In e na ional Jou nal o Inno a i e In en ions in Social Science and Humani ies
ISSN(p in ): 3050-6921, ISSN(online): 3050-693X
Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025
DOI: 10.58806/ijiissh.2025. 2i10n04
Page No: 248-259
248 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he
Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s among Young Ma akwe People
D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
Depa men o Teache Managemen and Educa ional Assessmen and Resou ce Cen e in Uasin Gishu Coun y, Eldo e Kenya
ABSTRACT
ARTICLE DETAILS
In ans e se backg ounds, especially whe e legal plu alism and deep- oo ed cus oma y p ac ices
coexis , young peoples’ knowledge o ma i al en i lemen s is shaped by local i es and kinship no ms
and s a u o y laws. This s udy was conduc ed o in es iga e young Ma akwe peoples’ unde s anding
o ma iage igh s. I has he e o e, examined how gende , age-g oup and educa ional le el
a ainmen can shape ha knowledge. The s udy so o espond o he esea ch ques ion ha wan ed
o es ablish he ela ionship be ween a young Ma akwe pe son’s le el o unde s anding o Ma akwe
ma iage igh s and he ollowing social cha ac e is ics gende , age g oup and le el o educa ion.
Albe Bandu a’s Social Lea ning Theo y (1977) was used o guide he s udy. The s udy a ge ed 300
pa icipan s om Ma akwe communi y. A mul i-s age andom sampling echnique was used o
iden i y he 90 esponden s om h ee Ma akwe Sub-Coun ies comple ed he ins umen . C oss
sec ional su ey design was used in he s udy. Desc ip i e–analy ical c oss-sec ional su ey ha used
a 20-i em You h Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s Achie emen Tes was used o collec da a
(MRAT). A mul i-s age andom sample o 90 esponden s comple ed he ins umen s. The analyses
showed a mode a e o e all le el o unde s anding (58.6%) wi h s ong cul u al up ake o ma iage
pu pose (94.7%).I also e ealed a weak awa eness o s a u o y p o ec ions and cons i u ional legal
awa eness (25.3%). In e en ial es s con i med signi ican demog aphic dispa i ies wi h males
(13.04) ou pe o ming emales (10.21). The s udy indings e ealed you hs’ mode a e unde s anding,
s ong cul u al pu poses and weak unde s anding on s a u o y p o ec ions and p ohibi ions. This is
signi ican ly pa e ned by gende , age and educa ion whe e males and olde people showing highe
awa eness. The s udy ecommends school-based cul u ally sensi i e igh s educa ion and communi y
ou each o all young people o be conduc ed. I also ecommends engaging he local leade ships o
suppo ia a ailing legal se ices ha p omo e you h capaci y building on ma i al igh s educa ion.
KEYWORDS: Unde s anding, Ma iage Righ s, Ma akwe You h, Legal Li e acy, Cul u al No ms,
S a u o y P o ec ions
Published On:
10 Oc obe 2025
A ailable on:
h ps://ijiissh.com/
INTRODUCTION
Mos socie ies wo ld o e ha e ins i u ionalized ma iages and childbea ing as essen ial collec i e p ocesses. This is because
ma iage appea s nea ly uni e sal. Despi e his, ma iage o ms, ce emonies, eligibili y ules, expec a ions, and igh s associa ed
wi h ma i al unions a y widely ac oss cul u es and his o ical pe iods (Hewi & Chu chill, 2020). Va ia ions include who may
ma y whom, whe he polygyny o monogamy is sanc ioned, he ce emonial s eps ha con e ma i al s a us, he economic
ansac ions ha accompany unions, and he size and composi ion o pos -ma i al households. These cul u al di e ences shape no
only how ma iages a e o ganized bu also how young people lea n wha ma iage means and which en i lemen s o du ies a ach
o spouses (Kidman e al., 2024). This s udy si ua es i sel wi hin hose compa a i e insigh s while ocusing on a speci ic,
unde s udied cul u al se ing: he Ma akwe communi y in Elgeyo-Ma akwe Coun y, Kenya.
Fo he pu poses o his esea ch, ma iage is de ined as a socially o legally ecognized conjugal union be ween wo pe sons o
opposi e sex who, ha ing comple ed he ele an cus oma y i es o s a u o y p ocedu es, en e in o a las ing pa ne ship
cha ac e ized by mu ual obliga ions, social ecogni ion, and o en he expec a ion o p oc ea ion (Hen ickson e al., 2020). This
wo king de ini ion delibe a ely acknowledges he legal plu alism ha s uc u es con empo a y Kenyan ma i al li e: s a u o y
ma iages, eligious ma iages, and cus oma y ma iages coexis and a e ecognized unde law, e en as cus oma y p o ocols
con inue o shape e e yday p ac ice and local unde s andings o ma i al igh s and du ies (Me oka-Mu ua, 2024).
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
249 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
Ma iage igh s encompass a b oad bundle o legal and social en i lemen s. On he legal side, igh s include ee and in o med
consen o ma y, a cons i u ionally p o ec ed minimum ma iage age, igh s o p ope y and inhe i ance, en i lemen s o
main enance and cus ody, and p o ec ions agains ha m ul p ac ices ha comp omise bodily in eg i y o agency (Mu hii &
Associa es, 2025). On he cus oma y and social side, ma iage igh s may in ol e he igh o ecei e o pay b ide weal h, i ual
p i ileges, au ho i y o e household decision-making, public s a us, and communi y-based expec a ions abou gende ed oles
(Aku ugu, De y, & Domanban, 2022). Unde s anding ma iage igh s he e o e equi es a en ion o bo h s a u o y ex s and he
cul u al epe oi es h ough which young people come o know and expec pa icula ma i al en i lemen s.
Kenya’s ecen demog aphic da a highligh why such a en ion is u gen . The 2022 Kenya Demog aphic and Heal h Su ey
epo s ha a subs an ial mino i y o gi ls con inue o en e unions be o e he age o eigh een, and ha signi ican egional and
u al-u ban dispa i ies pe sis in he p e alence o ea ly ma iage (Kenya Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics & ICF, 2023).
Complemen a y coun y-le el analyses show ha child ma iage and ea ly unions a e concen a ed in pa icula coun ies and
co ela e wi h po e y, school d opou , and limi ed access o se ices (UNFPA ESARO & Equali y Now, 2023). These s a is ics
demons a e ha s a u o y minimums exis bu ha many young people li e in social en i onmen s whe e he legal baseline is
insu icien o p e en ea ly o coe ced unions.
Ha m ul i es ha in e sec wi h ma i al eligibili y such as emale geni al mu ila ion o cu ing con inue o in luence
ma iageabili y in se e al Kenyan locali ies. Na ional and in e na ional epo ing e eals bo h p og ess and pe sis en challenges:
while o e all na ional p e alence has declined in some su eys, pocke s o pe sis en p ac ice emain and new pa e ns, such as
clandes ine cu ing a younge ages, complica e p e en ion (Mohamud, Qu eshi, de Wild , & Jones, 2021). Focused empi ical
wo k in Elgeyo- Ma akwe and neighbou ing coun ies documen s how ini ia ion i es, al e na i e i es o passage, communi y
a i udes, and in e gene a ional nego ia ion shape whe he and how young people a e ma ked as eady o ma iage (Chepchi chi
& Kagoiya, 2024).
Socializa ion p ocesses ca y pa icula weigh in p oducing ma iage- ela ed knowledge. Family con e sa ions, ini ia ion
seclusions, school cu icula, eligious ins uc ion, pee ne wo ks, and local leade s all con ibu e o a young pe son’s legal and
cul u al li e acy abou ma iage. These socializing ins i u ions do no ope a e uni o mly ac oss all you h: di e ences in gende ed
expec a ions, coho expe iences, and educa ional exposu e c ea e di e gen ajec o ies o igh s awa eness (Ka kashadze,
Kup ash ili, & Gugeshash ili, 2023). Consequen ly, he same s a u o y ex can be in e p e ed e y di e en ly wi hin a single
communi y depending on whe he a young pe son is male o emale, an adolescen o a young adul , o has comple ed seconda y
o e ia y educa ion (Nilsen e al., 2020).
Gende shapes bo h he con en and consequences o ma iage igh s. In many cus oma y con ex s, including among Kalenjin sub-
g oups o which he Ma akwe belong, ma i al a angemen s his o ically channel public au ho i y and economic con ol h ough
men and pa ilineal kin. Polygyny, b ide weal h, and male p e oga i es o e household decision-making ha e s uc u ed gende ed
expec a ions abou au ho i y, lineage, and esou ce dis ibu ion (Julius, 2025). Women’s igh s o land, inhe i ance, and
decision-making ha e o en been cons ained by hose cus oma y no ms, e en as s a u o y e o ms aim o secu e gende equali y.
Local na a i es and o al his o ies om Ma akwe elde s and women’s g oups a es o longs anding ensions o e women’s
access o p ope y and ecogni ion in ma iage, and o e o s by ci il socie y and local ac i is s o expand women’s legal
consciousness and ba gaining powe (Tanui, 2024).
Age coho ma e s because li e-cou se ansi ions al e exposu e o di e en no ma i e egimes. Younge adolescen s a e
ypically mo e embedded wi hin pa en al au ho i y and ini ia ion con ex s ha p io i ize compliance and communal no ms. Olde
you h and young adul s, especially hose who mig a e o educa ion o wo k o u ban cen es a e mo e equen ly exposed o
s a u o y messaging, igh s-based NGOs and di e se gende models which can os e al e na i e expec a ions abou ma iage
iming, consen and spousal en i lemen s (Po ey e al., 2022). Educa ion ampli ies hese coho e ec s. Schooling no only delays
ma iage by ex ending he ime you h spend in o mal lea ning en i onmen s, bu also ansmi s ci ic and legal knowledge ha
can inc ease awa eness o s a u o y p o ec ions and con es a ion s a egies (Fi ia e al., 2024).
Legal plu alism complica es he en o cemen and in e naliza ion o ma iage igh s. The Ma iage Ac and subsidia y ules
ecognize cus oma y ma iages and equi e no i ica ion o he Regis a o secu e o mal p o ec ions, ye egis a ion is une en and
many cus oma y unions emain ecognized p ima ily h ough local i ual leade s and kinship ne wo ks (Njaga & Co. Ad oca es,
2024). This gap means ha young people may pa icipa e in cus oma y ma iages ha empowe ce ain igh s locally while
lea ing hem ulne able in s a u o y e ms, pa icula ly ega ding inhe i ance, egis a ion, and o mally adminis e ed emedies in
cases o abuse o dissolu ion.
Compa a i e e hnog aphic wo k o e s use ul pe spec i e on he malleabili y o ma iage o ms and he social cons uc ion o
ma i al en i lemen s. An h opologis s ha e documen ed ial ma iages, in o mal cohabi a ion pa e ns, and a iable ce emonial
p ac ices ac oss he globe, all o which sugges ha local p ac ice o en ou paces o di e ges om o mal law and ha communi y
na a i es de e mine which igh s a e socially salien . These c oss-cul u al compa isons ein o ce he impo ance o si ua ing legal
e o ms wi hin b oade social-cul u al dialogues and o a ending o how young people lea n he no ms ha go e n ma i al li e
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
250 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
(Nilsen e al., 2020). In he Ma akwe case, speci ically on he en anglemen o ini ia ion i es, b ide weal h exchanges, gende ed
hie a chies, and e ol ing s a u o y egimes c ea es a dis inc i e landscape in which young people mus nego ia e compe ing
claims abou en i lemen and du y. O al his o ies and ecen communi y-le el esea ch indica e ha ini ia ion and ma iageabili y
emain po en ma ke s o adul s a us, e en as some you h and households adop al e na i e i es o delay ma iage in a ou o
educa ion and economic s abili y (Tanui, 2024).
Con empo a y policy shi s in Kenya unde sco e he legal salience o ma iage igh s while e ealing gaps be ween law and
p ac ice. The Ma iage Ac consolida es ma iage law and s ipula es p ocedu al s eps o no i ica ion o cus oma y ma iages,
in ending o secu e legal ecogni ion and a endan igh s such as inhe i ance and p ope y di ision; sec ion 44, o ins ance,
manda es no i ica ion o cus oma y ma iages o he Regis a wi hin a p esc ibed pe iod (Njaga & Co. Ad oca es, 2024). Ye on
he g ound, egis a ion, awa eness, and en o cemen a e une en, and socioeconomic incen i es o en con inue o align wi h
ea lie cus oma y egimes a he han s a u o y expec a ions. This une enness unde lines why mapping knowledge and
pe cep ions a he communi y le el is essen ial.
Ma akwe ma i al cul u e has deep his o ical oo s ha in e ac wi h con empo a y socioeconomic p essu es in ways ha make he
s udy o igh s unde s anding bo h empi ically ich and p ac ically u gen . E hnog aphic accoun s and ecen communi y esea ch
documen ini ia ion i uals o boys and gi ls ha his o ically ma ked ansi ions o social adul hood and we e p e equisi es o
social ecogni ion as eligible spouses. Male ini ia ion i es in many Ma akwe lineages in ol ed p olonged seclusion, ins uc ion
in communal du ies, demons a ions o physical esilience, and public ein eg a ion i uals ha g an ed newly ini ia ed men social
s a us and au ho i y. Female i es, whe e i is p ac iced, we e o en sho e and mo e sec e i e, and in some locali ies in ol ed
p ac ices ha ha e been he objec o legal and human igh s con es a ion (Tanui, 2024). Local elde s and i ual cus odians
his o ically media ed ma i al exchanges, including b ide p ice nego ia ions and public ce emonies, he eby embedding ma iage
igh s wi hin kinship, obliga ions and ecip ocal obliga ions ac oss ex ended amilies. In his con ex , ma iage igh s we e no
abs ac legal claims bu li ed en i lemen s enac ed h ough i ual, exchange, and communal sanc ion. These cus oma y ma ices
did no , howe e , emain s a ic: colonial ule, missiona y in luence, and pos -independence legal e o ms econ igu ed which
p ac ices we e publicly condoned and how au ho i y o e ma i al ansac ions was exe cised (Ng’e ich, 2024).
Con empo a y Ma akwe households he e o e na iga e a laye ed au ho i y s uc u e in which s a u o y ins umen s, eligious
ins i u ions, na ional policy, and cus oma y leade s all claim ju isdic ion o e ma i al li e. This laye ed eali y helps o explain
why s a u o y p o ec ions, such as he legal minimum ma iage age and p ope y igh s, may be o mally a ailable bu p ac ically
di icul o access o ce ain you h, especially young women who may lack he social s anding o documen a ion o claim o mal
emedies (Njaga & Co. Ad oca es, 2024). Recen local s udies highligh how amilies some imes pe o m cus oma y ma iages
wi hou o mal no i ica ion o he Regis a , ei he because o lack o awa eness, adminis a i e ba ie s, o delibe a e choice o
p io i ize cus oma y legi imacy o e s a e ecogni ion (Aku ugu e al., 2022). A he same ime, in e en ion e o s by
go e nmen agencies, NGOs, and communi y ac i is s a e in oducing al e na i e i es o passage ha p ese e posi i e cul u al
elemen s while emo ing bodily ha m, and hese e o s a e accompanied by public educa ion campaigns ha aim o inc ease
awa eness o legal igh s and he bene i s o o mal egis a ion (Mohamud e al., 2021).
Ne e heless, change is une en. Some households ha e adop ed al e na i e i es and delay ma iage in a ou o schooling, while
o he s, pe sis wi h olde pa e ns because o economic incen i es ha a e ied o b ide p ice, social p essu e o main ain lineage
con inui y, o dis us o s a e ins i u ions (Kidman e al., 2024). Educa ion has eme ged epea edly in ieldwo k as a pi o al
media o . Acco ding o Fi ia e al., (2024), you hs and young adul s who ha e comple ed seconda y school educa ion o
accessed you h empowe men p og ammes, esea che s obse ed highe le els o awa eness abou s a u o y p o ec ions, a e mo e
skep icism owa d ha m ul i es, and g ea e p opensi y o nego ia e ma iage iming. In spi e o his, schooling alone does no
gua an ee igh s li e acy. Po ey e al., (2022) asse ed ha he con en and quali y o educa ion, he p esence o igh s-o ien ed
cu icula and he a ailabili y o suppo i e communi y ins i u ions, all shape whe he schooling ansla es in o ac ionable
knowledge ha young people can deploy in ma i al nego ia ions. Ahinko ah e al., (2024) had epo ed ha economic p eca i y
also condi ions choices. I is epo ed ha in households acing inancial s ess, ea ly ma iage and ini ia ion i es may be
pe cei ed as s a egies o educe he numbe o dependen s o o secu e b ide weal h ha can be edis ibu ed o suppo o he
amily needs.
Consequen ly, explaining a ia ion in igh s unde s anding and beha iou equi es in eg a ing legal analysis, demog aphic da a,
e hnog aphic insigh s, and a en ion o poli ical economy. Mapping hese dynamics among young Ma akwe people, disagg ega ed
by gende , age g oup, and educa ion le el, will unco e no only di e ences in abs ac knowledge bu also a ia ion in he
capaci y o exe cise igh s in p ac ice, he pe cei ed legi imacy o s a u o y p o ec ions, and he local ins i u ions ha can be
mobilized o s eng hen igh s adhe ence. By a ending o he pa icula i ies o Ma akwe social li e while si ua ing indings
wi hin na ional ends on child ma iage, FGM, and egis a ion gaps, he esea ch will make policy- ele an con ibu ions ha
espec cul u al nuance while ad ancing igh s and gende equi y.
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
251 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
S a emen o he P oblem
The Cons i u ion o Kenya 2010 ecognizes s a u o y and cus oma y ma iages and ixes he minimum ma iage age a 18 yea s
(Me oka-Mu ua, 2024; Njaga & Co. Ad oca es, 2024). The p ac ice in Elgeyo- Ma akwe Coun y, ells a di e en s o y. The 2022
Kenya Demog aphic and Heal h Su ey shows ha 15 pe cen o gi ls aged 15 o 19 yea s a e al eady ma ied o in a union
(KNBS & ICF, 2023). Local s udies link ini ia ion i es especially emale geni al cu ing, o highe ma iageabili y (Tanui, 2024).
Many cus oma y ma iages emain un egis e ed, lea ing women wi hou legal p o ec ion in inhe i ance, di o ce, o p ope y
dispu es (Njaga & Co. Ad oca es, 2024). This gap be ween law and p ac ice exposes young people o isks ha na ional policy
was mean o add ess.
Gende shapes who lea ns abou ma iage igh s and who makes decisions. In many Ma akwe households, men domina e ma i al
choices while women ace cul u al limi s on hei oice (Aku ugu e al., 2022; Julius, 2025). Resea ch shows ha young women in
mos u al a eas ha e lowe awa eness o igh s and ace g ea e exposu e o ha m ul p ac ices (Kidman e al., 2024). This
imbalance weakens women’s abili y o asse hei igh s in ma iage. Age adds ano he laye o inequali y. Adolescen s ace
p essu e o ma y ea ly when households ace inancial s ess (Ahinko ah e al., 2024; Kidman e al., 2024). Younge gi ls o en
en e ma iages whe e hey lack ba gaining powe , while olde you h ha e mo e space o esis o delay ma iage. These age-
ela ed p essu es shape no only when ma iage happens bu also how young people unde s and and ac on hei igh s. Educa ion
s ongly educes he isk o ea ly ma iage and imp o es legal awa eness. Each added yea in school inc eases p o ec ion (Fi ia e
al., 2024). Ye access o quali y educa ion is une en in u al Ma akwe . Righ s educa ion is weak o absen in many schools
(Po ey e al., 2022). You h who lea e school ea ly emain unin o med abou hei en i lemen s. The p o ec i e e ec o educa ion
is he e o e unde mined.
Despi e his b oad e idence om na ional su eys, he e is li le communi y-based da a on how gende , age and le el o educa ion
oge he shape he unde s anding o ma iage igh s among young Ma akwe people. P og amme designe s and policy make s lack
he local insigh needed o each he igh g oups wi h he igh messages. In e en ions isk a ge ing he w ong audiences o
using app oaches ha ail o shi beha iou s. This s udy has a emp ed o ill he gaps by examining he ela ionships be ween
gende , age g oup, and educa ion le el. I has looked a he in luences o hese social cha ac e is ics on he unde s anding o
ma iage igh s among young Ma akwe people. The indings will p o ide p ac ical e idence o guide p og ammes and policies
wi h he iew o ensu ing ha igh s awa eness imp o es. The indings also will app op ia ely in o m he young gene a ions, hus
lead o decline o ha m ul p ac ices, bu a ise in young people gaining s onge p o ec ion unde he law.
Resea ch Ques ions
The s udy was guided by he ollowing esea ch ques ion
Is he e a ela ionship be ween a young Ma akwe pe son’s le el o unde s anding o Ma akwe ma iage igh s and he ollowing
social cha ac e is ics, gende , age g oup and le el o educa ion?
Resea ch Hypo heses
The ollowing esea ch hypo heses we e es ed:
H1: The e is a ela ionship be ween a young Ma akwe ’s gende and hei le el o unde s anding o ma iage igh s.
H2: The e is a ela ionship be ween young people’s age g oup and hei le el o unde s anding o ma iage igh s.
H3: The e is a ela ionship be ween young Ma akwe people’s le el o educa ion and hei le el o unde s anding o
ma iage igh s.
RESEARCH STUDY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
The s udy used a c oss-sec ional su ey design. This design was chosen because i allowed he collec ion o da a om a la ge
sample o young people a a single poin in ime. I made i possible o compa e how gende , age g oup, and educa ion le el we e
linked o he unde s anding o ma iage igh s. The design was cos -e ec i e and p ac ical o co e ing he sca e ed u al
communi ies o Ma akwe .
Ta ge Popula ion
The a ge popula ion included all young Ma akwe people aged be ween 18 and 35 yea s li ing in Elgeyo-Ma akwe Coun y.
This g oup was selec ed because hey ep esen ed he age ange in which ma iage decisions and awa eness o igh s we e mos
ele an . Acco ding o coun y popula ion eco ds and na ional su ey da a, young people in his age b acke made up a signi ican
po ion o he local popula ion.
Sampling P ocedu e
A mul i-s age sampling echnique was applied. In he i s s age, wo sub-loca ions we e andomly selec ed om each o he
sampled loca ions in Ma akwe sub-coun y. In he second s age, h ee illages we e andomly selec ed om each chosen sub-
loca ion. In he hi d s age, i e young people we e selec ed a andom om each sampled illage. This p ocess p oduced a
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
252 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
ep esen a i e sample ac oss gende , age g oups, and educa ion le els. The app oach educed bias and ensu ed ha bo h emo e
and accessible illages we e included.
Sample Size
The inal sample size was 300 esponden s. This size was la ge enough o p o ide s a is ical powe o es ing ela ionships
be ween a iables while s ill manageable o da a collec ion. The size was de e mined using Coch an’s o mula o sample size
calcula ion, adjus ed o he you h popula ion in Ma akwe sub-coun y.
Resea ch Ins umen
Da a we e collec ed using he You h Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s Achie emen Tes . The ins umen con ained wen y
i ems, o ganized in o wo sec ions.
1. Ins uc ions sec ion: This p o ided esponden s wi h guidance on how o comple e he es .
2. I ems sec ion: This consis ed o hi een mul iple-choice ques ions and se en s uc u ed open- ended ques ions.
The mul iple-choice i ems assessed ac ual knowledge abou s a u o y ma iage igh s, cus oma y p ac ices, and legal p o ec ions.
The open-ended i ems assessed easoning, in e p e a ion, and applica ion o ma iage igh s in p ac ical scena ios.
The ins umen was de eloped a e a e iew o he Ma iage Ac , Kenya Cons i u ion, coun y epo s, and ele an esea ch
s udies. I was also alida ed by expe s in educa ion, law, and sociology o ensu e con en alidi y.
Reliabili y o he Ins umen
To de e mine eliabili y, he es was pilo ed wi h 30 young people om illages ou side he main s udy sample. The es - e es
echnique was used, wi h a wo-week in e al be ween he i s and second adminis a ion. Co ela ion coe icien s om he wo
adminis a ions we e compu ed. A eliabili y coe icien o 0.82 was ob ained, which indica ed ha he ins umen was consis en
and dependable.
Da a Collec ion P ocedu e
The esea che ob ained esea ch clea ance om he Na ional Commission o Science, Technology and Inno a ion (NACOSTI)
and pe mission om coun y au ho i ies. Resea ch assis an s luen in Ma akwe dialec s we e ec ui ed and ained. In o med
consen was ob ained om all esponden s be o e pa icipa ion. The es was adminis e ed in small g oups in schools, chu ches,
and communi y halls. Responden s who we e no li e a e ecei ed o al adminis a ion o he es wi h neu al ansla ion by ained
assis an s.
Da a Analysis
Da a we e coded and en e ed in o SPSS e sion 26 o analysis. Bo h desc ip i e and in e en ial s a is ics we e used.
1. Desc ip i e s a is ics: F equencies, pe cen ages, means, and s anda d de ia ions we e compu ed o summa ize le els o
unde s anding ac oss he sample.
2. In e en ial s a is ics:
a) - es o measu e he unde s anding o young people by gende
b) One-way ANOVA was used o es di e ences in unde s anding by age g oup and educa ion le el
c) Pos -hoc es s we e conduc ed whe e signi ican ANOVA esul s eme ged o iden i y which g oups di e ed.
Signi icance le els we e se a p < 0.05. Findings we e p esen ed in ables and cha s o cla i y.
E hical Conside a ions
The s udy upheld e hical s anda ds h oughou . Pa icipa ion was olun a y. Responden s ga e in o med consen be o e aking
pa . Anonymi y was main ained by using codes ins ead o names. Con iden iali y o esponses was gua an eed, and da a we e
s o ed secu ely. Sensi i e issues such as emale geni al cu ing we e handled wi h espec and cul u al sensi i i y. The s udy
ensu ed ha no esponden was exposed o ha m o idicule as a esul o pa icipa ion.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ex en o Unde s anding o Ma akwe Ma iage Righ s
Table 1. O e all Mean Unde s anding Sco e
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
S d. De ia ion
% Co ec Unde s anding
300
5
19
11.72
3.45
58.6
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
The desc ip i e esul s indica e ha young Ma akwe people exhibi only a mode a e unde s anding o ma iage igh s, as e lec ed
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
253 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
in he mean sco e o 11.72 ou o 20 (58.6%) wi h conside able a ia ion ac oss indi iduals (SD = 3.45). This ou come sugges s
ha while a sec ion o he you h a e ela i ely con e san wi h aspec s o ma iage igh s, a subs an ial p opo ion emain only
pa ially in o med, pa icula ly on s a u o y p o isions. The dominance o cul u al in e p e a ions o e legal amewo ks mi o s
ea lie indings in A ican con ex s whe e cus oma y no ms con inue o shape he concep ualiza ion o ma iage among you h
(Asan e, 2023). The pe sis ence o such knowledge gaps implies ha awa eness o cons i u ionally p o ec ed igh s, such as
p ope y owne ship, spousal equali y, and he p ohibi ion o child ma iage, emains limi ed.
Table 2. Ex en o Unde s anding by Ma iage Aspec
Ma iage Aspec
Co ec
Unde s anding ( )
Inco ec /Pa ial ( )
%Co ec
Unde s anding
Mean Sco e (ou
o 20)
Ma iage T u hs
(monogamy/polygamy)
98
202
32.7
6.3
Pu pose o Ma iage
265
35
88.3
15.1
Age a Ma iage (18 yea s s
ci cumcision)
112
188
37.3
7.4
Cus odians o Ma iage Righ s (elde s
s legal)
84
216
28.0
5.8
Righ s – Child en
158
142
52.7
10.5
Righ s – P ope y
124
176
41.3
8.2
Righ s – Secu i y
97
203
32.3
6.7
Ma iage Aspec
Co ec
Unde s anding ( )
Inco ec /Pa ial ( )
%Co ec
Unde s anding
Mean Sco e (ou
o 20)
Righ s – Companionship
149
151
49.7
10.1
Righ s – Recogni ion &
Regis a ion
105
195
35.0
7.0
Righ s – Ce emony
121
179
40.3
8.4
P ohibi ion: Child Ma iage
92
208
30.7
6.1
P ohibi ion: Close Rela i e
88
212
29.3
5.9
Cons i u ional/Legal Awa eness
76
224
25.3
5.0
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
Unde s anding o ma iage u hs, pa icula ly ega ding monogamy and polygamy, was no ably weak, wi h only 32.7% o
esponden s demons a ing co ec knowledge and a mean sco e o 6.3 ou o 20. This illus a es he endu ing cul u al salience o
polygyny in Ma akwe socie y, a p ac ice his o ically ied o weal h, kinship, and lineage con inui y. As Asan e (2023) obse es,
polygyny has been cen al o A ican socie ies o gene a ions, unc ioning as a mechanism o socio-economic s abili y and
alliance-building. The ac ha he majo i y o esponden s de i ed hei knowledge om cul u al adi ions a he han s a u o y
de ini ions unde Kenya’s Ma iage Ac o 2014, which places legal limi s on polygyny and emphasizes gende equi y, e lec s he
con inuing dominance o cul u al ela i ism. The low mean sco e in his domain he e o e signals he limi ed pene a ion o
s a u o y in e p e a ions o ma iage in o he cogni i e amewo ks o young Ma akwe , unde sco ing he gap be ween li ed
cul u al p ac ices and o mal legal s anda ds.
In con as , he pu pose o ma iage was o e whelmingly well unde s ood, wi h 88.3% o esponden s answe ing co ec ly and
achie ing a mean sco e o 15.1, he highes ac oss all ca ego ies. This ou come indica es ha cul u al eachings emain e ec i e in
ansmi ing ma iage as bo h a social and emo ional ins i u ion. Njogu, Njogu, Mu isya, and Luo (2022) a i m ha in Kenyan
con ex s, ma iage is s ongly de ined by childbea ing and amily con inui y, while Onkwani, Kakai, and Gimode (2023) desc ibe
ma iage as a cul u al ancho ein o cing belonging and iden i y. The excep ionally high mean sco e e lec s he cohe ence and
in e naliza ion o his knowledge, sugges ing ha when ma iage is concep ualized h ough cul u al ela i ism, unde s anding is
deep and consis en . This s ands in sha p con as o weake awa eness in legal and igh s-based dimensions, e ealing an
asymme y be ween he obus ness o cul u al na a i es and he agili y o s a u o y amewo ks.
Knowledge o he age a ma iage was mode a e, wi h only 37.3% o esponden s co ec ly iden i ying 18 yea s as he legal
h eshold and a mean sco e o 7.4. A signi ican p opo ion con inued o associa e ma i al eadiness wi h ci cumcision and
ini ia ion i es, illus a ing how cul u al cons uc s o adul hood o e ide s a u o y ma ke s. Human Righ s Wa ch (2020)
highligh s he pe sis ence o his con la ion, which legi imizes ea ly ma iages despi e legal p ohibi ions; while UNICEF (2023)
epo s ha child ma iage emains p e alen in Kenya. F om a cul u al ela i is s andpoin , ini ia ion i es con e social
Adul hood and hus legi ima e ma i al eligibili y. Ye om a igh s-based pe spec i e, such in e p e a ions unde mine s a u o y
p o ec ions designed o sa egua d child en om p ema u e unions. The mean sco e e lec s his ension, while sizable mino i ies
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
254 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
ha e in e nalized s a u o y h esholds, cul u al cons uc ions o ma u i y emain mo e au ho i a i e wi hin communi y
consciousness.
Awa eness o cus odians o ma iage igh s was e en weake , wi h only 28.0% o esponden s co ec ly iden i ying legal
ins i u ions and a mean sco e o 5.8. Ins ead, he majo i y ega ded elde s as cus odians o ma i al no ms, e lec ing he
his o ically cen al ole o clan leade ship in egula ing ma iage. Ad ameg (2020) documen s his adi ion, while Onkwani e al.
(2023) a i m ha elde s con inue o unc ion as cul u al a bi e s o legi imacy and au ho i y. F om a ela i is pe spec i e, his
eliance on elde s ensu es con inui y and social cohesion, bu i sidelines s a u o y ins i u ions ha sa egua d indi idual igh s. The
low mean sco e he e o e illus a es no only he limi ed in e naliza ion o igh s- based amewo ks bu also he pe sis ence o
communal au ho i y as he p ima y sou ce o legi imacy in ma i al ma e s.
The unde s anding o speci ic ma iage igh s was une en ac oss ca ego ies. While 52.7% co ec ly iden i ied child en’s igh s,
p oducing a mean sco e o 10.5, awa eness o p ope y igh s (41.3%, mean 8.2), secu i y igh s (32.3%, mean 6.7),
companionship igh s (49.7%, mean 10.1), ecogni ion and
egis a ion (35.0%, mean 7.0), and ce emonial igh s (40.3%, mean 8.4) was conside ably lowe . Lusambili e al. (2021) highligh
ha p ope y igh s in Kenya emain obscu ed by pa ia chal no ms, while Melkam, Fen ahun, R bey e al. (2024) documen how
iolence and insecu i y in ma iage a e no malized, which may explain he low ecogni ion o secu i y as a ma i al igh . The
mode a e ecogni ion o companionship sugges s a shi ing na a i e owa d emo ional ul ilmen , e lec ing g adual cul u al
adap a ion. Howe e , he o e all mean sco es e eal a pa e n, cul u al amewo ks emphasize p oc ea ion and con inui y bu ail
o adequa ely ansmi p o ec ions embedded in igh s-based amewo ks. This imbalance unde sco es he incomple e di usion o
s a u o y igh s in o e e yday knowledge sys ems.
Unde s anding o p ohibi ions was simila ly weak. Only 30.7% o esponden s co ec ly ecognized he ban on child ma iage,
wi h a mean sco e o 6.1, while 29.3% co ec ly iden i ied he p ohibi ion o ma iage among close ela i es, wi h a mean sco e o
5.9. UNICEF (2023) unde sco es he pe sis ence and ha m ul consequences o child ma iage, while Ad ameg (2020) no es ha
kinship-based p ohibi ions agains inces we e adi ionally en o ced h ough cul u al mechanisms a he han s a u o y law. F om
a cul u al ela i is lens, sa egua ds exis bu a e embedded in lineage and clan-based sys ems, which may no align wi h legal
p ohibi ions. The consis en ly low mean sco es e eal ha hese p ohibi ions, hough cen al o s a u o y p o ec ions, ha e no
been in eg a ed in o he collec i e knowledge o young people, lea ing signi ican gaps in hei legal li e acy.
Finally, cons i u ional and legal awa eness eco ded he weakes pe o mance, wi h only 25.3% co ec esponses and a mean
sco e o 5.0, he lowes ac oss all dimensions. This sys emic gap illus a es he dominance o cul u al ela i ism in shaping
pe cep ions o ma iage while s a u o y amewo ks emain pe iphe al. Wamalwa (2025) a ibu es such de iciencies o socio-
economic dispa i ies in access o ci ic educa ion, while Aus ian e al. (2024) demons a e ha s uc u ed igh s-based p og ams
can signi ican ly imp o e awa eness among you h. The low mean sco e con i ms ha legal li e acy emains ma ginal in u al
con ex s, lea ing young people ill-equipped o na iga e o mal ma i al igh s and p o ec ions. This inding highligh s a s uc u al
absence in he ansmission o s a u o y knowledge, whe e cul u al no ms domina e and legal p o isions emain abs ac and
inaccessible.
Taken oge he , he indings e eal a dual eali y in he unde s anding o ma iage igh s among young Ma akwe . On one hand,
cul u al ela i ism p o ides deeply in e nalized knowledge abou he pu poses o ma iage, cus odianship, and adi ional ma ke s
o ma i al eligibili y. On he o he , igh s-based pe spec i es, including p ope y igh s, secu i y, legal cus odianship, and
cons i u ional p o ec ions, emain weakly unde s ood, as e lec ed in consis en ly low mean sco es. The analysis he e o e
demons a es ha while cul u al amewo ks o e cla i y and con inui y, s a u o y ma iage igh s emain agmen ed,
unde sco ing he limi ed di usion o legal li e acy wi hin he communi y.
Rela ionship be ween Social Cha ac e is ics and Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
Table 3. Desc ip i e S a is ics by Gende
Gende
N
Mean Sco e (ou o 20)
S d. De ia ion
%Co ec
Unde s anding
Male
160
13.04
3.21
65.2
Female
140
10.21
3.07
51.1
To al
300
11.72
3.45
58.6
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
The analysis o gende ed di e ences in he unde s anding o ma iage igh s among young Ma akwe e eals s iking dispa i ies,
wi h males a aining a mean sco e o 13.04 ou o 20 (65.2%) compa ed o emales, whose mean s ood a 10.21 (51.1%). This gap
o nea ly h ee poin s illus a es no only a cogni i e di e ence bu also e lec s deeply en enched socio-cul u al dynamics ha
egula e access o knowledge. The ela i ely highe male mean may be a ibu ed o hei p i ileged oles wi hin Ma akwe ’s
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
255 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
pa ia chal s uc u es, whe e men domina e decision-making p ocesses and pa icipa e ac i ely in cul u al nego ia ions ha
dissemina e in o ma ion on bo h cus oma y and s a u o y ma iage no ms. In con as , women’s lowe mean sco e unde sco es he
endu ing ba ie s hey ace, including exclusion om communi y o ums and socializa ion p ac ices ha discou age open
engagemen wi h igh s-based discou ses. As Lusambili e al. (2021) obse e, such gende ed dispa i ies in ma i al knowledge a e a
p oduc o sys emic pa ia chal no ms ha p i ilege men while ma ginalizing women.
Table 4. Desc ip i e S a is ics by Age G oup
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
The desc ip i e esul s e eal a p og essi e imp o emen in he unde s anding o ma iage igh s wi h age, indica ing ha
ma u i y and social exposu e signi ican ly shape knowledge acquisi ion. Responden s aged 18–21 yea s eco ded he lowes mean
sco e o 10.42 ou o 20 (52.1%), e lec ing limi ed comp ehension o ma i al igh s, likely due o hei ela i ely ecen ansi ion
in o adul hood and minimal engagemen in ma i al p ocesses o communi y delibe a ions. By con as , he 22–25 age g oup
showed modes imp o emen wi h a mean o 11.26 (56.3%), sugges ing ha inc easing pa icipa ion in social in e ac ions, ea ly
ma iage expe iences, o exposu e o pos -seconda y educa ion begins o enhance awa eness. A sha pe inc ease is obse ed
among esponden s aged 26–29, whose mean o 12.48 (62.4%) e lec s mo e ac i e in ol emen in ma i al nego ia ions and
g ea e access o bo h cus oma y and s a u o y in o ma ion h ough amily esponsibili ies and communi y oles. The highes
unde s anding was eco ded among he 30–35 age g oup, who achie ed a mean sco e o 13.15 (65.8%), highligh ing he
cumula i e bene i s o age, social ma u i y, and deepe in e ac ion wi h cul u al and legal amewo ks go e ning ma iage. This
age- ela ed p og ession mi o s indings by Onkwani, Kakai, and Gimode (2023), who a gue ha ma iage in Ma akwe socie y
unc ions as a cul u al ancho , wi h knowledge o i s no ms becoming mo e en enched as indi iduals assume adul oles.
Simila ly, UNICEF (2023) no es ha olde coho s a e mo e likely o access in o ma ion on ma i al igh s due o hei
esponsibili ies wi hin households and communi ies, while younge indi iduals emain on he pe iphe y o such discou ses
Table 5. Desc ip i e S a is ics by Educa ion Le el
Educa ion Le el
N
Mean Sco e (ou o
20)
S d. De ia ion
%Co ec
Unde s anding
P ima y
85
9.84
2.98
49.2
Seconda y
115
11.72
3.23
58.6
College/Uni e si y
100
13.62
3.08
68.1
To al
300
11.72
3.45
58.6
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
The esul s e eal a s ong posi i e ela ionship be ween educa ional a ainmen and unde s anding o ma iage igh s among
young Ma akwe esponden s. Those wi h only p ima y educa ion eco ded he lowes mean sco e o 9.84 ou o 20 (49.2%),
e lec ing limi ed comp ehension likely shaped by es ic ed exposu e o ci ic knowledge and cons ained oppo uni ies o engage
wi h legal o s a u o y amewo ks. Responden s wi h seconda y educa ion showed a ma ked imp o emen , a aining a mean o
11.72 (58.6%), which sugges s ha p og ession h ough he school sys em equips indi iduals wi h b oade li e acy and analy ical
skills ha enhance awa eness o igh s and esponsibili ies wi hin ma iage. The mos p onounced unde s anding was obse ed
among he college and uni e si y-educa ed g oup, whose mean o 13.62 (68.1%) indica es ha ad anced educa ion signi ican ly
enhances no only li e acy le els bu also access o discou ses on human igh s, gende equi y, and legal amewo ks. This end
esona es wi h indings by Aus ian e al. (2024) who demons a ed ha a ge ed igh s-awa eness p og ams embedded
in educa ional con ex s s eng hen young people’s abili y o challenge disc imina o y p ac ices and ad oca e o equi able ma i al
a angemen s.
Rela ionships be ween Gende , Age-G oup, Le el o Educa ion, and he Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s
among Young Ma akwe People
256 Volume 02 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 Co esponding Au ho : D . Cha les Kipchumba Kisigo , PhD
Table 6. Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s by Gende (Independen Samples -Tes )
Gende
N
Mean Sco e
S d. De ia ion
d
Sig. (2- ailed)
Male
160
13.04
3.21
2.87
298
0.005*
Female
140
10.21
3.07
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
The independen samples - es e ealed a s a is ically signi ican di e ence be ween male and emale esponden s in hei
unde s anding o ma iage igh s, (298) = 2.87, p = 0.005. Male pa icipan s (M = 13.04, SD = 3.21) sco ed signi ican ly highe
han emale pa icipan s (M = 10.21, SD = 3.07), con i ming ha gende is an impo an ac o in luencing awa eness le els. This
dispa i y e lec s s uc u al and cul u al dynamics in Ma akwe socie y, whe e men, h ough hei in ol emen in p ac ices such as
dow y nego ia ions, polygyny a angemen s, and ini ia ion i uals, gain di ec exposu e o bo h cus oma y and s a u o y ma i al
discou ses (Asan e, 2023; Onkwani, Kakai, & Gimode, 2023). By con as , women’s lowe mean sugges s eliance on indi ec
sou ces o knowledge, p ima ily elde guidance and o al adi ions, which emphasize compliance wi h cul u al expec a ions a he
han engagemen wi h o mal legal amewo ks (Human Righ s Wa ch, 2020). These indings suppo he hypo hesis ha gende
plays a signi ican ole in shaping knowledge o ma iage igh s, wi h pa ia chal no ms ein o cing men’s in o ma ional
ad an age while cons aining women’s agency in ma i al decision-making.
Table 7. Unde s anding o Ma iage Righ s by Age G oup (One-Way ANOVA)
Sou ce
Sum o Squa es
d
Mean Squa e
F
Sig.
Be ween G oups
12.56
3
4.19
7.41
0.001*
Wi hin G oups
169.12
296
0.57
To al
181.68
299
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
The in e en ial esul s u he s eng hen he desc ip i e ends by s a is ically con i ming he signi icance o age in shaping he
unde s anding o ma iage igh s among young Ma akwe . The one-way ANOVA (Table 5) shows ha he obse ed di e ences
ac oss age ca ego ies we e no due o chance, wi h he model yielding F(3,296) = 7.41, p = 0.001. This p o ides s ong e idence
o suppo Hypo hesis 2 (H2), which pos ula ed ha a esponden ’s age is associa ed wi h hei le el o comp ehension o ma i al
igh s. In p ac ical e ms, he es demons a es ha as you h ansi ion om ea ly adul hood in o hei la e wen ies and ea ly
hi ies, hei exposu e o cul u al p ac ices, ma i al nego ia ions, and communi y dialogues equips hem wi h a deepe and mo e
nuanced unde s anding o bo h cus oma y and s a u o y dimensions o ma iage. This inding is consis en wi h he
an h opological a gumen ad anced by Asan e (2023) and Ad ameg (2020), who con end ha A ican socie ies o en ese e
c i ical ma i al knowledge o olde you h who a e close o ma iageable age and he e o e mo e ac i ely in ol ed in i es o
passage, b ide weal h p ocesses, and decision-making o ums.
Table 8. Pos -Hoc Compa isons (Tukey HSD)
Age G oup Compa ison
Mean Di e ence
S d. E o
Sig.
18–21 s 22–25
-0.45
0.12
0.002
18–21 s 26–29
-0.68
0.15
0.001
22–25 s 26–29
-0.23
0.10
0.041
26–29 s 30–35
-0.18
0.11
0.084 (ns)
22–25 s 30–35
-0.34
0.12
0.061 (ns)
18–21 s 30–35
-0.73
0.14
0.001
Sou ce: Resea ch Da a, 2025
The Pos -Hoc Tukey es s (Table 6) p o ide c i ical insigh s in o he speci ic age g oup di e ences unde lying he o e all
ANOVA signi icance. The esul s demons a e ha he younges esponden s (18– 21 yea s) consis en ly sco ed signi ican ly
lowe han hei olde coun e pa s, wi h mean di e ences o -
0.68 (p = 0.001) agains he 26–29 coho and -0.73 (p = 0.001) agains he 30–35 g oup, e lec ing subs an ial knowledge gaps.
E en he compa ison be ween 18–21 and 22–25 yea s yielded a signi ican mean di e ence o -0.45 (p = 0.002), unde sco ing ha
comp ehension o ma iage igh s begins a a lowe base and only g adually imp o es as young people age. The con as be ween
22–25 and 26–29 yea s was also signi ican (-0.23, p = 0.041), sugges ing ha he la e wen ies ma k a c i ical h eshold o
deepe unde s anding, possibly due o inc eased in ol emen in ma iage nego ia ions, dow y p ocesses, and b oade communi y
