¡0.045 0.049 ¡0.089 0.000
Good amily ela ions → Men al
heal h p oblems
¡0.149 0.000 ¡0.221 ¡0.078
Buil en i onmen → Sleep
p oblems
0.114 0.003 0.04 0.188
Ga den → Sleep p oblems ¡0.047 0.045 ¡0.093 ¡0.001
Good amily ela ions → Sleep
p oblems
¡0.106 0.003 ¡0.177 ¡0.035
P. Le che e al.
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
6
isola ion in shaping child neu ode elopmen and ha e o be s udied
wi hin he physical en i onmen in which hey a e embedded (Ch is ian
e al., 2015; Gudi-Minde mann e al., 2023). Fo example, p oximal
child en i onmen ac o s like secondhand smoke (Oloye and Flou i,
2021) ha e been ound o nega i ely a ec b ain de elopmen , and as a
child g ows olde , he ex ended neighbo hood en i onmen s a s o
impac neu ode elopmen mo e s ongly. Physical exposu es like noise
(Za e Sakh idi e al., 2018) and ai pollu ion (Cas agna e al., 2022)
igge physiological s ess esponses, which i hey become ch onic, can
al e neu al de elopmen and neu o ansmi e signaling, he eby
unde mining he subs a e o no mal cogni i e p ocesses in ol ed in
emo ion egula ion and coping beha io s needed o bu e o he
s esso s. Nigh ime noise can also educe sleep quali y and h ough ha
lead o men al heal h p oblems (Tiesle e al., 2013). In ou s udy, he e
we e only indi ec pa hways om he buil en i onmen o men al
heal h/sleep p oblems and hose wen h ough pe cep ions o low
en i onmen al quali y and sa e y. Addi ionally, sel - egula ion was
wo se in highly exposed child en, which in u n also led o men al
heal h/sleep p oblems. Beyond di ec physiological e ec s, buil en i-
onmen s esso s may wo k hough beha io modi ica ion, which in
pa may explain hese obse ed e ec s. T a ic sa e y in pa icula is an
impo an de e minan o child ac i e a el beha io (Aa s e al., 2012;
Amiou e al., 2022). A a ic-domina ed neighbo hood is seen as less
conduci e o ou doo play and social in e ac ion wi h o he people, and
ins ead may inc ease he ime child en spend in seden a y ac i i ies
(Aa s e al., 2012). Thus, child en a e no only dep i ed o he me a-
bolic bene i s o physical ac i i y bu hey expe ience educed senso y,
cogni i e, and emo ional s imula ion, which a e impo an inpu s o
cogni i e pe o mance and men al heal h (c . Dzhambo e al., 2023).
This is especially ue when he neighbo hood is pe cei ed as unsa e
(Mayne e al., 2021). Diminished eelings o neighbo hood sa e y can
also induce sus ained a ousal, and he eby nega i ely in luence sleep
quali y (Ca son and Janssen, 2012; Bagley e al., 2016; Chapa o e al.,
2019; Mayne e al., 2021). Ou indings suppo ed he impo an ole o
sa e y, which is one o he mos consis en ly s udied neighbo hood
co ela es o child men al heal h and sleep (Mayne e al., 2021).
As a posi i e en i onmen al ea u e, accessible g eenspace may
ac i a e he same pa hways ha p esence o a ic dis up s. G eene
su oundings os e ec ea ional physical ac i i y in child en, c ea e
oppo uni ies o mee and socialize wi h o he s, and dampen s ess le els
(Sp ague e al., 2022; Za e Sakh idi e al., 2023). A he same ime,
es o a ion ollowing a en ional a igue is acili a ed by spending ime
in g een a eas such as home ga dens, whe e he a iguing challenges o
daily li e a e absen and one’s a en ion is e o lessly d awn o o he
pleasan aspec s o he su oundings (S e enson e al., 2019; Dzhambo
e al., 2022). In ea lie s udies using he same sample, we ound ha
ha ing a home ga den was associa ed wi h less school beha io p ob-
lems (Dzhambo e al., 2022) and be e sleep (Dzhambo e al., 2024).
He e, we ex ended ha model o encompass sel - egula o y and coping
pa hways o men al heal h and sleep. Home ga dens we e o e all
associa ed wi h mo e a o able men al heal h and sleep ou comes
h ough pe cep ions o highe neighbo hood quali y, and lowe coping
wi h noise. This inding is in line wi h sys ema ic e iews on his subjec
co e ing s udies ac oss di e en con ex s (Luque-Ga cía e al., 2022;
Za e Sakh idi e al., 2022). Men al heal h bene i s o child en li ing in
g eene a eas can o some ex en be a ibu ed o be e emo ion and
beha io egula ion (Vi ale and Bonaiu o, 2024; B a man e al., 2024).
Neu oimaging s udies ha e also in e ed a posi i e e ec o g eenspace
exposu e on neu oana omical s uc u es unde pinning sel - egula ion
(Dad and e al., 2018; Kühn e al., 2023). Howe e , we a e unawa e
o a p e ious s udy in child en ha has s udied he media ing ole o
sel - egula ion in he la ge con ex o mul iple physical and amily-le el
exposu es.
Ou s udy e ealed ha among he cons uc s conside ed, coping
was an in e media y a iable connec ing bo h physical and amily en-
i onmen s o men al heal h and sleep. The ole o coping howe e calls
o a judicious in e p e a ion. In ui i ely, one may assume ha highe
le els o coping would be p o ec i e and ha coping would show simila
pa e ns o associa ions wi h he o he cons uc s as sel - egula ion.
Con a y o his expec a ion, ha ing o cope wi h noise led o wo se
men al heal h and sleep. Tha is no a all unlikely since coping is a
complex mul i ace ed cons uc , whe e di e en coping s yles may ac in
di e en di ec ions wi h espec o men al heal h (Zalewski e al., 2011).
Empi ical co ela ions be ween he se en coping i ems in ou da ase
suppo ed a one- ac o s uc u e, bu since hey e e ed o a e y spe-
ci ic s esso (i.e., noise), he e is no basis o compa ison in he li e a-
u e. Acco ding o esea ch on mo e gene ally de ined coping s a egies,
hey can be o ien ed owa ds p oblem sol ing, emo ion modula ion,
cogni i e es uc u ing and eapp aisal, p oblem a oidance e c., hough
hese a e no o hogonal and pa ly o e lap (c . Holen e al., 2012). O
hose, disengagemen , emo ional supp ession, denial, and a oidance a e
seen as maladap i e, while p oblem- ocused ac i e engagemen wi h he
s esso is associa ed wi h be e men al heal h (Compas e al., 2017). In
ou case, he coping i ems we e wo ded so ha hey cap u ed e o s o
educe noise le els, ange owa ds he noise, and ying o adap he
pe o mance o he ask o inc ease e iciency despi e he pe sis ing
noise. One could a gue, he posi i e co ela ion be ween coping and
poo men al heal h and sleep may in pa be due o he coping cons uc
me ely cap u ing noise exposu e. Howe e , he co ela ion o o e all
noise annoyance wi h coping in he da ase was no ha high ( =0.48)
and weake wi h annoyances du ing speci ic ac i i ies ( =0.11 o 0.31),
and he associa ions be ween coping and men al heal h and sleep
p oblems pe sis ed e en a e we excluded child en who epo ed no
noise exposu e. I should also be no ed ha ou measu e o coping
ep esen ed he equency o s a egies employed o cope wi h noise
a he han he e iciency o hose coping e o s. Ano he plausible
explana ion o he posi i e associa ions be ween coping and men al
heal h/sleep p oblems is ha child en epo ing mo e e o s o cope
wi h noise we e hose who we e easily dis ac ed by i in he i s place.
Thus, coping e o s may ha e e lec ed men al ill heal h o bo h may
ha e been caused by some unmeasu ed neu ode elopmen isk ac o
(c . Compas e al., 2017). I is well known ha unsuccess ul coping wi h
ch onic s ess om noise o o he en i onmen al o social h ea s could
bo h s ain psycho-biological esponse sys ems and unde mine
sel - egula o y capaci ies (Mu a en and Baumeis e , 2000; E ans and
Kim, 2013). In B on enb enne ’s ecological sys em model, he in e ac-
ion be ween child en and hei en i onmen can shape he de elopmen
o sel - egula ion (B on enb enne and E ans, 2000; Bagais and Pa i,
2023), and pe cei ed loss o con ol in coping wi h he noise en i on-
men can impai mo i a ion (E ans e al., 1995; Le che , 2003; E ans
and S ecke , 2004; Le che e al., 2013), ollowed by lea ned helpless-
ness (Dohmen e al., 2022) and e en ually end up in men al heal h
p oblems. These in e p e a ions o e in iguing hypo heses o u u e
esea ch, bu i was no possible o add ess hem he e wi h he da a we
had.
We ha e p e iously a gued ha a holis ic unde s anding o alpine
child en’s physical en i onmen is needed o in o m land use changes
ha will maximize heal h bene i s in his a ea whe e bo h a ic
s esso s and na u al g eenspace le els a e high (Le che e al., 2000;
Le che , 2003; Dzhambo e al., 2022, 2023). The p esen s udy u he
suppo s his p oposi ion. Howe e , indings show ha i is necessa y o
expand his idea o encompass ela ional dynamics in he amily since
posi i e pa en -child in e ac ion can con ibu e o mechanisms leading
o be e sleep and men al heal h beyond en i onmen al in luences (c .
Gudi-Minde mann e al., 2023). Resul s a e also sugges i e ha coping
s a egies employed by child en agains dis u bing noise may no be
e ec i e in e ms o heal h and need o be ailo ed o he speci ic ci -
cums ances conside ing he child’s de elopmen al s age (c . Pe sson
Waye e al., 2023) and i s speci ic home en i onmen . Tha is, coping
e iciency in child en is es ic ed due he limi a ions hey ha e
(And inga and Lanse , 2013; E ans and Kim, 2013; Compas e al., 2017).
The e o e, i is no su p ising ha he esul s o coping e iciency wi h
P. Le che e al.
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
7
noise in child en di e om hose in adul s (Le che , 1998; Bo eldoo en
and Le che , 2004; Hahad e al., 2024). Un o una ely, no compa able
s udies a e a ailable in child en. School-based in e en ions and in e -
en ion campaigns could each child en o app aise a ic noise in an
adap i e way, ecognize en i onmen al h ea s o hei heal h be e ,
and de elop adap i e esponses wi hin a ious micoen i onmen s.
Ne e heless, we ecognize ha his idea is a he gene ic and equi es
mo e ocused e o s o be implemen ed.
Fu he , amily ela ions may no ac as an exogenous ac o ha
independen ly a ec s model ou comes. Ra he , i is possible ha he
en i onmen al con ex in which a amily is embedded ac s as a o ma i e
in luence on he pa en -child ela ionship. In ligh o he Rela ional
es o a ion heo y pu o h by Ha ig (2021), a amily wi h access o a
ga den o o he nea by g een a eas, whe e hey like o spen ime, may
mo e easily eplenish ela ional esou ces ha become deple ed in hei
daily li es. The e ha e been no such s udies in child en bu a ecen
mul i-coun y s udy ound ha adul s isi ing g eenspace had be e
men al heal h ia ela ionship and communi y sa is ac ion (Pasanen
e al., 2023). I is wo h explo ing how g eenspace and he buil en i-
onmen can d i e no only indi idual child beha io bu also collec i e
decisions ha a amily makes o spen ime oge he ou doo s, enjoy
hemsel es, and o e come daily us a ions and ou ines in he p ox-
imal home en i onmen .
4.2. S eng hs and limi a ions
We ad ise cau ion when d awing di ec conclusions om ou ind-
ings as hey a e based on c oss-sec ional da a ha p e en s causal
in e p e a ion. I is possible ha he imposed concep ual di ec ion o
some pa hways in ou model igno es bidi ec ional p ocesses ha
dynamically shape each o he o e ime, such as he associa ion be ween
men al heal h/sleep and sel - egula ion, o en i onmen al pe cep ions.
Fu he , we only measu ed coping wi h a scale cons uc ed ad hoc,
which in spi e o i s high in e nal consis ency and cons uc alidi y may
no dis inguish be ween di e en coping s yles in a way ha would
allow disen angling hei di e en ial oles in men al heal h. Mo eo e ,
he coping i ems we e e y speci ic and no only e e ed o in e e ence
by noise bu speci ically du ing homewo k ac i i ies. S ill, as o he s ha e
sugges ed, coping du ing a speci ic ac i i y can be e lec i e o he
gene al pa e ns o coping s a egies ha a child employs when aced
wi h a s esso (c . Donaldson e al., 2000; Holen e al., 2012). The same
can be a gued abou ou measu e o sel - egula ion, which was
eache - a ed and e e ed o class oom pe o mance. Sleep quali y was
also measu ed wi h ad hoc i ems ha we belie e ha e adequa ely
cap u ed he co e aspec s o insomnia co e ed in sel - epo ed sleep
quali y ques ionnai es (Fabb i e al., 2021).
Nex , we lacked in o ma ion on pe sonal exposu e o he buil and
na u al en i onmen ac o s and ins ead elied on s a ic exposu e
assessmen a he esiden ial add ess. In ou main analysis, we also
delibe a ely ocused on only one g eenspace indica o , p esence o a
home ga den, since o he sa elli e o land use-based measu es end o be
highly co ela ed wi h soil sealing, which we al eady had as a buil
en i onmen indica o . Mo eo e , in an ea lie s udy we ha e ound ha
home ga dens we e ele an o beha io al p oblems o child en in he
sample (Dzhambo e al., 2022). He e, NDVI was indi ec ly associa ed
wi h men al heal h and sleep, bu o al e ec s wi h NDVI we e no
suppo ed. This leads us o sugges ha home ga dens may be mo e
suppo i e o he s udied ou comes han o e all ege a ion co e nea
he home, hough ou dicho omous a iable igno ed ea u es such as
size, quali y, and ac ual use. Impo an ly, in he s udy a ea, which is
p edominan ly u al, ha ing a domes ic ga den is no s ongly associ-
a ed wi h a amily’s socioeconomic s a us (Dzhambo e al., 2022). We
lacked con ol o addi ional socioeconomic indica o s beyond ma e nal
educa ion.
We did no obse e di ec associa ions be ween noise/ai pollu ion
and sleep dis u bance. This may be due o lack o su icien exposu e
con as o de ec an e ec o ai pollu ion, as well as o classic acous ic
indica o s no being sensi i e enough o disce n di ec e ec s on child
sleep.
Ou model included only home-based buil en i onmen indica o s,
and he school con ex was no conside ed. Since mos o he cons uc s
we e ancho ed o he home en i onmen (coping, sleep, amily e-
la ions), and gi en he gene al p oximi y o child en’s homes o hei
school in he a ea, we do no see his a majo limi a ion.
Finally, he in e nal consis ency o some mul i a ia e scales was
subop imal. We ne e heless combined hem in o summa y sco es as we
deemed he cons i uen i ems o heo e ically belong oge he . This was
suppo ed by analysis o he ac o s uc u e o hose scales and he
espec i e measu emen models in he SEM.
Limi a ions no wi hs anding, we belie e ha his s udy ad ances he
ield by b inging in bo h amily and a ea-le el exposu es, p o iding an
expanded exposome pe spec i e on child en’s men al heal h and sleep
quali y. F om an ope a ional pe spec i e, we educed common me hod
bias o he cons uc s included in ou SEM: physical ac o s we e
objec i ely measu ed, en i onmen al pe cep ions and ou comes we e
child- epo ed, pa en s epo ed on amily ela ionships, and eache s on
child sel - egula ion. Though he implica ions o such di e en epo ing
sou ces in his s udy a e no en i ely clea , we belie e ha he bias
would be nondi e en ial.
Wi h addi ional e idence pooled ac oss di e en geog aphies ha is
expec ed om he Equal-Li e p ojec ( an Kamp e al., 2021), upcoming
analyses will inc ease s a is ical powe in mo e geospa ially he e oge-
neous samples adding o ou unde s anding o he associa ion be ween
he s udied cons uc s.
5. Conclusions
This s udy ound ha good amily ela ions we e obus ly associa ed
wi h less heal h p oblems, and he opposi e was obse ed wi h highe
le els o a ic emissions and g eyspace o no ha ing access o a ga den
a home. Unlike amily ela ions, he physical en i onmen wo ked only
indi ec ly h ough a sequence o p ocesses in ol ing pe cep ions o
neighbo hood quali y, a ic sa e y, and sel - egula ion and he equi ed
amoun o coping wi h noise in e e ence du ing homewo k. Good
amily ela ions, good neighbo hood quali y, and close-by g een space
(home ga dens) may be ac o s o alle ia e noise bu den. The nega i e
associa ion o equi ed coping wi h noise du ing homewo k sugges s
ha child en, in con as o adul s, may be limi ed in hei coping
abili ies. Ou indings call o u he inqui ies, as child en and hei
en i onmen s may a y wi h espec o coping e iciency.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Pe e Le che : W i ing – o iginal d a , P ojec adminis a ion,
Me hodology, In es iga ion, Funding acquisi ion, Fo mal analysis, Da a
cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. Angel M. Dzhambo : W i ing – o iginal
d a , Me hodology, In es iga ion, Fo mal analysis, Da a cu a ion,
Concep ualiza ion. Ke s in Pe sson Waye: W i ing – e iew & edi ing,
Me hodology, In es iga ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen s
We wan o hank he inhabi an s o he Lowe Inn and Wipp alleys.
Ou hanks also go o he Aus ian Minis y o Science and T ans-
po a ion o unding he amewo k o he En i onmen al Heal h
Impac Assessmen (EHIA), he go e nmen o he Ty ol egion o
P. Le che e al.
En i onmen al Resea ch 264 (2025) 120414
8
p o iding GIS da a and in o ma ional suppo om he BEG (B enne
Eisenbahn Gesellscha ). The BBT su ey go suppo om he BBT
company wi hin a legally equi ed EHIA h ough EU-suppo . The noise
mapping was done by Ghen Uni e si y, and he ai pollu ion assessmen
by an I alian-Aus ian conso ium. We also hank he la ge EHIA- eams
in bo h s udies who did he ieldwo k. Finally, we hank Iana Ma ke ych
and Ma hew B owning o calcula ing he no malized di e ence ege-
a ion index and o he geog aphic a iables.
This esea ch was pa ly unded by he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon
2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og am unde g an ag eemen No
874724 (Equal-Li e). Equal-Li e is pa o he Eu opean Human Expo-
some Ne wo k.
Appendix A. Supplemen a y da a
Supplemen a y da a o his a icle can be ound online a h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.en es.2024.120414.
Da a a ailabili y
The au ho s do no ha e pe mission o sha e da a.
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