Co esponding au ho : ADEMIJU TA
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Analyzing soil a iabili y and wa e use e iciency in ela ion o a iabili y o clima e
on oma o yields in Del a S a e, Nige ia
Pa ica Ayaegbunem OKOH 1, Joan Nneamaka EZE 2 and Teslim Ade ibigbe ADEMIJU 2, *
1 Depa men o Home Economics Educa ion, School o Seconda y Educa ion (Voca ional), Fede al College o Educa ion
(Technical), Asaba, Del a S a e, Nige ia.
2 Depa men o Ag icul u al Educa ion, School o Seconda y Educa ion (Voca ional), Fede al College o Educa ion
(Technical), Asaba, Del a S a e, Nige ia.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2478-2488
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 29 Ma ch 2025; e ised on 03 May 2025; accep ed on 06 May 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.26.2.1719
Abs ac
Nige ia's ag icul u e sec o , c ucial o he na ion's economy, is al eady expe iencing he e ec s o clima e change.
No able impac s include unp edic able ain all pa e ns and a decline in ege able expo s. Toma o a ming, essen ial
o Nige ia's ho icul u al indus y, is pa icula ly a isk due o i s eliance on wea he condi ions. This s udy aims o
assess he e icacy o soil and wa e managemen ac oss a ious clima es, examining how hese elemen s impac oma o
yields in Del a S a e. The s udy was conduc ed a he Fede al College o Educa ion (Technical) Demons a ion Fa m in
Asaba, Del a S a e. To unde s and he de elopmen pa e ns o oma o cul i a ion and i s wa e use e iciency, soil and
clima e da a we e collec ed and analysed. Soil samples we e aken om h ee oma o-g owing expe imen al plo s a
dep hs anging om 0 o 60 cm using a soil auge . S anda d analy ical echniques we e employed o e alua e he
physico-chemical cha ac e is ics o hese soil samples. The esul s showed ha hese ai s posi i ely a ec ed oma o
ou pu and g ow h. Du ing he g owing season, i iga ion me hods we e ine- uned o ma ch he oma o plan s' g ow h
s ages. The iming and equency o i iga ion luc ua ed acco ding o he expe imen al design, while he o al wa e
supplied s ayed uni o m ac oss ea men s. In e es ingly, a co esponding end e ealed ha i iga ion wa e use
e iciency (IWUE) ose as i iga ion olume dec eased. While he s udy a ea's clima e is gene ally sui able o oma o
cul i a ion, inc easing empe a u es could lead o hea s ess isks. This inding holds g ea p omise o he oma o
indus y, as managing wa e s ess e ec i ely no only sa es wa e bu also boos s he le els o bene icial compounds
like suga s and an ioxidan s, hus enhancing bo h he la o and nu i ional quali y o he ui .
Keywo ds: Soil a iabili y; Wa e use e iciency; Clima e a iabili y; Toma o yields
1. In oduc ion
In Nige ia, ag icul u e se es as he p ima y sou ce o income o mos people and has a c ucial ole in shaping he
coun y's economy. The ag icul u al indus y is i al in d i ing ood p oduc ion, gene a ing o eign e enues, c ea ing
jobs, and p o iding aw ma e ials o ela ed businesses, and adding o he GDP. I s impo ance canno be o e s a ed.
Acco ding o a sec o -by-sec o analysis, he ag icul u e indus y con ibu ed a ound 42% o he eal GDP in 2006, up
om 41.2% in 2005. Simila ly, he ag icul u e sec o 's g ow h a e in e ms o GDP con ibu ion a 1990 cons an basic
p ices inc eased om 4.2% in 2002 o 7.21% in 2007, 6.2% in 2008, 5.9% in 2009, and 4.2% in 2002 o 4.12% in 2014.
In 1999, mo e han 60% o Nige ia's wo k o ce was employed in he ag icul u e sec o (Agba, 2015).
Nige ia's clima e has a signi ican ole in ood p oduc ion, pa icula ly in he coun y's ain o es egion, whe e a me s
mos ly ely on ain o a ming. Resea ch shows ha clima e change has a de imen al impac on ag icul u e in A ica
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2478-2488
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and ha adap a ion is one policy op ion o lessen ha impac (Ayinde e al., 2011). I is essen ial o ecognise ha
Nige ia's ood supply canno keep up wi h popula ion inc ease, and ha se e al a iables, including clima e change, a e
majo con ibu o s o he coun y's ood de ici . C op p oduc ion and p ocessing accoun o a sizeable po ion o
ag icul u ally ela ed businesses in Nige ia, whe e o e 60% o he popula ion ely hea ily on hese indus ies o
su i al (Agba e al., 2017). On he o he hand, p omp clima e p edic ion p o ision can help a me s make well-
in o med decisions, educe ad e se e ec s, and enable hem o ake ad an age o o p epa e o an icipa ed condi ions
(Be na di, 2011). Fu he mo e, e icien dis ibu ion o clima e- ela ed in o ma ion and ad iso y se ices can
signi ican ly imp o e isk managemen associa ed wi h clima e change and assis a me s in adjus ing o i (Tall e al.,
2014).
In Nige ia, oma oes a e a signi ican ho icul u al c op. Toma o (Solanum lycope sicum L.) belongs o he amily
Solanaceae, whe e peppe , po a o, obacco, eggplan , and oma illo belong, and i is one o he signi ican comme cial
ege able c ops widely g own in Nige ia. Recen ly anked i s in a p io i iza ion wo kshop o ege able c op alue
chains in he coun y, oma oes a e a high- alue c op wi h conside able po en ial o c ea e employmen oppo uni ies
and inc ease incomes o hose in ol ed in he oma o alue chain h ough comme cializa ion. O e 30% o a me s
g ow oma oes o home consump ion o cash na ionwide. The c op con ibu es 14% o all ege able p oduce and abou
7% o ho icul u al c ops in he coun y (Olan ewaju e al., 2017). Howe e , oma oes a e highly pe ishable and
ulne able o he e ec s o clima e change. Olan ewaju e al. (2017) obse ed ha wea he -induced seasonali y in
oma o p oduc ion is a key ac o behind ma ke p ice luc ua ions in Nige ia. Osunmuyiwa e al. (2021) de ailed he
ade pa e ns o oma oes be ween Nige ia and i s neighbo ing coun ies, no ing ha Nige ia aces seasonal low
p oduc ion om May o Augus and No embe o Decembe . Du ing hese pe iods, Nige ia supplemen s i s low
p oduc ion by impo ing oma oes om Neighbo ing coun ies in A ica. Toma o plan s a e sensi i e o wa e s ess
and show a high co ela ion be ween e apo anspi a ion (ET) and c op yield (Guhan e al., 2020). Wa e is a decisi e
ac o o c op p oduc ion because o i s c ucial ole in nu ien up ake and anspo , empe a u e egula ion, and
se e al physiological p ocesses, including pho osyn hesis.
O e he yea s, wa e -in ensi e ag icul u e has ende ed his esou ce a limi ing ac o o c op p oduc ion, especially
in wa e -sca ce and semi-a id a eas. Conside ing he g owing popula ion's inc easing ood and nu i ional demands, a
signi ican pa o ag icul u al esea ch ocuses on imp o ing wa e use e iciency (WUE) and conse ing wa e wi hou
yield penal ies. Conside ing he complexi y o inc easing WUE h ough b eeding owing o he ade-o be ween
pho osyn hesis and anspi a ion, ag onomic s a egies a e equisi e (Adu e al., 2018). Inno a i e iming in ol es
adjus ing ope a ions o maximise ad an ages o minimise isks associa ed wi h clima e change, aking in o accoun
ac o s like wa e a ailabili y, labo , expec ed empe a u es, and ma ke condi ions. Few s udies ha e in es iga ed he
pa e ns and ends o ain all, empe a u e, ela i e humidi y, and o he pa ame e s on he yields o cassa a, yam,
peppe , and oma o in Del a S a e, Nige ia. P e ious eco ds indica e ha e y ew ha e in ensi ely examined he
ela ionship be ween clima e change and c op p oduc ion. Mo eo e , di e en c ops may be a ec ed une enly. To
ensu e ood secu i y in sou h-sou h Nige ia in o de o eeds a egion mo e han 45% o he egion popula ion, i is
essen ial o examine he clima ic ends o his egion. The e o e, he pu pose o his esea ch is o de e mine he
coe icien o a ia ion in clima ic a iables in ela ion o soil a iabili y and wa e use e iciency on oma oes yield in
Del a S a e, Sou h-Sou h, Nige ia
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy A ea
The s udy was ca ied ou a he Demons a ion Fa m o he Fede al College o Educa ion (Technical), Asaba, Del a S a e,
Nige ia. Del a S a e is Nige ia's oil and ag icul u al p oducing s a e, loca ed in he Sou h-Sou h geo-poli ical a ea o he
Nige Del a egion wi h a popula ion o 4,098,291 (males: 2,674,306; emales: 2,024,085) (NPC, 2006). Wi h an
app oxima e a ea o 762 squa e kilome e s (294 sq mi), he capi al ci y is Asaba, si ua ed a he no he n end o he
s a e. A he same ime, Ogwashi-Uku has he la ges land space o any indus y, Wa i is he s a e's economic ne e
and also he mos popula ed in he sou he n end o he s a e (Ume i e . al., 2016). The o al land a ea o he s a e is
16,842 Km2. I is bounded no h by Edo s a e, Anamb a s a e o he eas , Ri e s s a e o he sou heas , Bayelsa s a e o
he sou h, he A lan ic Ocean, he Bay o Benin o he wes , and Ondo s a e o he no hwes . The s a e is con ined o he
eas and sou h by he lowe cou se and del a o he Nige Ri e . Del a was ounded in 1991 in he sou he n hal o he
o me Bendel s a e. The s a e capi al is Asaba, on he Nige Ri e . In he Nige Ri e del a, mos o he s a e lies a an
ele a ion below 500 ee (150 me e s). Del a S a e lies oughly be ween longi udes 060 45iE and la i udes 060 30iN o
he equa o .
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2478-2488
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2.2. Soil Sample and Clima ic Da a Analysis
Samples we e collec ed om each poin a he soil p o ile (dep hs) o 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45 – 60cm a a adius o
5cm wi h he aid o a soil auge . The su ace soil samples we e ai -d ied; ocks and pebbles will be emo ed be o e
pul e isa ion using a mo a and pes le. The pul e ised soil samples will hen pass h ough a 2mm il e sie e o achie e
uni o m pa icle size. The sampling bags we e kep inside clean plas ic con aine s o a oid con amina ion. The soil
samples we e scooped in o ai - igh con aine s labelled acco ding o he name o he a ea om which he samples we e
collec ed and he sampling poin dep h. The samples collec ed we e aken o he labo a o y a he Depa men o Soil
Science and Land Managemen o Uni e si y o Benin, Benin, Edo S a e, o de e mina ion o pH, bulk densi y, ex u al
class, elec ical conduc i i y, ni ogen, a ailable phosph ous, calcium, magnesium, and po assium. The esul s o he
soil es we e subjec ed o app op ia e s a is ical analyses. Tempe a u e, p ecipi a ion, and sola adia ion a e he h ee
mos widely used clima e a iables o assess clima e change and i s impac . Clima ic da a we e ob ained om he Nige ia
Me eo ological Agency (NIMET) o 2024/2025. The da a ha will be ob ained a e Minimum and maximum
empe a u e, Humidi y, Rain all, wind, and sunshine.
2.3. Land P epa a ion, Expe imen al Design, T ea men s, and Plan ing
The ield expe imen was ca ied ou a he Fede al College o Educa ion (Technical) Demons a ion Fa m, Asaba, Del a
S a e, Nige ia, whe e a 1296sqm (36m x 72m) land a ea (Uncul i a ed) we e ploughed wi h disc plough and hen
ha owed a e a week o ploughing. Acco ding o he expe imen al design, he land was dema ca ed in o blocks and
plo s. The expe imen was ca ied ou in a andomized comple e block design (RCBD) ac oss he gene al slope o he
ield in o de o ensu e as homogeneous soil condi ions as possible wi hin he blocks. The expe imen al se up consis
o combina ion o wo le el o e ilize amendmen s a e; 3 and 6 /ha; wo le el o poul y manu e; 3 and 6.0 /ha and
wo le el o i iga ion; 100% and 75% which will be ac o ially combined o o m a o al o en ea men s (Table 1).
The expe imen will be ca ied ou wi h wo eplica es, making 20 plo s o he expe imen s. The NPK e ilize and
poul y manu e we e applied a wo weeks a e ansplan ing as a ea men .
Table 1 T ea men o Field Expe imen
S/N
T ea men Label
Desc ip ion
1
I100
No NPK + No manu e + 100% i iga ion (Con ol)
2
I75
No NPK + No manu e + 75% i iga ion (Con ol)
3
N3I100
3 /ha o NPK+ 100% i iga ion
4
N3175
3 /ha o NPK+75% i iga ion
5
N6I100
6 /ha o NPK+ 100% i iga ion
6
N6I75
6 /ha o NPK+ 75% i iga ion
7
M3I100
3 /ha o manu e + 100% i iga ion
8
M3I75
3 /ha o manu e + 75% i iga ion
9
M6I100
6 /ha o manu e + 100% i iga ion
10
M6I75
6 /ha o manu e + 75% i iga ion
Wa e o i iga ion will be pumped om a 13.71-me e well in o anks wi h o e head connec ions using a subme sible
pump. The o e head anks will ha e a capaci y o 2000 li es (L) and will be e ec ed a 2 me e s abo e g ound le el as
a wa e ese oi . In he ull i iga ion ea men (100%), 100% o he wa e equi ed o b ing he soil wa e o field
capaci y (FC) which we e applied when abou 50% o FC could ha e been deple ed in he plo s. While in he defici
i iga ion ea men (75%), wa e was applied on he same day as ha o he ull i iga ion ea men , bu he i iga ion
dep h was educed o 75% o he ull i iga ion.
2.4. I iga ion Wa e Applica ion
I iga ion wa e was applied as pe he schedule o he i iga ion ea men s. Soil mois u e was calcula ed a each s age
o he c op by he g a ime ic me hod be o e i iga ion. The dep h o i iga ion wa e was calcula ed by equa ion 1.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2478-2488
2481
𝑑 =(𝐹𝐶−𝑀
100) 𝑋 15
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
• 𝑑 =𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ (𝑐𝑚)
• 𝐹𝐶 =𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (%𝑣𝑜𝑙.)
• 𝑀 =𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠)
This dep h (d) was mul iplied by each plo 's a ea o ge he wa e olume. A calib a ed bucke measu ed he amoun o
i iga ion applied o he plo (o he han he d ip i iga ed ank).
2.5. C op E apo anspi a ion
C op e apo anspi a ion (ET, mm) alues o di e en i iga ion ea men s we e calcula ed using he soil wa e budge ,
as exp essed in equa ion 3 (Ga i e al., 1982).
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐼 + 𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐷 ± 𝛥𝑆
Whe e I is he applied i iga ion wa e amoun (mm), P is he p ecipi a ion, R is he uno (mm), D is he d ainage below
he e ec i e oo dep h (mm), and 𝛥𝑆 is he soil wa e con en di e ence be ween wo measu emen s (mm 90 cm-1).
The amoun o i iga ion wa e was measu ed by a wa e me e o each plo . The changes in soil wa e con en be ween
di e en measu emen s we e calcula ed by he g a ime ic me hod. In de e mining he ET, he wa e con en in he 0-
60 cm laye o he soil was aken in o accoun (Pa anè, C. & Cosen ino, 2010). A possible wa e con en inc ease in he
laye o 60-90 cm was conside ed as deep pe cola ion and neglec ed. The uno is no aken in o conside a ion in he
compu a ion o he soil wa e budge since i iga ion wa e was adminis e ed in a egula ed manne using he d ip
i iga ion me hod.
2.6. S a is ical Analysis
Da a ob ained om he expe imen s we e analyzed using he S a is ical Package o Social Sciences (SPSS). Bo h
desc ip i e and mul iple eg ession we e employed in da a analysis. In con as , simple co ela ion, s epwise mul iple
eg essions, and analysis o a iance (ANOVA) we e used o show he ela ionship be ween clima ic pa ame e s and
c op yield and he end and a ia ion in c op yield.
3. Resul and Discussion
3.1. Physico-Chemical P ope ies o Soil Samples
Resea ch shows ha he physicochemical p ope ies o nu i ional componen s in luence hei mobili y, bioa ailabili y,
and plan up ake (Adaikpoh & Kaise , 2012). The cha ac e is ics o soils collec ed om he expe imen al ield included
pH, elec ical conduc i i y, a ailable phospho us, o al ni ogen, exchangeable ca ions (po assium, calcium, sodium, and
magnesium) and pa icle size (sil , clay, and sand).
3.2. Soil pH
As illus a ed in Table 2, he pH le els (soil hyd ogen ion concen a ion) o su ace and subsu ace soil a he s udy si e
a ied om 5.5 o 6.8. This indica es ha he soils possess a mode a e acidi y. These soils a e app op ia e o g owing
ege ables due o hei sligh ly acidic pH. Mos ege ables h i e in sligh ly acidic soil (Osunbi an, 2013). A pH anging
om 3.5 o 10.0 suppo s plan g ow h. Usually, a pH be ween 6.0 and 7.0 is conside ed op imal o obus plan
de elopmen (Haby e al., 2011). The applica ion o ino ganic e ilize s and o he chemicals in he ield be o e he s udy
began may ha e con ibu ed o he obse ed acidi ica ion o he soil ac oss all s udy si es. This obse a ion aligns wi h
expec a ions, as he pH le els o mos opical soils ypically ange om acidic o sligh ly neu al (Abdallah e al., 2011).
3.3. Tex u al Class
The soil a he ield si e showed a mos ly sandy p o ile ac oss he soil ho izon, wi h sand le els anging om 61.7% in
he op laye o 78.8% in he subsu ace laye . The clay con en was low, be ween 10.6% and 12.4%, while sil con en
luc ua ed om 20.06% o 33.8%. Sand is dominan in all laye s, sugges ing a coa se- ex u ed soil, al hough sligh
di e ences exis be ween he su ace and deepe samples. The a iabili y and poo so ing o soil pa icles likely explain
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2478-2488
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he high sand con en ound in all samples. This inconsis ency esul s om he an h opogenic na u e o he soil
ma e ials, which mainly include mixed and decomposed was e a he han na u ally wea he ed pa en ock. These
indings a e consis en wi h he obse a ions o Amos-Tau ua e al. (2014), who indica ed ha soils wi h a high sand
con en and low clay con en a e mo e p one o pollu an leaching due o hei la ge po e spaces and diminished
capaci y o hold con aminan s.
Table 2 Physical P ope ies and Pa icle Dis ibu ion o he Soil a Di e en Dep hs
Dep h (cm)
pH
Sand (%)
Sil
Clay (%)
Bulk densi y (g/cm3)
Replica ions
(%)
1
00-15
6.4
67.4
32.04
11.7
1.51
15-30
6.7
72.5
28.1
10.6
1.58
30-45
6.4
78.8
20.06
10.7
1.6
45-60
6.8
79.1
22.23
11.44
1.61
2
00-15
6.4
68.4
31.1
11.6
1.55
15-30
6.2
64.4
30.1
10.12
1.6
30-45
6.5
70.4
29.6
10.9
1.62
45-60
5.7
72.11
28.22
10.7
1.64
3
00-15
6.4
62.7
32.6
13.4
1.53
15-30
5.8
71.7
29.6
13.41
1.57
30-45
5.9
68.7
27
13.6
1.6
45-60
6.3
69.4
25.3
12.78
1.61
3.4. Bulk densi y (g/cm3)
Table 2 shows ha he bulk densi y o bo h su ace and subsu ace soil a he s udy si e anged om 1.51 o 1.68. Dan ani
e al. (2024) no e ha he bulk densi y achie ed h ough o ganic amendmen applica ion lies wi hin he op imal ange
o oo de elopmen . The in oduc ion o o ganic amendmen s ich in o ganic ma e likely aids in lowe ing bulk
densi y by modi ying he essen ial soil cha ac e is ics equi ed o his educ ion. Soil pa icles g ouped oge he by
o ganic ma e ials a e e e ed o as soil agg ega es, and hei o ma ion is p omo ed by o ganic ma e . The la ge po e
spaces su ounding soil agg ega es enhance he soil's mac o-po osi y, imp o ing bo h wa e and ai low. Adekiya &
Ojeniyi (2001) indica e ha inc eased soil bulk densi y can hinde oo elonga ion when wa e con en is low. E en
hough un illed soils exhibi ed highe wa e con en and lowe empe a u es, hese condi ions did no bene icially
in luence oma o g ow h and yield. Thus, oma oes g own on al isols in he humid opics necessi a e illage o lowe
soil densi y, acili a ing imp o ed oo de elopmen , nu ien abso p ion, and inc eased yields. Implemen ing illage
and plan ing on idges o mounds u he enhances nu ien a ailabili y o oma o c ops.
3.5. Elec ical Conduc i i y
Table 3 illus a es ha he soil's elec ical conduc i i y (EC), an impo an indica o o salini y and nu ien le els,
p og essi ely inc eased wi h dep h, om 10.5 mg/kg a he su ace o 13.7 mg/kg in he subsu ace. The deepes laye s
eco ded he highes EC alue o 13.9 mg/kg, likely due o leaching e ec s om he a ea's hea y ain all. Rainwa e
dilu es solu e concen a ions a he su ace while acili a ing he downwa d mo emen o dissol ed sal s and mine als,
esul ing in hei accumula ion in deepe laye s. Obiane o e al. (2016) no e ha his phenomenon accoun s o he
lowe conduc i i y obse ed in opsoil compa ed o deepe lay. The soil exhibi s mode a e salini y, which is deemed
accep able o ag icul u al c op p oduc ion. Acco ding o FAO guidelines, soils wi h an EC exceeding 16 mS/cm (o
mg/kg, depending on he measu emen echnique) a e classi ied as e y saline, jeopa dizing plan heal h due o ion
oxici y and osmo ic s ess. Howe e , he EC alues eco ded in his s udy we e signi ican ly lowe han his h eshold,
sugges ing ha salini y did no impose no able g ow h limi a ions, hus ende ing he soil sui able o oma o cul i a ion
(Ademiju e al., 2019).
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Table 3 Va ia ion o Chemical P ope ies a Di e en Dep h
Dep h (cm)
EC
A .P
TN
K
Na
Mg
(mg/Kg)
(ppm)
(%)
(cmol/kg)
(cmol/kg)
(cmol/kg)
Replica ions
1
00-15
13.7
0.36
0.63
0.27
0.63
3.42
15-30
13.9
0.19
0.6
0.21
0.67
3.33
30-45
12.5
0.12
0.96
0.42
1.91
3.43
45-60
10.5
0.19
0.21
0.3
0.72
3.2
2
00-15
12.7
0.31
0.35
0.21
0.87
3.06
15-30
13.1
0.11
0.23
0.27
0.59
3.93
30-45
12.5
0.11
0.17
0.36
1.95
3
45-60
11.6
0.08
0.13
0.47
0.76
2.97
3
00-15
11.5
0.17
0.35
0.24
0.71
2.69
15-30
11.9
0.25
0.3
0.21
0.62
3.49
30-45
12.8
0.18
0.38
0.27
0.98
3.06
45-60
10.8
0.11
0.14
0.35
0.71
2.9
Elec ical Conduc i i y (EC), A ailable Phospho us (A . P), To al Ni ogen (TN), Po assium(K), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg)
3.6. Ni ogen, Po assium, Magnesium, Sodium, Phospho us
The soils e ealed ele a ed phospho us (P) le els, wi h su ace and subsu ace measu emen s be ween 0.08 and 0.36
cmol/kg. This may be a ibu ed o a conside able amoun o o ganic de i us and plan decay (Ide iah e al., 2006).
Resea ch shows ha inc eased phospho us concen a ions enhance plan g ow h. Soil samples exhibi ing P le els o e
0.1 cmol/kg a e conside ed sui able o ag icul u al use (FAO, 1976). Acco ding o Isi imah (2002), phospho us is
essen ial o he de elopmen o ib ous oo sys ems in plan s.
Since mos was e o igina es om plan esidues abundan in o ganic ma e , he ele a ed nu ien le els in he soil, as
illus a ed in Table 3 may be linked o his was e composi ion. Resea ch has shown ha high phospha e concen a ions
can limi plan s' access o ca ion me als (Obiane o e al., 2017). The exchangeable po assium (K) in soils a ies om
0.21 o 0.42 cmol/kg o su ace and subsu ace laye s, espec i ely, as indica ed in Table 3. Ume i e al. (2017) no e
ha mo e e ile soils o en exceed 0.2 cmol/kg, which is he c i ical h eshold o exchangeable K. This sugges s ha
hese soils a e nu ien - ich and ha e signi ican po en ial o c op yield wi hou he need o e ilize s. Po assium
ca alyzes in plan s, boos ing chlo ophyll p oduc ion in lea es and con olling he opening and closing o lea s oma a. I
also con ibu es o disease esis ance, wa e abso p ion, ui ipening, and he syn hesis and anspo a ion o plan
suga s and ca bohyd a es.
Table 3 indica es ha he o al ni ogen (N) con en in he soil anged om 0.13 o 0.96 pe cen o su ace and
subsu ace laye s, espec i ely. This s udy demons a es a simila ange o alues (Osakwe, 2014). Ni ogen na u ally
en e s soils h ough phenomena like ligh ning and he b eakdown o plan ma e ial (Eddy e al., 2006). The FDALR
(2004) guidelines o oma o cul i a ion sugges ha he o al N in he soil sample was low. The was e mix u e, p ima ily
de i ed om a mya d and ag icul u al sou ces, likely con ibu ed o he inc eased ni ogen le els in he soils.
Addi ionally, he soil con ains o ganic ma e ha supplies mos o he ni ogen and phospho us essen ial o enhancing
soil e ili y and suppo ing plan g ow h (Ide iah e al., 2010).
Soil o ganisms play a c ucial ole in b eaking down was e, con ibu ing o he soil's ich nu ien con en (Amos-Tau ua
e al., 2014). The magnesium (Mg) concen a ions o su ace and subsu ace soils ange om 1.79 cmol/kg o 3.93
cmol/kg, espec i ely. Magnesium is essen ial o anspo ing phospho us in plan s, and i s exchangeable Mg2+ con en
is i al o p o ein syn hesis and cell di ision. In all loca ions, he exchangeable magnesium concen a ion me Ume i e
al. (2017) 's h eshold o 1.9 cmol/kg, indica ing mode a e le els. Sodium (Na) le els anged om 0.07 cmol/kg o 0.195
cmol/kg in bo h subsu ace and su ace soils. Excessi e sal can lead o wil ing due o i s e ec on lowe ing wa e
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2478-2488
2484
po en ial and educing wa e up ake. Sodium, a c ucial mic onu ien , aids in me abolism, pa icula ly in chlo ophyll
p oduc ion and he egene a ion o phosphoenolpy u a e (Zhu, 2001).
3.7. I iga ion Wa e Amoun and C op E apo anspi a ion
Table 4 summa izes he o al i iga ion wa e applied o all expe imen al ea men s and he c op e apo anspi a ion
(ETc) alues. ETc alues we e calcula ed by mul iplying he e e ence e apo anspi a ion (ETo) by he s age-speci ic
c op coe icien (Kc) o oma o plan s a a ious g ow h s ages. Meanwhile, he o al i iga ion wa e was de e mined
using he measu ed olume o wa e deli e ed o each expe imen al plo . Da a analysis indica es ha ETc alues we e
ela i ely low du ing he i s wo weeks a e ansplan ing, which can be a ibu ed o he limi ed ege a i e g ow h
and dec eased wa e consump ion o young oma o plan s. Howe e , as he plan s ad anced h ough la e
de elopmen al s ages—pa icula ly ege a i e g ow h, blooming, and ui de elopmen — he ETc alues s eadily
inc eased, e lec ing he c op's heigh ened wa e equi emen s.
I iga ion was scheduled a wo di e en in e als: a 5-day cycle (T ea men A) and an 8-day cycle (T ea men B).
T ea men A ecei ed 22 i iga ion e en s h oughou he g owing season, ensu ing mo e equen wa e
eplenishmen , whe eas T ea men B ecei ed only 13 i iga ion ea men s due o he longe in e als. This di e ence
in i iga ion equency di ec ly impac ed he o al wa e inpu o each ea men , highligh ing he ade-o s be ween
wa e applica ion equency and c op wa e usage e iciency. The olume o i iga ion wa e applied a ied signi ican ly
h oughou he expe imen al ea men s, anging om 345 mm o 478 mm, indica ing changes in i iga ion schedule
and wa e managemen p ac ices. In addi ion o i iga ion, he o al p ecipi a ion eco ded h oughou he g ow h
season was 185 mm, which helped o imp o e o e all soil mois u e a ailabili y. C op e apo anspi a ion (ET) alues
a ied signi ican ly among ea men s, indica ing he e ec o i iga ion egimes on oma o c op wa e consump ion.
The maximum e apo anspi a ion was epo ed in T ea men AT1, a 589 mm, sugges ing inc eased wa e use, likely
due o excellen mois u e condi ions p omo ing s ong plan g ow h. In con as , T ea men BT2 eco ded he lowes
ET alue, measu ing 439 mm, possibly due o wa e s ess o educed wa e ing equency, leading o lowe plan
anspi a ion a es. These disc epancies unde sco e he signi icance o i iga ion managemen in de e mining c op
wa e demand and o e all yield.
The i iga ion wa e applica ion was ca e ully con olled du ing he g owing season o align wi h he de elopmen al
s ages o he oma o plan s. Al hough he o e all amoun o wa e applied emained consis en o all plan s, he iming
and equency o i iga ion a ied acco ding o he ea men p og am. This app oach ensu ed ha wa e dis ibu ion
was cus omised o mee c op demands a a ious phenological s ages, including ea ly es ablishmen , blooming, and
ui de elopmen . Toma o i iga ion equi emen s a y signi ican ly based on clima ic condi ions, cul i a
cha ac e is ics, and ag icul u al p ac ices. Pa anè e al. (2011) disco e ed ha seasonal i iga ion wa e needs o
oma o p oduc ion usually ange om 325 o 464 mm unde Medi e anean g owing condi ions. Ta ı and Sapmaz
(2017) ound ha i iga ion amoun s o oma o p ocessing a ied om 242 o 404 mm, wi h co esponding seasonal
e apo anspi a ion (ET) alues anging om 276 o 406 mm. In con as , E ek e al. (2012) ound ha semi-a id
condi ions led o signi ican ly highe wa e needs, wi h maximum i iga ion and ET alues o 811.7 mm and 863.3 mm,
espec i ely, while he minimum eco ded alues we e 503.7 mm (i iga ion) and 516.1 mm (ET). These di e ences
highligh he signi ican impac o en i onmen al condi ions, especially in d y and semi-a id egions whe e e apo a i e
losses a e mo e signi ican . Elmas e al. (2023) indings closely align wi h ou expe imen al esul s, demons a ing
simila anges in seasonal ET and i iga ion wa e use. This implies ha ou i iga ion managemen s a egy e ec i ely
ma ched c op wa e equi emen s while main aining e iciency unde p e ailing ield condi ions.
Table 4 Seasonal i iga ion wa e amoun (I), c op e apo anspi a ion (ET) and p ecipi a ion alues (P)
I iga ion
In e al
I iga ion
Le el
I iga ion (I)
(mm)
C op E apo anspi a ion (ETC)
(mm)
P ecipi a ion
(mm)
5 Days (A)
Kpc = 1.0 (T1)
478
589
138
Kpc = 0.75 (T2)
398
501
8 Days (B)
Kpc = 1.0 (T1)
456
491
Kpc = 0.75 (T2)
345
439
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2485
3.8. Clima ic Condi ions on Toma o Cul i a ion
The p ima y clima ic ac o s—including minimum empe a u e, maximum empe a u e, e apo anspi a ion (ET),
du a ion o sunshine, maximum ela i e humidi y, and ain all—a e di ec ly ela ed o he c ucial decision ules no ed
in each ag o-ecological zone, in luencing high oma o yields. The associa ions highligh he speci ic clima ic a iable
combina ions ha bes suppo op imal oma o p oduc ion in he s udy a ea, as illus a ed in Table 5. This s udy
p o ides essen ial insigh s in o he en i onmen al needs o a i al ege able c op, speci ically linking clima ic ac o s o
oma o yields. The esul s show ha high p oduc i i y in oma oes is equen ly ied o mode a e o a e age clima ic
condi ions. This sugges s ha s able and balanced en i onmen s p omo e heal hy g ow h, while ex eme a ia ions—
ei he oo high o oo low—can hinde op imal de elopmen . Fu he mo e, he s udy p esen s a aluable amewo k
o p edic ing oma o p oduc ion based on exis ing wea he pa e ns by pinpoin ing he speci ic clima e-yield
ela ionships o each ag o-ecological zone. These indings can enhance c op scheduling, in o m local ag icul u al
planning, and assis in c ea ing adap a ion s a egies o ackle clima e change and i s a iabili y.
Table 5 A e age Clima ic Pa ame e s o he S udy A ea om NIMET S a ion
Mon h
Min Temp
Max Temp
Humidi y
Wind
Sun
Rad
ET0
°C
°C
%
km/day
hou s
MJ/m²/day
Mm/day
Jan
17.54
31.95
50
194
6.6
19.1
5.17
Feb
18.24
32.15
52
194
7.4
21.0
5.48
Ma ch
18.54
31.35
56
185
7.1
21.0
5.27
Ap il
18.14
29.15
65
168
6.7
20.0
4.52
May
17.64
27.85
70
168
7.1
19.5
4.11
June
17.24
27.35
69
168
6.7
18.3
3.88
July
16.84
26.65
70
185
5.6
17.0
3.67
Aug
16.74
26.95
70
168
6.2
18.7
3.89
Sep
6.84
28.35
67
168
7.0
20.5
4.38
Oc
17.14
29.45
63
168
7.5
21.2
4.69
No
17.24
30.15
57
194
7.2
20.0
4.89
Dec
17.34
30.65
54
211
7.3
19.8
5.08
A e age
17.44
29.35
62
181
6.9
19.7
4.59
Boo e e al. (2012) emphasize ha empe a u e is a i al abio ic ac o in luencing he g ow h, de elopmen , and
p oduc i i y o oma o plan s. Young e al. (2004) no e ha high ela i e humidi y, commonly seen du ing oma o-
g owing seasons in a ious egions o A ica, can signi ican ly wo sen he ad e se e ec s o empe a u e s ess. This
in e play o hea and humidi y se e ely dis up s op imal g owing condi ions o oma oes. The esul s o his s udy
sugges ha he impac s o hea s ess may p e en oma oes g own du ing he d y season unde cu en empe a u e
condi ions om eaching hei maximum gene ic yield po en ial. Gi en he al eady minimal s ess le els obse ed in
he cu en clima e, his is qui e conce ning. The e o e, any addi ional empe a u e inc eases b ough on by ongoing
clima e change may lead o e en mo e signi ican declines in oma o p oduc i i y and yield (Ayankojo & Mo gan, 2020).
The size o indi idual ui s in his s udy was no signi ican ly a ec ed by he cu en empe a u e le els; howe e , when
empe a u es ose abo e he exis ing ange, he e was a no iceable dec ease in bo h ui size and quan i y. These
indings demons a e he ulne abili y o oma o c ops o hea s ess and emphasize he necessi y o lexible a ming
p ac ices, such as de eloping hea - ole an cul i a s o planning plan ing imes, o sa egua d oma o yields om ising
empe a u es.
The oma o c op may expe ience hea s ess due o ising empe a u es; howe e , a su icien wa e supply o he
plan s o mee hei e apo a i e equi emen s may also alle ia e he p ojec ed inc ease in plan g ow h. Unlike a simila
empe a u e scena io wi h limi ed a ailable soil wa e and/o nu ien con en , he e ec s o hea s ess indica ed in
his s udy may be compa a i ely lowe because he model was simula ed unde non-limi ing wa e and nu ien
condi ions. Fu he mo e, linking he inc ease in biomass unde high empe a u es o a di ec e ec o empe a u e on
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2478-2488
2486
oma o de elopmen p o ed impossible. This is because, compa ed o plan s g own unde ideal empe a u e condi ions
wi hou hea s ess, oma o ui se is signi ican ly educed unde high- empe a u e-induced s ess, esul ing in a
g ea e alloca ion o esou ces (ca bon, wa e , and nu ien s) o ege a i e biomass (Boo e e al., 2012). Simila ly,
Bhanda i e al. (2021) ound ha when maximum empe a u es ise abo e 28o˚C, oma o yield pe ac e declines. Due
o hei sensi i i y o hea s ess, oma oes p oduce ewe ui s. Howe e , Houe ohossou e al. (2024) disco e ed ha
empe a u es in Po ugal signi ican ly a ec oma o yield o ecas s and ha empe a u es below 21°C g ea ly in luence
p oduc i i y. They also obse ed ha yield dec eased as ela i e humidi y inc eased. Ou indings align wi h Bhanda i
e al. (2021) asse ion ha yield inc eases a ela i e humidi y le els be ween 75% and 95%. Acco ding o
Houe ohossou e al. (2024), humidi y le els abo e 71% posi i ely impac ed he a e age oma o yield es ima e. The
indings align wi h hose o Dwamena (2022), who e alua ed he e ec s o minimum, maximum, and ela i e humidi y
luc ua ions on he yields o maize, cassa a, and yam in Wes A ica using mul iple eg ession. The indings indica ed
ha highe cassa a yields do no esul om inc eased ain all. Simila ly, Guo & Chen (2022) demons a ed ha
signi ican p ecipi a ion du ing blooming cons ains oma o de elopmen . Indeed, excessi e ain all can lead o
ag icul u al wa e logging, which impai s c op oo espi a ion.
The s udy e ealed a clea link be ween low e apo anspi a ion (ET) a es ac oss all h ee loca ions and inc eased
yields o oma oes. ET e e s o he o al wa e los due o plan anspi a ion and soil e apo a ion. When ET le els a e
ele a ed, oma o plan s expe ience wa e s ess, losing mois u e as e han hei oo s can abso b i (Hao e al., 2019).
Pe sis ing wa e de ici s can lead o a ious physiological s ess esponses, including wil ing, s un ed g ow h, educed
ui size, and, in se e e cases, plan dea h. Toma o plan s equen ly show a no iceable dec ease in ui ou pu when
exposed o high ET. While ui s ha a e al eady de eloping may desicca e and d op o oo soon, wa e s ess du ing
c ucial de elopmen al s ages can esul in lowe abo ion, which p e en s ui se . High ET al so ad e sely a ec s ui
quali y alongside yield educ ion. Due o hei lowe wa e con en , wa e -s essed oma o ui s a e usually smalle ,
less juicy, and less la o ul, making hem less appealing in he ma ke and o human consump ion (Ai es e al., 2022).
Addi ionally, he oma o plan 's oo s uc u e weakens wi h p olonged exposu e o wa e s ess, ende ing i mo e
suscep ible o diseases and pa hogens in he soil, such as downy mildew and oo o . The decline in c op heal h and
p oduc i i y du ing high ET si ua ions is in ensi ied by hese ac o s. In e es ingly, he s udy also ound ha a eas wi h
highe oma o yields usually had a e age humidi y and empe a u e, c ea ing mo e balanced and bene icial
mic oclima ic condi ions o plan g ow h. These indings align wi h p e ious esea ch ha emphasized he impo ance
o main aining a empe a e clima e and egula ing ET le els o maximize oma o yield.
4. Conclusion
This s udy aimed o e alua e he in e ela ions be ween soil a iabili y, wa e use e iciency (WUE), and he a ia ion
in clima ic condi ions, and how hey in luence oma o yield in Del a S a e, Sou h-Sou h Nige ia. The in es iga ion
co e ed se e al soil pa ame e s, including pH, elec ical conduc i i y, a ailable phospho us, o al ni ogen,
exchangeable ca ions (po assium, calcium, sodium, and magnesium) and pa icle size dis ibu ion (sil , sand, and clay).
Despi e he ac ha hese nu ien s inc eased soil e ili y, he dis ibu ion o pa icle sizes did no signi ican ly change,
sugges ing ha soil ex u e emained la gely cons an ac oss dep hs and loca ions. The indings highligh ed he c i ical
impac o i iga ion echniques on oma o cul i a ion by e ealing s a is ically signi ican di e ences (p < 0.01). While
his app oach was esou ce-in ensi e, i maximized p oduc ion by deli e ing i iga ion a 100% o he c op
e apo anspi a ion (ETc) equi emen ac oss seasons o op imal wa e usage e iciency (WUE). Applying 50% ETc, on
he o he hand, p o ed o be a good al e na i e o cos educ ion wi h minimal yield loss. Las ly, a clea di e ence in
oma o yields was obse ed ac oss a ious ag o-ecological zones. Mul iple ac o s, pa icula ly clima e a ia ions, we e
signi ican con ibu o s o his disc epancy. Regions cha ac e ized by mode a e empe a u es, adequa e ain all, and
ample sunshine—condi ions ha enhance plan g ow h and ui p oduc ion— eco ded highe oma o yields.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
No con lic o in e es o be disclosed.
Re e ences
[1] Abdalhi, M.A., Jia, Z., Luo, W., Ali, O.O., Chen, C. (2020). Simula ion o Canopy Co e , Soil Wa e Con en , and Yield
Using FAO-Aquac op Model Unde De ici I iga ion S a egies. Russian Ag icul u al Sciences, 46(3), 279–288.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3103/S106836742003012X.
