FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS
Sain -Pe e sbu g School o Social Sciences and A ea S udies
Depa men o Poli ical Science and In e na ional A ai s
Bo na A dehi
Ope a ionaliza ion o Nec opoli ics in he Uni ed S a es’ mig a ion policies
Thesis
Academic Supe iso
PhD In His o y
D . Oleg Ko nee
P o esso
Re iewe
PhD In Poli ical Science
D . Dmi y Goncha o
P o esso
PhD In Sociology
D . E geny Va sha e
Senio Resea che
Sain Pe e sbu g 2022
i
Abs ac
In Nec opoli ics, ea o dea h as a uni ying human expe ience is used as an ins umen o so e eign
obedience and social con ol – whence he agency’s shee exis ence is dependen on he so e eign.
This exis en ial d ead yields g ea poli ical au ho i y o so e eign o e ing p o ec ion in a o m o
e uge. Ye , he p ocess o e uge and immig a ion masks a iolen ins i u ional eali y ha emains
sa e behind a humani a ian na a i e o escuing e ugees. Th ough he explo a ion o he hidden
ins i u ional iolence, his pape sough o ind he meaning behind policies -as poli ical a i ac s-
which cons i u e legisla ion. Who c ea ed he policies? Why hey we e c ea ed? Who do hey bene i ?
Applied o he U.S.’s esponse o he mig a ion o A ghans, his esea ch u ilizes in e p e i e policy
analysis ools, his pape c ea es a amewo k o de ec ing possible bu eauc a ic en apmen s in
mig a ion policies o A ghans, which a e hen used as echnologies o con ol. This coalesces wi h he
phenomenological e hnog aphy o A ghan mig an s, whose expe ience o unde going mig a ion and
ese lemen can bols e he ealiza ion o how Nec opoli ics is ope a ionalized in he U.S.’s mig a ion
policies.
Аннотация
В Некрополитике страх смерти как объединяющий человеческий опыт используется как
инструмент повиновения суверену и социального контроля - таким образом, само
существование агентства зависит от суверена. Этот экзистенциальный страх дает большую
политическую власть суверену, предлагающему защиту в форме убежища. Однако процесс
предоставления убежища и иммиграции маскирует жестокую институциональную реальность,
которая остается в безопасности за гуманитарным нарративом спасения беженцев. Исследуя
скрытое институциональное насилие, в данной работе мы попытались найти смысл политики -
как политического артефакта - которая представляет собой законодательство. Кто создал эти
политики? Почему они были созданы? Кому они выгодны? Применительно к реакции США на
миграцию афганцев, данное исследование использует инструменты интерпретативного анализа
политики, создавая основу для выявления возможных бюрократических ловушек в
миграционной политике для афганцев, которые затем используются как технологии контроля.
Это сочетается с феноменологической этнографией афганских мигрантов, чей опыт миграции и
переселения может способствовать осознанию того, как некрополитика реализуется в
миграционной политике США.
ii
1. In oduc ion 2
2. Nec opoli ical Discou se 6
2.1 The Mig an 8
2.2.1 Ou da ed Regime 8
2.2.2 S a e F agili ies 9
2.2.2 Su i al Mig a ion 10
2.2.3 Nec opeon 11
2.2 The So e eign 13
2.3.1 English School In e na ional Rela ions 13
2.3.2 Te i o ial So e eign y 14
2.3.3 In e na ional Socie y 15
2.3 The Bu eauc acy 17
2.4.1 Remo e Con ol 17
2.4.2 Ex e nalizing Bo de s 18
2.4.3 Panop icon Camps 18
2.4.4 Hippoc a ic Bubble and Ci il Socie y 19
2.4.6 Legal Accoun abili y 20
2.4.7 Nec opeonage 21
2.4 Kabul in Calais 23
2.5.1 De ining Nec opoli ics 24
2.5.2 Bu eauc a ic Bind 24
2.5.3 Nec opeon E hnog aphy 25
3. Me hodology 27
3.1 Pos human Blackbox 28
3.2 S udying Ope a ionaliza ion 29
3.3 Theo y 30
3.4 Me hodology Roadmap 31
3.4.1 Compa a i e policy analysis 31
3.4.2 In e p e i e Policy analysis 31
3.4.3 Pos human Pe o ma i i y 32
3.4.3 Phenomenological E hnog aphy 33
3.5 Sou cing 34
4. The O acle and The Odyssey 36
4.1 Exodus 37
4.1.1 The Fou So e eigns o Mig a ion 37
4.1.2 The Fi h So e eign 41
4.1.3 The Doha Ag eemen 44
4.1.3 Lea e To Li e 46
4.2 En apmen 48
4.2.1 The Second Saigon 48
iii
4.2.2 The Ri e o passage 49
4.2.3 Policy In P ac ice 53
4.2.4 Ma ke ing On Mise y 54
4.3. Ka abasis 57
4.3.1 Domes ic Decay 57
4.3.2 Ope a ion Allies Re uge 59
4.3.3 Mili a ized Mig a ion 61
4.3.4 Caged In Li ing Hell 62
4.3.5 Se lemen 64
5. Conclusion 66
Re e ences 68
2
1. In oduc ion
The hea -w enching oo age o A ghan s owaways umbling om he sky as hey le go o he
landing gea s o he soa ing C-17 will emain imp in ed in he collec i e memo y o schola s s udying
he poli ics o mig a ion. Wa ching he oo age om A ghanis an, p o oked a cogni i e dissonance in
my mind: Ha ing wo ked wi h A ghan mig a ion cen e s in Malaysia, I unde s ood he emo ions, he
age, and he despe a ion o he A ghans p aying o help. As a poli ical scien is , I a emp ed o
a ionalize he U.S.’s e acua ion p ocess. The chase o hund eds o A ghans on he a mac o he
unway and he oo age o men and women being s acked o e acua ion om A ghanis an d aws a
amilia na a i e o he olde gene a ions who eminisce he all o Saigon – he oo age o he
Helicop e s e acua ing mig an s om he U.S. Embassy.
Bo h scenes symbolize he chao ic end o he Ame ican occupa ion o a o eign e i o y. Ye , he
acade o wha hey po ay, is a humani a ian e o by a o me in ade /occupie , escuing a swa m o
pleading e ugees. The ansi ion o in ade - o-sa iou is an ou ageously pe plexing phenomenon, one
which begs u he sc u iny in o he c ux o mig a ion. The in en o his esea ch s ems om my
inabili y o a ionalize he e acua ion. Wha I obse ed and unde s ood, is he clandes ine iolence
behind he spu ious humani a ian na a i e o he e acua ion.
My jou ney om being an a den humani a ian o a c i ic o he U.S.’s escue mission begins wi h he
wo ks o Achilles Mbembe, he Nec opoli ics, whose c i ique o colonial ins i u ions has been a
backbone o my an h opological s udies o ins i u ional iolence. The na a i e Mbembe d aws on,
asse s ha Nec opoli ics exis s as a phan om behind e e y humani a ian o dehumanizing decision in
wo ld poli ics. I s empi ical explo a ion will u ilize decision-make s wi h g ea e accoun abili y and
s onge conside a ion o digni ied human so e eign y. Sp ou ing om he wo ks o Mbembe, his
esea ch aims o ind he pa allels o how Nec opoli ical amewo ks, exe cised h ough legisla ions
and policies, culmina e in a humani a ian c isis wi hin he mig a ion.
Pa adoxically, he e is no o mal w i en policy ha legisla es he en o cemen o iolence in a
mig a ion p ocess o he bene i o he s a e. E go, he examina ion o a heo y ha ein o ces his
imp ession, equi es an in e p e i e app oach ha sc u inizes he en enched iolence, and he in insic
essences o policies. The essences cons i u e he b oade con ex su ounding he policies – Wha do
hey mean? Why hey we e d a ed? Who in oduced hem? Who bene i s om hem? An empi ical
s udy supplemen s he examina ion o he policies, by inco po a ing he ac ual and angible ou comes
o he policies om he ield hey’ e exe ed in. To wha ex en he meaning p esen ed by he policy
con o ms o i s meaning in p ac ice? I a policy en o ces iolence, how do we measu e he iolence?
3
This esea ch decons uc s he ope a ionaliza ion o ins i u ional iolence – he nec opoli ics– wi hin
he U.S.’s mig a ion policy. I builds a new pa adigm o examine a b oade spec um o U.S.’s o eign
policies, which wi h li le men ion o mig a ion, con ibu es o a g and scheme o ein o cing he U.S.’s
hegemonic s a us as he suze ain o he ee wo ld.
The acing o how nec opoli ical policies a e ope a ionalized o bols e “hegemonic” con en ions,
begins wi h concep ualizing he ela ion be ween he U.S. go e nmen as he so e eign, and he
e ugee immig an s as he subjec s o he so e eign. Gi en he limi ed schola ly consensus on wha
should be de ined as a “ e ugee”, my wo k uses he concep ualiza ion o “Su i al Mig an s”
p oposed by Be s.1Gi en he e m’s lack o compa ibili y o ully cap u e he scope o his esea ch, I
inco po a e i s undamen al ea u es in c ea ing a con enien neologism ha speci ically sui s he
indi iduals subjec ed o nec opoli ical policies – he nec opeon.
Nex , wi h s ong e e ence o he wo ks o Fi zge ald2and Haddad3, we es ablish he codependen
na u e be ween he So e eign and he Subjec s, and he clus e o policies he so e eign uses o
modula e i s e i o ies and consolida e i s con ol wi hin i s in e nal and ex e nal e i o ies. This
sec ion also s ongly d aws on he a ious policies used by he global No h o con ain and s all
mig a ion om he de eloping coun ies – policies which will echo s ongly in he empi ical sec ion.
By d awing e e ence o he wo ks o Da ies4on ins i u ional iolence o inac ion and ine ec i e
policies in he con ex o e ugees in Calais, his pape explo es he ecen schola ly wo ks wi hin he
nec opoli ical amewo ks. We u he discuss he gaps my esea ch is ough o ill by aking a lead
om Da ies’ exis ing esea ch.
This heo y-d i en esea ch which con ends o explo e he unw i en meanings and ins i u ions wi hin
mig a ion policies, s ongly u ilizes he in e p e i e me hods. The key heo y o his esea ch posi s ha
Nec opoli ical amewo ks in mig a ion policy a e ope a ionalized h ough labo ing he Nec opeons
o he so e eign’s consolida ion. Chap e 3. Me hodology decons uc s his heo y, and jus i ies he
employmen o in e p e a i e policy analysis, pos human pe o ma i i y, and phenomenological
e hnog aphy, as mediums o explo e he unw i en ins i u ional iolence o mig a ion policies. The
p emise o he esea ch is designed o inqui e abou he “How” and he “Why” a so e eign cons i u es
legisla ion esul ing in Nec opoli ical ounda ions. The me hodology chap e u he desc ibes he
oadmap o he esea ch and he sou cing p ocess.
4Violen Inac ion, 2017
3The Re ugee in In e na ional Socie y be ween So e eigns, 2008
2Re uge beyond Reach, 2019
1Su i al Mig a ion, 2013
4
The empi ical chap e , he O acle and he Odyssey, inco po a es he indings on policy analysis and
e hnog aphic esea ch in o a na a i e ha desc ibes how he U.S. c ea ed he condi ions o he
nec opoli ical amewo ks o ake e ec , and how his amewo k was ope a ionalized du ing he
A ghan mig a ion c isis. The indings da ingly sugges ha he U.S. acili a ed he mig a ion o occu
by delibe a ely mu ila ing he so e eign y o he A ghan go e nmen , and hampe ing he p ospec o
he o ma ion o a uni a y and ecognized A ghan so e eign a e he U.S.’s wi hd awal. The U.S. had
u he di ided he popula ion h ough i s Special Immig a ion Visa p og am (SIV), which buil a
sepa a e iden i y na a i e o he g oup A ghans, whose de ac o so e eign p o ec o a e would be he
U.S. go e nmen .
The policy analysis hen sugges s he U.S. go e nmen delibe a ely c ea ed a laby in hic ne wo k o
bu eauc a ic en apmen , which p olonged he mig a ion p ocess o he SIV applican s. This empo al
dimension was complemen ed by he U.S.’s u iliza ion o emo e mig a ion policies and caging, which
spa ially con ined he mig an s o he U.S. go e nmen ’s shee escapades. Despi e he ho endous
si ua ion he mig an s desc ibed du ing he caging pe iod, he policies enac ed by he policymake s a e
in e p e ed o delibe a ely p oduce minimal imp o emen s, p ese e he s a us quo, and make use o
he in olun a y labo o he mig an s – a nec opeonage. Mos g o esque, he s udy ound how U.S.
policymake s would essen ially use policy in oduc ion as a me hod o capi alize on he mise y o he
mig an s in p omo ing hei elec o al base, he eby ac ing unde domes ic mechanisms o so e eign
consolida ion.
Examining he se lemen policies and he use o caging yielded he mos concen a ed esul s on how
he mig a ion policies o e ugees consolida e he U.S’s so e eign y bo h ex e nally and in e nally.
Ex e nally, so e eign y is consolida ed h ough he mili a iza ion o he mig a ion p ocess. The
hi d-coun y ha hos s he e ugees be o e hei depa u e o he U.S., ac s as U.S.’s bu e – he
ex e nal dumping g ound o unwan ed e ugees. The mili a ized na u e o he e acua ions econs uc s
he image o he U.S. mili a y om an in ade o a sa io – con ibu ing o he axiom ha necessi a es
he p esence o he U.S. mili a y beyond i s so e eign e i o ies. In e nally, he caging o he mig an s
se es wo means o consolida ing he go e nmen ’s so e eign y wi hin he U.S.: Fi s ly, policies
ega ding he caging a e amed a ound Ame ican secu i y and p o ec ing Ame icans agains “o he s”.
By caging “o he s” he so e eign enjoys he domes ic suppo on he imp ession ha i is ul illing i s
esponsibili y o p o ec ing and homogenizing he subjec s agains he “o he s”. Secondly, cages a e
used as spaces o e-educa e he mig an s and in oduce hem o he Ame ican way o li e. This is
in e p e ed as indoc ina ing hem o he way o being an expec edly homogenized subjec o he
so e eign.
5
Th ough his esea ch and posi ing he cen al ques ion “cui bono?” we explo e he a enues h ough
which he nec opoli ical amewo ks a e ope a ionalized o se e he in e es o he so e eign – e en
unde a humani a ian acade. The ex ica ion o he clandes ine iolence o mig a ion om mig a ion
policies emb aces u u e policy analys s and ele an schola s o look beyond he numbe s and
posi i is p esupposi ions. The u iliza ion o a nec opoli ical amewo k, al hough daun ing, is a
equisi e o sc u inizing he iolen ins i u ion o mig a ion policies, which has le a gap in academia.
6
2. Nec opoli ical Discou se
The concep a he c ux o his esea ch, le e aging he li eabili y o indi iduals, coalesces wi h
Foucaul ’s p inciple o Biopoli ics – se s o mechanisms h ough which human li es and p ocesses a e
con olled by dominan ac o s, he s a e(s), h ough he enac men o powe . This concep was u he
explo ed in he con ex o colonialism by Mbembe, who dubbed he p ac ice o deciding o e an
indi idual’s li e, as Nec opoli ics – “ he capaci y o de ine who ma e s and who does no , who is
disposable and who is no .”5
Nec opoli ics illumina es how di e en humans a e assigned quan i iable alues which di e en ia e he
le el o impo ance and a en ion hey can ecei e om he s a es. Ye , he calculus o li eabili y is an
inc edibly complex subjec wi h a my iad o axes, a ying o di e en so e eigns wi h hei own
p io i ized subjec s. In an oblique concep ualiza ion, he u he an indi idual is si ua ed om he ends
o he axes, he mo e p eca ious hei li e is es ima ed h ough Nec opoli ics. The so e eign in his
p e ex , could be he body o he agency which holds “ he igh o kill”6, Mbembe says, h ough ac i e
iolence, o , as I a gue, he inac ion o de e iolence.
Mbembe ci es he wo ds o Foucaul , on “ he so e eign igh o kill (D oi de glai e) and he
mechanisms o biopowe ”7as a cons i u i e elemen o e e y mode n s a e. Foucaul in e p e s he
Nazi egime as he mos sophis ica ed case o exe cising he igh o kill – whe ein he go e nmen had
cul i a ed he essen ial social s uc u es and in as uc u es in a o midable consolida ion o hei inal
solu ion.8In pa allel, c ea ing a allible in as uc u e, wi h s ong dependencies on an exogenous
so e eign, wi h a limi ed capaci y o ci cum en ion om he s uc u e in case o ailu e, is wha I
in e p e as nec opoli ical condi ions o he subjec s wi hin his s uc u e
The condi ion A ghanis an was le wi h, ende ed a segmen o he popula ion as dependen subjec s
o he U.S. In e ms, A ghans we e le wi h a allible de ense and economic in as uc u e, wi h a
limi ed capaci y o ci cum en ion – gi en he na u al geog aphy o he coun y and i s dis us ing
ela ions wi h i s neighbo ing coun ies. In Mbembe’s e ms, his is he dea h-wo ld– “new and unique
o ms o social exis ence in which as popula ions a e subjec ed o condi ions o li e con e ing upon
hem he s a us o li ing dead.”9In he dea h-wo ld laws a e suspended o exe pu e con ol h ough
biopowe – o Nec opowe in he con ex o his esea ch.
9Ibid. p.92
8Ibid. p.67
7Ibid. p.71
6Ibid. p.60
5Achille Mbembe and S e en Co co an, Nec opoli ics (Du ham and London: Duke Uni e si y P ess, 2019). p.80
13
2.2 The So e eign
The p e ious chap e discussed he impo ance o so e eign y in de e mining he iden i y o he
mig an s in he amewo k o he English School o In e na ional Rela ions. Consequen ly, u he
explo a ion o his pe plexing concep main ains consis en adhe ence o his heo e ical amewo k.
By de e mining who and wha is he so e eign, we iden i y he agen s and ins i u ions ha ese ed he
capaci y o exe cise Nec opowe . This iden i ica ion o he So e eign will u he enable his
esea ch's capaci y o examine he ope a ionaliza ion amewo k o Nec opoli ics. In his sec ion, we
will explo e: Is i uly possible ha an A ghan could be simul aneously subjec ed o wo sepa a e
so e eigns? Wha makes and legi imizes a so e eign? Is a so e eign's each o i s subjec s bound o
he e i o ial bounda ies?
2.3.1 English School In e na ional Rela ions
The English school in e p e s he in e na ional sys em o be uni o m and s a ic wi h each so e eign
ha ing he ecip ocal esponsibili ies o adhe ing o ce ain uni e sal p inciples. This axiom, o Emma
Haddad, is o e es ima ed and deba able. She belie es so e eigns in In e na ional Rela ions posi s a
mo e dynamic and luid sys em wi h plen y o blu ed lines, e en wi hin he cons i u ed e i o ial
sys em.26 This unde s anding is u he challenged by he ole o he e ugee, as an anomaly, o he
phenomenon ha he e ugee can c oss he e i o ial sys ems, challenge he s a ic concep o
so e eign y, and ci izenship as a na u al p e-gi en ea u e.27
While he English school in e p e s legal o de based on he coexis ence o so e eigns, he ole o
independen ac o s is also accoun ed o – enabling g ounds o assess he so e eign and subjec
ela ions wi h g ea e sc u iny. The e ugee’s posi ion is-a`- is indi idual s a es has been s udied by
Haddad o a g ea ex en o na a e he dynamics o he so e eign y and p o ide a c i ical
unde s anding o he “con adic ions s a es ace in bo h unde s anding he e ugee as a concep and
o e ing p o ec ion o he e ugee as an indi idual.”28
By s udying he esponse o an ex e nal so e eign o mig a ion phenomena, Haddad accen ua es he
ela ionship be ween he so e eign and he mig a ing subjec s’ coun y o o igin. In his sense,
e e encing Haddad’s assessmen o so e eign ela ions wi h one ano he and he mig an s indulges us
in be e unde s anding he ela ionship be ween A ghan nec opeon and he Taliban s a e, A ghan
nec opeons and he U.S. go e nmen , and he so e eign ecogni ion be ween he Taliban s a e and he
U.S. go e nmen .
28 Ibid. p.11
27 Ibid. p.14
26 Emma Haddad, The Re ugee in In e na ional Socie y be ween So e eigns (Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess,
2008). p.11
14
2.3.2 Te i o ial So e eign y
The bi h o a so e eign wi hin he con ines o a e i o y is consolida ed h ough he cons uc ion o a
single so e eign go e nmen , o which he popula ion o he e i o y owes hei inal allegiance o.29
Thus, he Taliban akeo e o A ghanis an and he capi ula ion o he p e ious egime es ablished he
Islamic Emi a e o A ghanis an as he de ac o so e eign o he A ghan people, whe he o no hey
we e p o ec ed by any ex e nal so e eign h ough he p e ious go e nmen . Those who lack ideli y
and allegiance o he s a e, a e as much unde he nec opowe o he so e eign as hose who ha e
ul illed hei oa h o allegiance.
Consolida ion o e a so e eign dominion en ails he du y o “ ep esen and p o ec all hose who all
wi hin he so e eign ju isdic ion o he s a e: a ailu e o he so e eign o ul ill hese du ies has he
po en ial o p oduce e ugees.”30 Thus, so e eign y also ca ies he esponsibili y o ensu e he
well-being o all ci izens, wi h espec o hei human igh s. Rei e a ing Be s’ a gumen om he
p e ious sec ion, hen he ailu e o p o ide a sys em o subs an i e so e eign y o p o ec he
undamen al needs o he subjec s esul s in he subjec s seeking p o ec ion om an ex e nal
so e eign y – an e iden case wi h A ghanis an.
To answe wha c ea es a mig an and he mig a ion phenomena, Haddad aces he mig a ion
mo emen s o he ailing ecip ocal ela ions be ween he so e eign and subjec s. She posi s, ha when
he ela ionships be ween he wo ail, he subjec s a e coe ced o lea e he coun y. Ye , as he esul o
ailing ela ions wi h he so e eign, and he so e eign’s ela ion wi h he in e na ional communi y o
so e eigns, no hing ex e nally gua an ees he accep ance o he mig an by an ex e nal so e eign.31 The
excep ion o his, as he p e ious chap e discussed, is i he mig an alls wi hin he limi ed amewo k
o “Re ugee” based on he 1951 con en ion. In he same ame, i an indi idual wi hin he s a e makes
all c i e ia o ca ego iza ion as a “ e ugee” bu ye hasn’ le he coun y, hen, his indi idual is me ely
he “in e nally displaced pe son”, which emains an in e nal issue o he s a e o o igin.32 The chap e
4, he O acle and he Odyssey explo es he limi a ions o his p inciple o he A ghans wi hin
A ghanis an who we e g an ed p o ec ion by he U.S. h ough he la e ’s special mig a ion policies.
This de ining condi ion, o lea e he e i o ies, was also embedded in Be s’ Su i al Mig an
ypology unde he p e ense ha he access o he in e na ional socie y o he indi idual is necessa y o
ex ica e he subjec om he nec opowe o i s so e eign. An A ghan who hasn’ been able o lea e
he coun y is no ough o accep he suppo o he in e na ional socie y, as hey s ill lay wi hin he
32 Ibid. p.61
31 Ibid. p.60
30 Ibid. p.85
29 Ibid.
15
so e eign y o he Taliban A ghanis an – whe e he s a e main ains a monopoly o nec opowe o e he
nec opeon. Fo he nec opeon, he escape om nec opowe doesn’ end wi h lea ing he e i o ies o
hei male olen so e eign. Upon lea ing he e i o ies o one so e eign, he subjec has en e ed he
e i o ies o ano he so e eign wi hin he in e na ional socie y. The powe o deny se lemen , o
es ic li eabili y o ba e-li e, ex ends he nec opowe o one so e eign o he o he . A guably, he
nec opowe o e he mig an isn’ in insic o he so e eigns bu is a he ansmi ed h ough he
mo emen s o he nec opeon in a me apho ical o mica ion o insec s a ound a suga cube.
2.3.3 In e na ional Socie y
F om he p ism o in e na ional socie y, he global o de is di ided in o so e eign s a es, whe ein he
so e eigns ha e au ho i y o e in e nal con ol and ex e nal au onomy.33 Haddad compa es so e eign
s a es o Janus- aced igu es, which simul aneously main ain an inwa d gaze owa ds hei domes ic
subjec s while keeping an ou wa d con ac wi h he o he s a es. The combina ion o his inwa d and
ou wa d look is wha g an s he so e eign i s expec ed au ho i y. A so e eign en i y is conside ed a
so e eign i i is ea ed as a so e eign by o he so e eign s a es.34 This p inciple, as Haddad poin s ou ,
demands ou wa d equal and ecip ocal ecogni ion om o he membe s o he in e na ional socie y,
and “ ha a so e eign s a e mus e ain om in e e ing in he domes ic a ai s o o he so e eigns, and
ha e i o y will be he ul ima e objec o poli ical li e.”35
Haddad u he a gues how he causal ela ions be ween nega i e and posi i e so e eign y could allude
o he c ea ion o e ugees. In he changing na u e o so e eign y, Bol desc ibes Posi i e So e eign y
as an a ibu e o a go e nmen “which has he capaci y o p o ide poli ical goods o hose i claims o
ep esen ”36, whe e a go e nmen is essen ially i s own mas e . Con e sely, nega i e so e eign y is
whe e a go e nmen is oid o ex e nal in e e ence, while lacking he capaci y o p o ide udimen a y
undamen al needs o i s subjec s.37
The in e na ional socie y’s undamen al assump ion is ha s a es “possess posi i e so e eign y and a e
he e o e good o hei ci izens, ye hese obliga ions a e a om always me .”38 Howe e , when a
gap is clea aged be ween nega i e so e eign y o he s a es in he in e na ional socie y and posi i e
so e eign y o he indi idual s a es, o ice e sa, he disc epancy esul s in he c ea ion o e ugees.39
39 Ibid.
38 Ibid. p.4
37 Ibid.
36 Michael Bol , “The Changing Na u e o So e eign y,” E-In e na ional Rela ions, 2013,
h ps://doi.o g/h ps://www.e-i .in o/2013/10/17/ he-changing-na u e-o -so e eign y/.
35 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
33 Ibid. p.48
16
The case o A ghanis an in ei he a gumen s ands o be a global anomaly ha unde mines much o ou
con en ional unde s anding o so e eigns. While he Taliban go e nmen has been on a cha ming
o ensi e o es ablish i sel in e na ionally, i has achie ed minimal de ac o success. Al hough
go e nmen ep esen a i es join diploma ic missions wi h Anka a and Doha in o eign missions, he
s a e lacks de ju e ecogni ion. E en be o e he s a e capi ula ion in 2001, only Pakis an, Saudi A abia
and he Uni ed A ab Emi a es ecognized he egime’s so e eign y.
In his i ue, i is a he easy o explain how he A ghan mig an s si ua ed wi hin A ghanis an seek
p o ec ion om an ex e nal so e eign. No only he Taliban egime’s ailu e o p o ide undamen al
needs o i s subjec is a glo i ied example o nega i e so e eign y, i de oids he A ghans om he
capaci y o ecognized s a ehood beyond he e i o ies o A ghanis an. E en wi hou conside ing how
he A ghan go e nmen has ailed domes ically, he ma e o lacking so e eign ecogni ion
in e na ionally se s he coun y an amoun o p ison o i s inhabi an s wi h maximal es ic ion o
c oss-bo de mo emen .
Haddad u he aces he c ea ion o e ugees o he ailu es o he in e na ional socie y, by a guing in
a so e eign’s e o o homogenize i s e i o ial space, some subjec s a e ine i ably o cibly mo ed
be ween bo de s and so e eigns – whe ein he s a e’s need o homogenize in he i s place, was a
measu e o de e he in e na ional socie y’s domes ic in e e ence. S a es, hen e ain he igh “ o
decide who may en e hei e i o y and hence whom hey will p o ec .”40 While his is a ele an
a gumen o desc ibe he A ghan exodus, Haddad’s da ing asse ion is a alis ic and lacks cla i y and
ele ance e en in he B i ish school’s in e p e a ion o so e eign y. Mig a ion and mo emen ha e
been a human phenomenon e en p io o he c ea ion o he i s so e eign e i o ies. The a ibu es
Haddad yields as So e eign beha io – o homogenize and con ol– a e essen ially in insic human
beha io s.
40 Ibid. p.69
17
2.3 The Bu eauc acy
The wo p e ious chap e s emphasized he impo ance o a mig an ’s access o he in e na ional
socie y as he i s i e o passage. Ye , he ails o access he in e na ional socie y a e a mo e
con olu ed han me ely c ossing he bo de . A byzan ine conund um o legal pa hways and
con usingly opaque humani a ian co ido s g ea ly complica e he mo emen s o he p ospec ing
mig an s. The de as a ing esul s o his a e i id in he ho i ic ideo o A ghans clu ching he
landing gea o U.S. Ai o ce C-17 du ing i s akeo , jus o all o hei demise. In he e en o such
an inciden , he in e na ional socie y mus con empla e how and why his was deemed p e e ed o a
legal mig a ion? Wha d i es A ghans o seek e uge on an ac i e ai po ’s a mac?
Da id S.Fi zge ald’s "Re uge Beyond Reach" p o ides an excellen insigh in o he p eca ious
passways Libe al Democ acies ha e c ea ed in an e o o epel mig an s. Fi zge ald begins is his book
wi h he d owning o Alan Ku di, he wo yea s old Ku dish boy who was washed up o he Tu kish
sho es, a e he ubbe li eboa o mig an smuggle s was d owned. In an in es iga ion o wha
cons i u es he c ea ion o simila i egula mig a ion passages, Fi zge ald explo es my iads o
bu eauc a ic, humani a ian, and secu i y en apmen , designed o de e mig a ion – a leas h ough
legal means.
S udying he wo k o Fi zge ald gi es eade s he undamen al p ecu so s o unde s anding how
policies a e ope a ionalized. Wi hin his ame o ope a ionaliza ion, we may deba e whe he he
execu ion o Nec opowe is an unp emedi a ed byp oduc o he en apmen policies o a delibe a e
nec opoli ical echnology o con olling he indi iduals.
2.4.1 Remo e Con ol
The i s legal ba ie s o he A ghab mig an s o access In e na ional Socie y a e he emo e con ol
policies imposed by he U.S. These policies en ail he U.S. go e nmen o ex end i s au ho i y beyond
i s e i o ial bound ies “in ex ensi e, ou ine collabo a ion o ack and de e [mig an s] and pa icula
g oups ying o c oss bo de s.”41 Fi zge ald u he a gues his sys em o e i o ialized asylum is
p ima ily designed o keep away undesi ed Asylum Seeke s by con ining hem o hi d “sa e” coun ies
in ex e nalized e i o ies.42
Remo e con ol policies a e a he c ux o ope a ionalizing Nec opoli ics wi hin mig a ion policies.
Al hough Fi zge ald p o ides an ex ensi e lis o emo e con ol policies adop ed by he go e nmen s
42 Ibid.
41 Da id Fi zge ald, Re uge beyond Reach: How Rich Democ acies Repel Asylum Seeke s (New Yo k, NY: Ox o d
Uni e si y P ess, 2019). p.12
18
o he Global No h, I will p ima ily ocus on ools o Ex e nalizing bo de s, Caging, and he
Hippoc a ic bubble – as he case is mos ele an o he A ghan mig a ion.
2.4.2 Ex e nalizing Bo de s
Ex e nalizing bo de s en ails o in e cep ing he en y o he mig an o he hos coun y, and he
mig an 's depa u e om he coun y o o igin. Fo ins ance, by no ecognizing he passpo s issued by
he Taliban go e nmen , he egiemes ha do no ecognize he so e eign y o he Taliban, ha e
engaged in an ex eme o m o ex e nalized bo de s, whe e he depa u e o A ghans is denied h ough
any digni ied legal a enue. Su i al mig an s a e coe ced o c oss bo de s wi hou any possible legal
pa hway. Fi zge ald applies he same p ac ice o he U.S. Coas Gua d when hey in e cep he people
on boa s sailing om he Ca ibbean islands. By con olling and in e cep ing he e ugee boa s coming
om he Hai i and Cuba, he U.S. has inad e en ly made cages ou o he island coun ies.43
By manipula ing e i o iali y, go e nmen s es ablish so e eign e i o ies ou side hei coun y, whe e
he unc ion o bo de s is ex ended “hund eds o e en housands o kilome e s beyond he s a e’s
e i o y”44Ex e nalizing bo de s ci cum en s holding he go e nmen s accoun able o he in e na ional
asylum egime – en o ced by he in e na ional socie y. As Fi zge ald poin s ou , by placing he
mig an s in a hi d sa e coun y o an ex a- e i o ial des ina ion, he hos coun y is able o depo he
mig an s back o he coun y o o igin, wi hou iola ing non- e oulemen – he law which o bids
e u ning asylum seeke s o a coun y whe e hey’d be endange ed.45 The emo e policies hen g an an
absolu e posi ion o nec opowe , whe e he ecei ing coun y holds he igh o e u n he mig an s. In
ex ension, his co esponds o he igh o he igh o le hem li e, o lea e hem o die.
2.4.3 Panop icon Camps
Ano he o m o ex e nalizing he bo de s is whe e he go e nmen designs o i ica ions a he
en ance o hei e i o y. A classic example o his would be he Ellice Islands, which la e became he
ounda ion ock unde he s a ue o Lady Libe y. Al hough his may ha e a posi i e conno a ion o
“Hope” and he “Home be o e Home” in he he go e nmen ’s na a ion, he special ules ha apply o
hese a eas a e mo e in pa allel wi h a chaic medie al ba icades buil ou side he cas les. Fi zge ald
poin s o hese ba icades as means o c ea ing he “ ic ion ha asylum seeke s a e no physically
p esen in he s a e’s e i o y, o a leas no ully wi hin i s walls, whe e hey would ha e g ea e igh s
like access o lawye s and independen e iew o hei appeals”46
46 Ibid. p.9
45 Ibid.
44 Ibid. p.171
43 Ibid. p.9
19
This me hod is also accompanied by Caging, which keeps he e ugees in an enclosed a ea ei he
wi hin hei coun y o o igin, in a hi d-coun y, o in he ecei ing coun y. In ei he case, he
con inemen o e ugees wi hin cages ba s hei access o in e na ional socie y. I he cages a e loca ed
in he coun y o o igin, hen he mig an s a e me ely in e nally displaced people – ano he allacy ha
es ic ed his esea ch om using Su i al Mig an label p oposed by Be s.
In e na ional O ganiza ion o Mig a ion (IOM) has been no o iously c i icized o enabling caging, by
ecei ing unds om he Global No h o “ und e ugee camps and cen e s o asylum seeke s, usually
in coun ies neighbo ing con lic zones, and o epa ia e e ugees who a e willing o can be made o
e u n home”47 By enabling ba e-li e, and p o ision o he mos basic and undamen al needs o
asylum seeke s, IOM camps a e ha dly di e en ia ed om a Panop icon p ison a chi ec u e: hey
p o ide ood, shel e , logis ics, and mass su eillance – p ima ily o p e en u he mo emen o he
e ugees owa ds he global No h.48 This p ac ice is oddly in pa allel wi h Mbembe’s o iginal
p oposi ion on Nec opoli ics: To keep he subjec s ali e, bu no li ing.
2.4.4 Hippoc a ic Bubble and Ci il Socie y
By e encing he wo ks o psychologis s, Fi zge ald posi s ha “people a e mo e likely o mobilize
a ound sa ing he li es o iden i iable indi iduals in close p oximi y”, and hus emo e con ol policies
a e delibe a ely c ea ed o hwa his humani a ian impulse.49 This peculia p ac ice o nec opoli ics is
howe e seemingly en enched e en wi hin he U.S.’s domes ic policies. Fi zge ald e e ences he
wo k o Sociologis , Alejand o Po es, who desc ibes “U.S. hospi als o en delibe a ely c ea e
obs acles be ween sick people seeking heal h ca e and he doc o s who ha e aken he Hippoc a ic
Oa h o ende aid”50 o ins i u ionally es ic he access o pa ience wi hou su icien esou ces and
insu ance o ecei e medical a en ion. In a li e al close p oxima ion o he case wi h emo e policies,
pa ien s mus pass “hospi al’s cle ical ga ekeepe s and physical ba ie s su ounding he examina ion
oom” be o e hey each he space he doc o s Hippoc a ic is cons i u ed.51
A majo de e ence o Fi zge ald’s Hippoc a ic Bubble is he ole o domes ic and in e na ional ci il
socie ies. Acco ding o he au ho , ad ocacy o ci il socie ies, combined wi h legal ac ion buil up o e
he las decades ha e won mo e ic o ies o he Asylum seeke s in he cou s, han he policymake s
in he cong ess52 Whe e he go e nmen s use ex e nalized bo de s and cages o de e mig an s, hey
mus engage in policies ha do no en o ce any u hless and ha sh ea men o he mig an s. Else, he
52 Ibid. 255
51 Ibid. p.254
50 Ibid. p.254
49 Ibid. p.253
48 Ibid.
47 Ibid. p.40
20
segmen o ci il socie y esponsible o in es iga ing and publicizing hese policies will igge a
domino e ec o o he segmen s o ci il socie y o engage in p o es ing and delegi imizing he
go e nmen .53 An in amous case o his exac inciden is how he Aus alian go e nmen was
sc u inized o using he Ch is mas island as a de en ion camp o he unwan ed mig an s –– leading o
he camp’s empo a y closu e in 2018.
2.4.6 Legal Accoun abili y
Th ough ei he caging o hype -ex e nalizing bo de s, go e nmen s in he global no h e ade e ugee
p o ec ion laws. Despi e wha Fi zge ald dubs as a “Hype -legal” logic o policies, many asylum
seeke s ha e managed o bypass e e y deadly ba ie o each sanc ua ies one way o ano he .54 F om
hen on, he e ugees a e no ye gua an eed p o ec ion, as hey mus s ill ca y he hi een h labo o
He cules: he Bu eauc a ic En apmen . The sho comings o he English school o In e na ional
Rela ions could be explo ed om he p ism o Ame ican Realism, as he subsequen sec ions in end o
ollow. By accoun ing o how Ame ican ealism a ionalizes he decions o policymake s, we’ll
de elop an analy ical unde s anding o how delibe a e beu oc a ic en ampmen se e he go e nmen .
Fi zge ald's explo es he phenomena o legal en apmen by i s explo ing how mig a ion policies a e
c ea ed wi hin di e en In e na ional Rela ions schools. By he i ue o he embedded libe alism in he
global no h, he go e nmen 's a oid adop ing es ic i e policies ha could es ain he ma ke
economies.55 Libe al policymake s, hus, p ima ily ocus on gene a ion o demand o ade, ou ism,
and Labou mig a ion d i es he economy. Th ough his p io i iza ion, he mos puni i e policies on
mig a ion a e ossed om one end o he able o he ealis ’s side.
In he ealis heo ical ame, he s a es p ima ily ac in hei own in e es and p io i ize secu i y, by
dismissing he “ ele ance o in e na ional human igh s law such as he e ugee egime.”56 Howe e ,
beyond apa hy o humani a ian in e es and bene olence o he policymake s, he ealis s also ha e an
in e es in d a ing incen i ying mig a ion policies – which coincide wi h s onge domes ic secu i y
and uni y. The wo k o Haddad, al hough based on he English School, examined he ela ionship
be ween a so e eign and a mig an , and how he la e ’s p o ision o he “O he ness” gi es domes ic
alidi y and ecogni ion o he so e eign – homogenizing he subjec s. Haddad desc ibes he
phenomena o human displacemen as a needed side-e ec o s a e-building, whe e i p o ided a
dis inc ion be ween inside s and ou side s, “ o consolida e he concep o ci izenship and he so e eign
ole o he s a e.”57 Haddad adds, “people need ‘o he s’ o be able o in en o hemsel es a ‘we’ as
57 Haddad, p.55
56 Ibid. 50
55 Ibid. 65
54 Ibid. 253
53 Ibid.
21
dis inc om a ‘ hey’.”58 To his end, pe he Ame ican ealism, we may a gue, Realis policymake s
also ha e a bee o pick om he ca cass o Nec opoli ical policies – whe e he so e eign ule is
s eng hened h ough he pe ils o mig a ion, he ad en o he “O he s”. E en pe Mo gen hau’s
classical ealism, he su i al o he so e eign s a e wi hin an ana chic in e na ional sys em is
dependen on he ana chis /mig an s.
E go, by cons uc ing policies ha seemingly es ain legal mig a ion and c ea e illegal co ido s o
i egula mig an s, he ealis policymake achie es wo miles ones: Res ic s o al mig a ion o he
“o he s”, and s eng hens he go e nmen so e eign y o domes ic subjec s, who ely on he o me o
p e en illegal mig a ion.
2.4.7 Nec opeonage
Th ough a close inspec ion o he wo ks o Alexande Why e, we may also en e ain he idea o
Nec opeon being a mo e appealing o he neolibe al and neo ealis ins i u ionalis s who sha e
“simila me hodology, epis emology, and on ology. The me hods by which neo ealis s and neolibe als
s udy he wo ld a e analogous”59 wi h hem being “complemen a y as opposed compe i i e app oaches
o In e na ional Rela ions.”60 The compa ible syn hesis o he wo is addi ionally s eng hened by hei
simila posi ion on he in e na ional sys em as a whole, whe e he s a es a e he main a ional ac o s,
shaped by means o gaining ad an ages om he global ana chy.61
The su ix o Nec o– o he neologism o Nec opeon is used o emphasize he p ac ice o Peonage
wi hin he amewo k o Nec opoli ics. Peonage is de ined by Webs e 's dic iona y as “ he use o
labo e s bound in se i ude because o deb .” A su i al mig an , an i egula mig an , o an asylum
seeke , a e bound o ollow limi ed co ido s o li eabili y o a oid depo a ion o hei coun y o
o igin. The owed deb in his con ex is he li e o he peon; he peonage is wha hey do o be le li ed
o o be no le o die. Any labou se ed by he mig an s – h ough exis ing as a su i al mig an – is
in olun a y, and any means o p oducing angible ou comes om i is nec opeonage.
In heo y, he imp ession ha an i egula mig an ’s a i al o a hos coun y se es o s eng hen he
go e nmen ’s so e eign y –pa icula ly i he mig an has used illegal co ido s– c ea es an incen i e o
main ain he illegal s a us o he mig an , and c ea e delibe a ely de ec i e policies o u u e mig an s
bypass legal mig a ion.
61 Ibid. p.6
60 Ibid.
59 Alexande Why e, “Neo ealism and Neolibe al Ins i u ionalism: Bo n o he Same App oach?,” E-In e na ional
Rela ions, 2012, h ps://doi.o g/ISSN: ISSN 2053-8626. p.3
58 Ibid.
22
I an A ghan mig an is willing o climb he landing gea s o C-17 du ing a akeo , i ’s no imp obable
o a “Neo-neo hinke ” o conside wha else would he ha e done. Wi h his hough , he p ac ice o
(nec o)peonage, is any u ili y o he peon’s condi ion – a line in policy whi epape s w i en in in isible
ink. The nex ollowing sec ion ope a ionalizes he neologism o Nec opeon and Nec opeonage, wi h
e e ence o he s udies o Da ies, whose esea ch is he ounda ion-s one o mine as he i s empi ical
esea ch on he ope a ionaliza ion o Nec opoli ics in e ugee mig a ion policies.
29
3.2 S udying Ope a ionaliza ion
Pe he wo ks o Da ies and Mbembe, he s udy o Nec opoli ics is cons i u ed as he s udy o
ins i u ional and s uc u al iolence. Following Da ies’s app oach, iolence is de ined by he damage
o inju y in lic ed on he indi idual h ough ac ion o inac ion. E en policies o humani a ian
appeasemen , such as caging and housing in undigni ied condi ions a e posi ed by Da ies o ac as
slow iolence – delayed des uc ion.80
Re e encing he wo ks o Be s, Haddad, and Fi zge ald now p o ides a new ins i u ional
unde s anding as o Why and which policies a e implemen ed o he e ugees by he so e eigns. The
“How” and he “Why” a so e eign cons i u es legisla ion esul ing in delayed o immedia e des uc ion
o he subjec is he objec i e o his esea ch. Es ablishing he So e eign in his con ex as he U.S.
go e nmen , and he subjec s as he Nec opeons, he cen al ques ion o his esea ch eads:
How is Nec opoli ics ope a ionalized in he Uni ed S a es’ mig a ion policy?
In es iga ing he answe o his ques ion will se e o p o ide schola ly knowledge on wha policies
a e p ima ily implemen ed wi hin he Nec opoli ical amewo k, and secondly how hese policies a e
expe ienced by he subjec s. The ma e o ope a ionaliza ion is amalgama ed be ween he wo laye s
o policy implemen a ion and policy execu ion. Thus, as he subsequen sec ions will u he explo e,
he esea ch is equipped wi h wo gene al esea ch me hods:
1. Policy Analysis – o unde s and how and why policies a e cons uc ed wi hin Nec opoli ical
ames
2. E hnog aphy – o unde s and how policies a e ope a ionalized in he ield o mig a ion om he
mig an s’ pe spec i e
80 Thom Da ies, e al. Violen Inac ion, 1270
30
3.3 Theo y
Gi en he ounda ion o his esea ch is based on examining he p esence o an obse ed heo y in an
empi ical phenomenon, i is sa e o ca ego ize his pape as a heo y-d i en scien i ic inqui y.
Fu he mo e, gi en he in insic s uc u e o his esea ch is abou s udying p ocesses and ex apola ing
hei u u e ou comes, we can en angle abduc i e easoning o yield g ea e ex apola ions based on he
indings.
Using a iables and hypo heses is no quin essen ial in a heo y-d i en app oach – and hus nei he is
he an icipa ion o gene alized esul s. On he con a y, hey’ e qui e de imen al o he p ocesses o
s udying phenomena. Ins ead o using a iables, phenomenology in his esea ch s udies he essence o
phenomena by in e p e ing he expe iences o people who’ e been engaged wi h i . The heo e ical
ounda ion o his esea ch akes lead om Da ies’ conclusion and inco po a es he neologism o
Nec opeon wi hin he concep ual amewo ks o so e eign subjec ela ions.
The heo y eads: Nec opoli ical amewo ks in mig a ion policy a e ope a ionalized h ough labo ing
he Nec opeons o he so e eign’s consolida ion.
The decons uc ion o he heo y ollows his 3-s ep logic:
1. The U.S. go e nmen consolida es i s so e eign y o e esiden s o an in aded coun y. This is
accomplished h ough c ea ing policies o su i abili y dependence. Then, he subjec s who
we e aligned wi h he U.S. go e nmen will emain dependen on he U.S.’s so e eign
p o ec ion wi hin in e nal and hype -ex e nalized e i o ies o he U.S.;
2. The policies implemen ed by he U.S. go e nmen wi hin hese e i o ies, hen en ap he
subjec s in legal conund ums, which u he es ains he subjec s’ indi idual eedom on he
so e eign’s will;
3. The subjec s’ su i abili y dependence on he so e eign, is concep ualized as Nec opeon,
whe e he Nec opeon uncondi ionally se es and s eng hens he so e eign’s consolida ion
wi hin in e nal and ex e nalized e i o ies.
31
3.4 Me hodology Roadmap
Explo ing he 4 s ages o heo y deploys 3 empi ical esea ch me hods:
3.4.1 Compa a i e policy analysis
The i s s age, s udying policies o su i abili y u ilizes c oss-case analysis and compa a i e policy
analysis. Du ing he i s s age, his esea ch examines he policies he U.S. cons uc ed in Indochina,
du ing i s o eign mili a y expedi ions. Gi en U.S.’s policy ou come in A ghanis an has led o he
coun y e aining he name “G a eya d o Empi es'' and he “Second Vie nam”, s udying he case o
Indochina, he U.S.-Vie nam wa , opens a pe iphe al knowledge on wha mig a ion policies we e
cons i u ed o he Vie namese seeking Ame ican e uge.
This segmen se es as an in oduc o y sec ion o he subsequen componen s o he empi ical
esea ch, by b ie ly iden i ying uni ying ea u es o he policies, hei d awbacks, and he ex en o
which hey could be in e p e ed wi hin Nec opoli ical amewo ks.
3.4.2 In e p e i e Policy analysis
The in e p e i e policy analysis me hod p o ides he mos sophis ica ed oolbox o s udying policies
and ou comes. Th ough employing he pe o ma i e and discu si e app oaches, in e p e i e policy
analysis sc u inizes he language o he policies, he in en o he policymake s, and he in ended
ou come he policy was ou o p oduce o e hose on i s ecei ing end. Chap e 2.4.6 Legal
Accoun abiliu y a icula ed how he nec opoli ical amewo k and bu eauc a ic en apmen could se e
he in e es s o he Neo-neo policymake s, h ough es ic ing mig a ion and consolida ing so e eign y.
S udying he hi d s age o he heo y pe ains o his exac assump ion and equi es deploying a policy
analysis me hod which s udies a g ea e spec um o how policies a e cons i u ed.
D o a Yanow’s ex ensi e wo k on conduc ing in e p e i e policy analysis desc ibes he in e p e i e
app oach o “ ocus on he meanings ha policies ha e o a b oad ange o policy- ele an publics,
including bu no limi ed o clien s and po en ial clien s, legisla o s, cogna e agencies [...],
implemen e s [...], and po en ial o e s”81 In e p e i e me hods a e cons uc ed on he p esupposi ion
ha laws, as ambiguous as hey ough o be, a e cha ac e ized by possibili ies o mul iple in e p e a ion
and in en ion. No mig a ion policy explici ly demands sna ing mig an s in o a byzan ine legal
p ocedu e whe e hey su e o he poin o epulsion. Thus, he in e p e i e me hod p o ides
pe iphe ies o enable examining hese imp essions, i his is how hey’ e expe ienced by he subjec s o
he policies.
81 D o a Yanow. ,Conduc ing In e p e i e Policy Analysis, 2000, p.9
32
In e p e i e me hods also help wi h examining he aming o policies, whe e we explo e he “ u h”
cons i u ed by he policy, a he han wha i “says” in explici language.82 Analysis o he “ u h” in
policies doesn’ pe ain o a a alis ic iew o wha he eal in en o he policy is, bu a he how i s
“ u h” is in e p e ed by he policy’s s akeholde s. Did he Neo-neo policymake s delibe a ely hampe
mig a ion h ough obs uc ionis policies? Do he seemingly humani a ian policies cons uc
en apmen s?
Iden i ica ion o ame is p ima ily deployed h ough iden i ying symbolic a i ac s o a policy – who
has sculp ed i , why i was sculp ed, wha symbol he policy se ed o i s s onemason, and wha
symbol i se es o i s subjec s, he in e p e i e communi y.83 Symbols a e meanings in e p e ed om
policies; he abs ac ion ha cons uc s he ela ionship be ween he so e eign and he subjec s.
Complemen a y o he e hnog aphic chap e , he in e p e i e me hod deploys phenomenology o
iden i y he policy a i ac s and he ame. Acco ding o Yanow, “In e p e i e philosophies, such as
phenomenology and he meneu ics, con end ha human meanings, alues, belie s, and eelings a e
embodied in and ansmi ed h ough a i ac s o human c ea ion, such as language [...] In he con ex
o policy analysis, his means ocusing on policy o agency a i ac s as he conc e e symbols
ep esen ing mo e abs ac policy and o ganiza ional meanings.”84
In he explici implemen a ion, his pape s udies he policies as cogni i e a i ac s. We examine hei
ame, by wha do hey mean and ep esen o he policymake s? Wha objec i es a e hey ough o
accomplish? How do he disc epancies and o he ela ed policies ela e o i ? Mos impo an ly, we
in e p e whe he he policies a e cons uc ed o delibe a ely en ap mig an s h ough bu eauc a ic
wo k.
3.4.3 Pos human Pe o ma i i y
In he i s b eakaway om academic con en ions, I will inco po a e heo ies o pos human
pe o ma i i y and agen ial- ealism in o he exegesis o in e p e i e policy analysis. Adop ed om my
own p e ious esea ch and he wo ks o schola s, Ba ad85This me hod acknowledges he dynamism o
so e eigns and subjec s. Pos human pe o ma i i y does no examine he ole o policies as a means o
in e ac ion be ween he subjec and he so e eign:
Ins ead o assuming he U.S. go e nmen cons uc s a s a ic ame o he mig an s o adhe e o, we
also p ocess how he policy ame changes wi h he dynamics o he mig a ion. Thus, he deployed
85 Pos humanis Pe o ma i i y, 2003
84 Ibid., p.16
83 Ibid., p.23
82 Ibid., p.16
33
me hodology accoun s o he on ological en anglemen o in a-ac ing agencies, which ecip ocally
ans o m each o he on hei con ac . Mig an con ac wi h es ablished policy ames change he
policies, which hen changes he dynamics o mig a ion – a dynamic loop.
Fo he hi d s age, o de e mine whe he he so e eign’s consolida ion o au ho i y is alid inso a as
he nec opeon is subjec ed o i s nec opowe , ex end he a o emen ioned pos human pe o ma i i y o
ou e hnog aphic me hods.
3.4.3 Phenomenological E hnog aphy
Phenomenological e hnog aphy is an umb ella e m adop ed o a my iad o me hodologies wi h key
uni ying elemen s. Fi s ly, in Heidegge ian e ms, he me hod in e p e s pa icipan s as Dasein wi hin
On ics. On ic is he phenomenon ha is eal and occu ing – such as mig a ion, and social mo emen .
Dasein is he decoupling o an essence o expe iences om hei agen s, and s udying hem wi hin he
con ex o he On ic – such as sense o en apmen , su e ing, su i ing, e c. In his app oach
“meanings exis only inso a as hey a e expe ienced by a speci ic and conc e e consciousness.”86
Secondly, he esea che is imme sed in he spa ial and empo al condi ion o he pa icipan s, h ough
semi-s uc u ed in e iews and minimal engagemen whe e he pa icipan s and e hnog aphe c ea e
appo o ee and open exp ession o emo ions, in e p e a ions, and awa eness o hei
spa io empo al condi ion. Thi dly, he app oach s udies essences as “how” hey come in o cons uc ing
he phenomena, a he han abs ac ions and “wha ” hey a e. We accomplish his h ough maximum
dep h and minimum esea ch s uc u e p inciples.
Gi en phenomenological e hnog aphy la gely uses a small pa icipan popula ion om di e en
backg ounds and di e en expe iences, I will also s ongly ely on es ablishing epis emological holism.
This emb yonic e hnog aphic me hod applies indi idual pieces o knowledge o cons uc a holis ic
s uc u e o phenomena expe ienced by pa icipan s. This en ails inding uni ying elemen s and
ea u es in indi idual expe iences wi h he mig a ion policies o econs uc how he ope a ionaliza ion
o policies is in e p e ed and expe ienced by he mig an s.
The s udied phenomenon in his con ex is Nec opoli ics. The e hnog aphic componen pe ains o
s udying he ele an essences and expe iences whe e one, he nec opeon, senses close p oximi y o
dea h, su e ing, and su i al dependency. In his i ue, and he second b eakaway om academic
con en ions, i his esea ch is ough o c ea e a pa adigm o u he inqui y o he Nec opoli ical and
Nec opeon, he adop ed me hodology could a guably be Nec og aphy: S udy o indi iduals unde
ins i u ional and ope a ionalized iolence.
86 Ba y Coope , Phenomenology and Poli ical Science (Canadian Jou nal o Poli ical and Social Theo y/Re ue canadienne
de heo ie poli ique e sociale, Vol. V, No. 3 , 1981). p.101
34
3.5 Sou cing
Sou cing o policies o he compa a i e policy analysis and in e p e i e policy analysis was p ima ily
done h ough o icial U.S. go e nmen po als, such as he Whi ehouse P ess (whi ehouse.go ), he
Na ional A chi es (a chi es.go ), he U.S. Depa men o S a e (s a e.go ), and he Re ugee
P ocessing Cen e (w apsne ) websi e. Th ough ad anced sea ch op ions in he U.S. Cong ess websi es
(cong ess.go ), I sou ced he pa icula and ele an bills conce ning A ghan mig a ion. Open Sec e s
o ganiza ion (opensec e s.o g) was used o ace he lobbying behind he sho lis ed bills.
O he o icial sou ces include publica ions o U.S. Ci izenship and Immig a ion Se ices (uscis.go ),
Homeland Secu i y (dhs.go ), Re ugee Council o U.S.A, Sponso Ci cle; policy analysis ins i u ions,
such as RAND, S an o d SLS, The Con e sa ion Jou nal, and epu able abloids p o iding an
assessmen o implemen ed policies.
Sou cing o he E hnog aphic componen o he esea ch was dominan ly es ic ed by p ima y
accessibili y and e hical ba ie s. Wi h he in e ne and landline se ices being ei he inaccessible o
in equen ly accessible, he communica ion wi h he pa icipan s lacked consis ency. While I hoped o
cons uc a ch onology o hei expe iences h ough he p ocesses, his op ion was no possible. To
access he A ghans si ua ed in he mig a ion camps, I used he hash ag il e s in social media o access
he pos s submi ed by e ugees om hese camps. Fo ins ance by sea ching o #AlUdaid,
#Rams einCamp, #A ghan e ugees, e c. A e building appo h ough consis en communica ion and
explaining he objec i e o his esea ch, a numbe o hem ag eed o sha e hei expe iences om he
camps.
Th ough my p io expe ience wi h an A ghan e ugee cen e based in Malaysia, Pandawas academy, I
was able o ind con ac s and pa icipan s who we e able and willing o sha e hei expe iences. Di ec
communica ions we e done h ough cha s, sending oicemails, ideo logs, and phone calls, whe e he
op ion was possible. Gi en my pe sonal p oximi y o I an, and he p esence o o e 3 million A ghan
e ugees in he coun y, I es ablished appo wi h bo h e ugee cen e s as well as indi idual A ghans,
whose ela i es we e unde going he mig a ion p ocess. Indi idual A ghans inco po a ed in o his
esea ch we e i egula mig an s in I an, some o whom had been employed in an acquain ance’s
ac o y in Teh an. The la e p ocess pe ained o ou sou cing my pa icipan obse a ion o a hi d
pe son, who sha ed he expe iences o known ela i es and iends who we e unde going he mig a ion
p ocess. The au hen ici y o hei expe iences was only e i ied h ough sc eensho s and sha ed oice
memos.
35
I also es ablished communica ion wi h se e al mig an s ou side A ghanis an and wi hin he camps,
h ough hei p e ious pa icipa ion in p ess and jou nals, and mu ual acquain ances. These pa icipan s
e i ied hei mig a ion s a us du ing ideo blogs by sha ing oo age o he camps and acili ies.
Due o a lack o a ailable esou ces, he e was a limi ed op ion o choosing pa icipan s om many
di e se demog aphic and social backg ounds. As such, he majo i y o he pa icipan s we e Pe sian
speake s o igina ing om Kabul and He a . They include mili a y pe sonnel, banke s, in e p e e s,
con ac o s, and ela i es o hose who had al eady mig a ed o he U.S. Fo ob ious e hical and
secu i y means, he pa icipan s will emain anonymous. In o al, he indings a e based on 53 hou s o
in e iews wi h 38 pa icipan s, 4 o whom we e engaged in g ea e dep h.
The communica ions we e in Pe sian and English, o he case o he in e p e e s. Gi en bo h
languages a e my na i e ongues, he discu si e phenomenology and assessmen o expe iences we e
oid o language ba ie s.
36
4. The O acle and The Odyssey
Py hia, he o acle o Delphi, baned many G eek he oes and he oines h ough he p ophecies o
e eal he di ine u h and pa hways o endea o s jou neys. Ye , unknown o he He oes, many o
O acle’s a icina ions we e poised by he in e en ion o he Olympian gods. The wel e labo s o
He acles we e en e ainmen o He a, he sis e -wi e o Zeus. Many odysseys in G eek my hology
p esen he same e hos – he s uggle o subjec s o he en e ainmen o he so e eign. Ye , while he
o acles we e de e mined and se by he so e eigns, he subjec s, h ough P ome hean spi i , ebelled o
in en ed ou es o bypass he mos d eading obs acles o he Odyssey. When he gods empe ed wi h
he o acles o indu a e he jou ney, he p o agonis s esponded in kind and adjus ed o he challenges.
This chap e explo es he dynamics o so e eign and subjec ela ions om he is as o he O acles
and Odyssey. The policies, p eceden s, and bu eauc acy de e mine he mig a ion ou es, p esen ing he
de e mined o acle – medium o So e eign’s en e ainmen . The Odyssey is he mig a ion ou e
unde aken by he mig a ing subjec s.
Chap e ou begins wi h explo ing he his o ical con ex o he A ghan odyssey, and he ex en o
which i could be used o ex apola e he mos ecen wa e o A ghan mig a ion. The i s sec ion
del es in o he jou ney o A ghan mig an s p io o he U.S. wi hd awal om he coun y
The subsequen sec ions diges he c ux o he o iginal o acle – policies, and legal a enues o
mig a ion se by he U.S. go e nmen p io o he wi hd awal. The i e o passage examines he ini ial
plan o g an ing e uge and ese ling asylum seeke s. This sec ion u he add esses he his o ical
p eceden s o simila policies implemen ed du ing he coun y’s wi hd awal om Indochina.
Explo a ion o he his o ical con ex o hese policies de e mines he p emise o whe he he
Nec opoli ical ame has been a ecu ing ool o he U.S.’s mig a ion policies.
The inal sec ion, Ka abasis, p o ides ex ensi e empi ical wo k on e hnog aphy and policy analysis, by
examining he e acua ion p ocess, he in e mezzo, and he se lemen p ocess om he pe spec i es o
bo h mig an s and policy commen a o s.
37
4.1 Exodus
The con empo a y memo y o A ghanis an sh ouds he na ion unde he og o a pe pe ual s a e
o con lic – a na ion displaced. Unde s anding he exodus o he A ghans and he his o ical con ingen
o mig a ion, gi es eade s an analy ical unde s anding o he dynamic na u e o he coun y’s
so e eign y, and p o ides a logical p elude o concep ualizing he A ghans as a na ion wi h mo e han
a single so e eign. This unde s anding also c ea es u he g oundings o unde s and mig a ion as an
ins i u ionalized no ma i e componen o he A ghan eali ies.
P io o he So ie in asion o A ghanis an, mig a o y mo emen s be ween A ghanis an, I an and
Pakis an we e ecu ing phenomena. Sa i’s s udy o mig a ion ans o ma ion o A ghans, aces he
mass scale mig a ion o 1850s, “when 5,000 Haza a amilies se led in Jam and Bakha z in I an and
ano he 168,000 om 1880-1903”87 Wi h he oil boom o he 1950s, and he oppo uni y o ecei e
highe wages in mass u baniza ion cons uc ion p ojec s in I an, many male A ghans mig a ed
wes wa d.88 This p ocess emained an o ganic phenomena o in e na ional mig a ion, un il 1979, when
he i s cases o mass e uge appea ed ollowing he So ie in asion.
4.1.1 The Fou So e eigns o Mig a ion
The A ghan su i al mig a ion om 1979 onwa ds can be di ided in ou phases, each aced o an
unconsolida ed So e eign. The i s wa e began du ing he So ie in asion. Al hough many A ghans
le he coun y o hei own sa e y, he con lic be ween A ghan Soldie s, he So ie soldie s, and he
newly-es ablished Mujahideen g ea ly des abilized he coun y.89 While he ensued disabili ies and
inaccessibili y o li abili y condi ions c ea ed incen i es o su i al mig a ion, he es ablishmen o he
So ie puppe egime in A ghanis an ga e eligious incen i es o he o he s.
The “Hij a” is an A abic wo d o “mig a ion”. A spi i ual dec ee o emba k on a Hij a is e oked when
he coun y o he muslim has been aken o e by he Ku a s, o non- ollowe s o Islam. The So ie
puppe go e nmen sepa a ion o chu ch and s a e and es ablishmen o secula policies, p o oked he
dominan ly Muslim and conse a i e popula ion o A ghanis an.9091 The i s Hij a in Islam ook place
by P ophe Muhammed, when he mig a ed om Mecca o Medina, in an objec ion o submi ing o he
so e eign y o a non-Islamic au ho i y. Thus, he phenomena o mig a ion o he A ghans in 1979 was
91 M. Nazi Shah ani, “Ten. A ghanis an’s Muhaji in (Muslim ‘Re ugee-Wa io s’): Poli ics o Mis us and Dis us o
Poli ics,” Mis us ing Re ugees, 1995, pp. 187-206, h ps://doi.o g/10.1525/9780520341234-013.
90 Dale F. Eickelman and James Pisca o i, Muslim T a elle s: Pilg image, Mig a ion and he Religious Imagina ion
(Rou ledge, 2013). p.40
89 F ancis Fukuyama, “Pakis an since he So ie In asion o A ghanis an,” 1982, h ps://doi.o g/10.21236/ada111442.
88 Ibid.
87 Maliha Sa i, “The T ans o ma ion o he A ghan Re ugee: 1979–2009,” The Middle Eas Jou nal 65, no. 4 (2011): pp.
587-601, h ps://doi.o g/10.3751/65.4.14. P. 596
38
a no ma i e ins i u ion and objec i e e usal o submi o he e i o ial so e eign. The desi na ion o
mig a ion du ing Hij a is owa ds ano he e i o y go e ned by a Muslim so e eign – namely I an and
Pakis an. This single p eceden se s an example o how dynamic he na u e o so e eign y p esen ed
i sel e en in he i s wa e o A ghan su i al mig a ion. In he p ocess o Hij a, bo h I an and
Pakis an we e welcoming o he A ghans, on he p eceden o eligious cus oms.92
Du ing he same pe iod, he i s case o Nec opeonage was inco po a ed in he I anian mig a ion
policies, when he su ge o pe odolla s c ea ed a demand o low-wage nec opeons in cons uc ion,
mining, b ick-bu ning and o he su i al jobs.93 A ghan e ugees we e quickly inco po a ed in he
coun y’s labo pool and es ic ed o manual labo . Wi h he exace ba ed labo sho age as he esul o
he I aq-I an wa , many Labou laws we e alle ia ed o educe bu eauc a ic bu den o g an ing
A ghans wi h wo k pe mi s.9495
The second wa e o A ghan mig a ion in ol ed p ima ily hose who collabo a ed wi h he So ie
Unions. This included he go e nmen o icials, mili a y pe sonnel, ansla o s, and hose who
exp essed suppo o he communis ideology. The deposed p esiden and his ca ego y o mig an s
we e ca ego ically denied o use he Hij a p i ileges, and so he majo i y mig a ed owa ds Russia and
India.969798 The powe acuum ollowing he so ie wi hd awal, esul ed in he 1989 A ghan ci il wa .
The de as a ing esul s o powe g ab by a ious egional wa lo ds, exace ba ed o a e ugee c isis –
in e nally and ex e nally.99
This case would ha e p o ided an excellen oppo uni y o assess he pa allels i posi s wi h he
mig a ion occu ing a e he U.S. wi hd awal om he coun y. Howe e , insu iciency o esou ces
and language ba ie es ic u he in es iga ion in o analyzing his o ical con o mi y o collabo a o s
su i al mig a ion.
The hi d wa e o mig a ion began in 1994 wi h he akeo e o he Mujahideen’s successo s a e, he
Taliban. The end o he ci il wa began wi h he consolida ion o he A ghan Islamic emi a e and a
bo om-up p ocess o s a e building. Consolida ion o so e eign y was accele a ed wi h he popula
99 Ka hleen Newland and E in Pa ick, “A Na ion Displaced: The Wo ld’s La ges Re ugee Popula ion.,” Mig a ion Policy
Ins i u e, 2001, h ps://doi.o g/h p://www.mig a ionpolicy.o g/pubs/displaced.php.
98 Ni hya Rajan, “‘No A ghan Re ugees in India’: Re ugees and Cold Wa Poli ics in he 1980s,” Sou h Asia: Jou nal o
Sou h Asian S udies 44, no. 5 (2021): pp. 851-867, h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00856401.2021.1964048.
97 Anne-Sophie Ben z, “A ghan Re ugees in Indo-A ghan Rela ions,” Camb idge Re iew o In e na ional A ai s 26, no. 2
(2013): pp. 374-391, h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09557571.2013.785094.
96 Ka hleen Newland and E in Pa ick, “A Na ion Displaced: The Wo ld’s La ges Re ugee Popula ion.,” Mig a ion Policy
Ins i u e, 2001, h ps://doi.o g/h p://www.mig a ionpolicy.o g/pubs/displaced.php.
95 Fa had Da ishi and Mehdi Rahma i, “ ﯽﺳرﺮﺑﻂﺑاورناﺮﯾاویورﻮﺷردهرودﮓﻨﺟﯽﻠﯿﻤﺤﺗﺎﺑ)ﺪﯿﮐﺎﺗﺮﺑﮫﻠﺌﺴﻣنﺎﺘﺴﻧﺎﻐﻓا ) [Examining he
So ie -I anian Rela ions du ing he I an-I aq Wa (wi h A en ion o A ghanis an)],” Holy De ense S udies 2, no. 1 (2015):
pp. 35-55, h ps://doi.o g/h ps://hds.sndu.ac.i /a icle_1665.h ml.
94 Ibid.
93 Ibid. p. 590
92 Ibid.
45
he A ghan go e nmen hen ejec ed he p ison eleases, s a ing “The go e nmen o A ghanis an has
made no commi men o ee 5,000 Taliban p isone s”137 ollowed by “I is no in he au ho i y o he
Uni ed S a es o decide, hey a e only a acili a o .”138 The A ghan go e nmen had ecognized i s lack
o so e eign au ho i y, and i s la e-s age a emp o consolida e he ole by unde mining he U.S.’s
au ho i y, inad e en ly doomed he p ospec s o in a-A ghan ela ions. To he Taliban, he e ms we e
also clea he ag eemen was binding un il he U.S.’s wi hd awal om he egion He e he old adage,
‘You ha e he wa ches, we ha e he ime was c edi ed o he Taliban. Upon U.S.’s wi hd awal, i
wouldn’ ma e i he A ghan go e nmen had eleased he p isone s – he Taliban would consolida e
i sel as he go e nmen .
The i s pa o he ag eemen de e mined wo key ini ia ions om he U.S.: Along wi h he
wi hd awal o he oops, he s a o he in a-A ghan dialogues would also emba k on U.S.’s ini ia ion
o e iew he cu en U.S. sanc ions o e he Taliban wi h he goal o elie by Augus 2020. Secondly,
his ini ia ion would be ex ended o he Secu i y Council by May 2020.139
The second pa o he ag eemen p ima ily ocused on he esponsibili ies o he Taliban in c ea ing
he secu i y pe ime e s o he U.S.’s wi hd awal, along wi h he secu i iza ion o in e nal mig an s.140
The ea y commi ed he Taliban o adhe e o he In e na ional Mig a ion Law, by “dealing wi h hose
seeking asylum o esidence in A ghanis an.”141 Pe classical Webe ian e ms, he s a e has he
monopoly on iolence. Thus, by us ing A ghanis an wi h secu i y pe iphe ies ac oss he egions
including he capi al, he U.S. had g an ed he monopoly o s a ehood o he Taliban. Addi ionally,
ci ing he wo ks o Haddad, he mig an s a e dependen on So e eigns, as So e eigns on he mig an s
o ecogni ion. By employing he Taliban o “deal wi h hose seeking asylum” he ea y made no
inclusion o he A ghan go e nmen , and c ea ed a delibe a e linkage o subjec -so e eign be ween he
A ghans and he Taliban. Ou ageously, he ag eemen also u ged he Taliban o impede om issuing
passpo s o ce ain indi iduals. A Passpo is a so e eign a i ac , which ex ends he so e eign
p o ec ion o subjec s beyond he e i o ies o he so e eign na ion. The loose language in he
ag eemen could be in e p e ed o imply he ine i abili y o he Taliban issuing so e eign passpo s o
141 Ibid.
140 Ibid.
139 “Wi h he s a o in a-A ghan nego ia ions, he Uni ed S a es will ini ia e an adminis a i e e iew o cu en U.S.
sanc ions and he ewa ds lis agains membe s o he Islamic Emi a e o A ghanis an which is no ecognized by he Uni ed
S a es as a s a e and is known as he Taliban wi h he goal o emo ing hese sanc ions by Augus 27, 2020 [...] Wi h he
s a o in a-A ghan nego ia ions, he Uni ed S a es will s a diploma ic engagemen wi h o he membe s o he Uni ed
Na ions Secu i y Council and A ghanis an o emo e membe s o he Islamic Emi a e o A ghanis an which is no
ecognized by he Uni ed S a es as a s a e and is known as he Taliban om he sanc ions lis wi h he aim o achie ing his
objec i e by May 29, 2020” Ibid.
138 Ibid
137 Al Jazee a, “A ghan P esiden Rejec s P isone Swap wi h he Taliban,” Taliban News | Al Jazee a (Al Jazee a, Ma ch 1,
2020), h ps://www.aljazee a.com/news/2020/3/1/p esiden -ghani- ejec s-peace-deals-p isone -swap-wi h- aliban.
46
he A ghan subjec s. Wi h he au ho i y g an ed o he Taliban by he U.S., hey’d also be he hu dle o
he A ghans o access he in e na ional socie y – he embodied Hippoc a ic bubble.
We may ponde whe he he i h So e eign is hen a e e ence o he second emi a e o he Taliban. To
ha end, I eluc an ly a gue ha i isn’ : he i h s a e is he U.S. go e nmen which c ea ed he
condi ions o su i al dependence. I he in a-A ghans ne e p oceeded –which was expec ed– he
sanc ions o e he Taliban would no ha e been li ed. Wo se, i he A ghan go e nmen was o
capi ula e, he U.S. would ex end he sanc ions and eeze A ghan asse s a la ge. As discussed in he
p e ious sec ion, he Taliban a e well awa e o hei agili y and inabili y o unc ion in he coun y
wi hou U.S.’s o eign aid. Thus li eabili y o he A ghans unde he Taliban so e eign y is bound o
he de ac o ex e nalized so e eign y o he U.S. – which I will da ingly posi o be he e i o ies o
A ghanis an. The Taliban will no be a ecognized so e eign, wi hou he amewo k o so e eign
ecogni ion de e mined by he U.S..
4.1.3 Lea e To Li e
Ha ing ealized he empo al limi s o he binding Doha ag eemen , and he eluc ance o he
A ghan go e nmen o comply wi h he ag eemen , he Taliban began i s sou he n o ensi e o
iolen ly consolida e i s posi ion ac oss A ghanis an.142 The a acks we e escala ed in he coming
mon hs143 in a b u aliza ion o hund eds o A ghan mili a y pe sonnel wounded and killed.144 This
ansi ioned he na ional mood o he coming changes om ha o despe a e hope o peace and
se lemen go e nance, o ano he iolen akeo e o A ghanis an by he Taliban. E e y pa icipan in
his esea ch ca ied a cogni i e sca , a memo y o he Taliban’s mass execu ions and hanging ac oss
he s ee s in Kabul and He a . The Haza as ecalled losing ela i es o bombings o mosques. Young
women ecalled he pa anoia o hei amilies in p o ec ing hem du ing hei g own-ups. The ampan
akeo e o A ghanis an was also ollowed by an inconsolable ea o a ge ed killings o mili a y
pe sonnel, jou nalis s, ac i is s, go e nmen o icials, and in e p e e s.
The Haqqani Ne wo k, which ope a ed as he in elligen a m o he Taliban insu gencies – esponsible
o nume ous high p o ile assassina ions–145 was umo ed o ha e compiled a lis o a ge ed
indi iduals. A pa icipan was ex o ed by a Taliban membe o pay a ansom o ha ing his name and
145 Mujib Mashal, “A A ghan Peace Talks, Hoping o End Thei Fa he s' Wa ,” The New Yo k Times (The New Yo k
Times, Oc obe 5, 2020), h ps://www.ny imes.com/2020/10/05/wo ld/asia/a ghan-peace- alks-child en.h ml.
144 Ibid.
143 Reu e s. “O e 150 A ghan T oops Killed o Inju ed in Las 24 Hou s as Violence Moun s Ahead o Fo eign T oops'
Wi hd awal.” DAWN.COM, June 7, 2021.
h ps://www.dawn.com/news/1628067/o e -150-a ghan- oops-killed-o -inju ed-in-las -24-hou s-as- iolence-moun s-ahead
-o - o eign- oops-wi hd awal.
142 Reu e s Pe son, “Taliban Launches Majo A ghan O ensi e a e Deadline o U.S. Pullou ,” Reu e s (Thomson
Reu e s, May 4, 2021),
h ps://www. eu e s.com/wo ld/asia-paci ic/ aliban-launches-huge-a ghan-o ensi e-a e -deadline-us-pullou -2021-05-04/.
47
his immedia e amily emo ed om he lis . The ea o his h ea was exace ba ed o a enzy
building up o Augus , wi h he news o abduc ions and a ge ed killing sweeping he coun y. In he
same ime, New Yo k Times epo ed hese a ge ed killings146 ex ended o amily membe s o
acquain ances o suspec ed collabo a o s. In he same epo , he b o he o a ic im commen ing on
he a ge ed killing s a ed, “ he e was ne e any such hing as amnes y [...] E e yone knew he wo ked
wi h he Ame icans.” He u he added, “[U.S.] didn’ help my b o he [...] hey be ayed him.” gi en
his b o he had a pending special immig an isa applica ion.147 The sense o esen men and be ayal
owa ds he U.S. was a dominan heme, accompanied by a sense o dissonance o appeal o he U.S. o
expand i s special isa p og am. Many, ea ing o hei li es, mig a ed o Kabul. Those who we e
quali ied o he special U.S. p og ams o g an isas we e in an open plea o speed he p ocess. O he s
mo ed o Oman, I an and Pakis an. The onslaugh sen a clea message: Lea e o li e.
Those wi hin he secu i y o ces, mili a y pe sonnel, and go e nmen o icial, had expec ed he Taliban
o a i e in Kabul. Pa icipan s desc ibe a lack o gene al command and coo dina ion du ing his
pe iod. E en hose who we e equipped and enabled o esis , we e ecommended o e ain om
iolen engagemen wi h he Taliban – pe haps wi h he means o de-escala ion, a oiding p o oca ion,
and p e en a i e e alia ion. A ghan o ces we e awa e o hei incapabili y o esis he Taliban
wi hou he suppo o he U.S.. The mos dominan ly capable uni , he 03 CIA- ained “Dea h squad”,
was asked wi h p o ec ing he ai po co ido s o e acuees – no ending he Taliban.
Be o e he all o Kabul, one o he mos e iden signs ha he li eabili y o ce ain indi iduals
depended on hem lea ing he coun y, was he ma e o inancial ci izen y. To li e and o su i e, an
indi idual is equi ed o be inancially main ained. Be o e he U.S. oze A ghan asse s, Taliban
membe s a ge ed he banks and o he inancial acili ies in a hos ile akeo e . Fo hose who had
ese ed hei asse s in A ghan banks, he p ocess o hem losing hei accoun s was absu dly simple. A
banke desc ibed he p ocess as ollows: The Taliban membe s accessed he occupa ional da a o
indi iduals and il e ed e e y membe employed by he U.S. and NATO allies, o in he mili a y and
A ghan go e nmen . Jus as a simple command in an excel shee , a numbe o hese indi iduals had
hei accoun s e mina ed. In he blink o an eye, o me mili a y pe sonnel desc ibed, he en i e li e
sa ings anished. Gi en mos A ghans ha e la ge amilies, he inancial con isca ion ex ended he
exis en ial c isis o he amily membe s – an ac o slow a ge ed killing. Those who we e inancially
pa alyzed we e unable o p o ide p oo o inancial asse s – a equi emen o ob aining any isa as an
A ghan ci izen. These indi iduals we e coe ced in o he su i al mig a ion.
147 Ibid.
146 Susannah Geo ge and Suda san Ragha an, “Taliban Wages Campaign o Ta ge ed Killings agains Fo me Membe s o
A ghan Secu i y Fo ces,” The Washing on Pos (WP Company, Decembe 3, 2021),
h ps://www.washing onpos .com/wo ld/2021/11/30/ aliban-killings-secu i y/.
48
4.2 En apmen
A common ph ase used by he pa icipan s o desc ibe hei s a e o being, was “Bela akli .”
While he ph ase doesn’ ha e a di ec English ansla ion, i co esponds o he s a e o being wi hou
pu pose due o he inabili y o espond o he change o ci cums ances o being dependen on a c i ical
junc u e o hen be able o escape an inde e mina e decision. The mos common case o bela akli was
being unable o “do any hing” un il i was decided whe he a mig an could ecei e he special isa
wai e . Un il a decision was o be made on he isa s a us, he mig an beha es and ope a es in he
abs ac o main ain i s basic su i al unc ions. The s a e o ba e-li e, is desc ibed by bo h Da ies and
Mbembe. All he pa icipan s an icipa ed ways o su i al o hei amilies and hemsel es. Si ua ed in
he s a e o being bela akli , he su i al mig an s desc ibe being apped. Some echoed ha a quick
dea h would’ e been mo e me ci ul han unde going his p ocess o indi idual inde e minism.
Pe he second heo y, The policies implemen ed by he U.S. go e nmen wi hin ex e nalized
e i o ies, en ap he subjec s in legal conund ums, which u he es ains he subjec s’ indi idual
eedom on he so e eign’s will. Ha ing a bi d-eye iew o his phenomenon, I a gue he si ua ion has
been delibe a ely de e mined o be de e mined o he mig an s. Th ough he sense o inde e minism,
he mig an is subjec ed o Nec opeonage, which is ese ed o se e he consolida ion o he
so e eign. This chap e discusses he ope a ionaliza ion o Nec opeonage h ough he en o ced policies
o he so e eign.
4.2.1 The Second Saigon
Du ing he same July p ess con e ence o P esiden Biden, one o he ques ions om he p ess was “Do
you see any pa allels be ween his wi hd awal and wha happened in Vie nam.”148 o which P esiden
Biden esponded wi h “None wha soe e [...] The Taliban is no he sou h — he No h Vie namese
a my [...] The e’s going o be no ci cums ance whe e you see people being li ed o he oo o an
embassy.”149 The all o Kabul ings many pa allels and amilia i ies o he poli ical consciousness o
he Ame ican public and policymake s. In many ways, A ghanis an has been dubbed he second
Vie nam, wi h he all o Kabul echoing he all o Saigon a e he Ame ican wi hd awal. Sou h
Vie namese s o med he U.S. embassy in Saigon hoping o be e acua ed. Wi h he all o Sou h
Vie nam being eminen , he U.S. launched Ope a ion F equen Wind o e acua e Ame icans and he
Vie namese a isk.150
150 Da e Roos, “How he End o he Vie nam Wa Led o a Re ugee C isis,” His o y.com (A&E Tele ision Ne wo ks,
Sep embe 1, 2021),
h ps://www.his o y.com/news/ ie nam-wa - e ugees#:~: ex =O e %20 he%20nex %20 wo%20decades,pi a es%20o %20
o e c owded%2C%20makeshi %20boa s.
149 Ibid.
148 The Whi e House P ess
49
Wha ensued a e wa d, was wo decades and h ee million people leeing Vie nam, Laos, and
Cambodia. Coun less died in wha came o be known as he “Boa people” c isis.151 When Saigon was
cap u ed by he No h Vie namese a my, he U.S. had o unde ake he mos d ama ic e acua ion in i s
his o y, esul ing in he a i al o 127,000 Vie namese amilies.152
Mili a ized Re uge(es) (2014) by Yen Le Espi i u153 en enches he Vie nam e acua ion and
ese lemen e o s by he U.S. p ecisely wi hin Nec opoli ical amewo ks. The au ho hin s a he
clea mili a ized na u e o he e alua ions and he escues, in an a emp o ans o m he U.S. mili a y
“ om iolen agg esso in Vie nam o bene olen escue o i s people”154, and he p o ec o o
Vie namese peace. Espi i u uses “Mili a ized e ugees” o expose he iolence behind he humani a ian
na a i e o he U.S. mili a y and U.S. go e nmen – a na a i e which has also been challenged in his
esea ch.155 Unsu p isingly, he au ho desc ibes he e acua ion e o s o ha e been has y, unplanned
and iolen , wi h ew es ic ions. This was done, pe he au ho ’s claim, as a las -di ch ele ised s un
o he U.S. mili a y. Al hough he e acua ion phase posed li le legal en apmen , he subsequen
s ages o e acua ion and ese lemen we e, e iden ly, he ins uc ional i ine a y o Nec opoli ics. This
pape will u he explo e he A ghan mig a ion p ocess ega ding he wo k o Le Espi i u.
4.2.2 The Ri e o passage
The Ri e o passage is he ce emonial ins i u ion o celeb a ing an indi idual’s ans o ma ion. Fo an
A ghan mig an , he ans o ma ion is he p ocess o mig a ion, and he i e o passage is he legal
amewo k ha cons i u es hei depa u e om A ghanis an – he igh s o li abili y. These legal
amewo ks we e d a ed and passed by he U.S. Cong ess in 2008, in he o m o a Special
Immig a ion Visa (SIV) o p o ec I aqi collabo a o s who had aided he U.S. a med o ces and o icial
pe sonnel. The ollowing yea , he SIV p og am was ex ended o also co e he A ghans who we e
conside ed unde h ea dange due o hei coope a ion wi h he U.S..
In he i s i e a ion o he SIV p og am, an applican mus ha e se ed “ o a leas one yea as
ansla o s o in e p e e s, o who we e employed by, o on behal o , he U.S. go e nmen in
A ghanis an, and whose li es we e h ea ened because o hei wo k in suppo o he U.S. mission.”156
While he SIV was ough o p o ec “U.S. allies”, he agueness o wha de ined an ally c ea ed a oid
156 Human Righ s Fi s , “Fac Shee : The A ghan Special Immig an Visa P og am,” 2019,
h ps://doi.o g/h ps://www.human igh s i s .o g/si es/de aul / iles/A ghan-SIV-Fac -Shee _2.pd .
155 Ibid.
154 Ibid.
153 Yen Le Espi i u, Body Coun s he Vie nam Wa and Mili a ized Re uge(Es) (Be keley: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess,
2014).
152 Lau a Ha jan o and Jeanne Ba alo a, “Vie namese Immig an s in he Uni ed S a es,” mig a ionpolicy.o g, Oc obe 15,
2021, h ps://www.mig a ionpolicy.o g/a icle/ ie namese-immig an s-uni ed-s a es.
151 Ibid.
50
o he mili a y pe sonnel and hose employed by U.S. mili a y con ac o s. Pe he expe ience o he
in o man s, hose who we e employed by he likes o Tex on and hei subsidia ies we e expec ed o
unde go a di e en isa acquisi ion p ocess. Pe he legisla i e his o y o he SIV, e e y iscal yea a
ce ain quo a o isas was alloca ed o he SIV, ega dless o he numbe o indi iduals employed by
he U.S. o ces. In 2018, when he majo wi hd awal o U.S. soldie s om A ghanis an began157 mo e
A ghans began applying o he SIV p og am. Acco ding o a join epo by he U.S. Depa men o
S a e and he Depa men o Homeland Secu i y,158 In he same pe iod, 14,500 isas we e alloca ed o
he p og am, while 33,727 eligible A ghans had applied o he p og am.
Es ablishing ou weighed quo as cons ued o be he i s en apmen o he SIV p og am. The second
en apmen , which p olonged he s a e o limbo o he applican , was he absu dly long p ocessing
ime. To ob ain he isa, an applican mus ha e unde gone 14 s eps and a minimal p ocessing ime o
692 days, oughly 1 yea and 11 mon hs. The p ocess includes e iews by he Chie o Mission (COM)
depa men , which would con i m he ini ial applica ion o he Na ional Visa Cen e (NVC). A e 240
p ocessing days, i all documen s a e p esen ed co ec ly, he applican s mus indi idually apply o he
Depa men o Homeland Secu i y (DHS) using he I-360 o m, consis ing o 19 pages ha
amalgama e 15 di e en isa ca ego ies. In o man s we e wa ned ha a any s age o illing in w ong
in o ma ion, he candida es mus ha e esubmi ed he applica ion om he i s p ocessing s age.
Upon he applica ion app o al by NVC and DHS, he applican would ecei e ano he se ies o
applica ions o ill in he classi ied in o ma ion ega ding hei ope a ional wo k and hei endange ed
s a us in A ghanis an. A e 3 days o documen e iews, he applican was gi en an in e iew
appoin men a he U.S. embassy’s consula in Kabul a e 243 days. Following he in e iew, he
applica ion would unde go an adminis a i e p ocess o ano he 113 days. I he applican ’s passpo
expi es wi hin his ime ame, hey’ e equi ed o enew hei passpo . In p inciple, had an applican
began he SIV applica ion a e he i s phase o majo U.S. wi hd awal om A ghanis an in
Decembe 2018, hey’d be able o ecei e hei SIV by No embe 2020. Any A ghan hi ed wi hin his
pe iod would be unable o ecei e he SIV by he ime o he U.S.’s wi hd awal in 2021, ega dless o
hei scale o ope a ion.
158 U.S. Depa men o S a e, “Join Depa men o S a e/Depa men o Homeland Secu i y Repo : S a us o he A ghan
Special Immig an Visa P og am,” 2019,
h ps://doi.o g/h ps:// a el.s a e.go /con en /dam/ isas/SIVs/Q3-A ghan_SIV_Repo _July_2018.pd .
157 Dan Lamo he e al., “T ump O de s Majo Mili a y Wi hd awal om A ghanis an as Ma is Depa s,” The Washing on
Pos (WP Company, Decembe 21, 2018),
h ps://www.washing onpos .com/wo ld/na ional-secu i y/ ump-agi a ing- o -majo -mili a y-wi hd awal- om-a ghanis an-
ad ise s-say/2018/12/20/0c35 874-04a3-11e9-b5d -5d3874 1ac36_s o y.h ml.
51
Du ing he July p ess con e ence when P esiden Biden was asked “Why can’ he U.S. e acua e hese
A ghan ansla o s o he Uni ed S a es o awai hei isa p ocessing as some immig an s a he
sou he n bo de ha e been allowed o do?”,159 o which he esponded:
“Because he law doesn’ allow ha o happen. And ha ’s why we’ e
asking he Cong ess o conside changing he law. Bu in he mean ime,
we can gua an ee hei sa e y, i hey wish o lea e, by aking hem o
hi d coun ies and/o , while he wai is aking place, o come o — o —
and hope ully, while hey’ e wai ing he e, o be able o b ing hem back o
he Uni ed S a es, i ha ’s wha hey choose o do. We’ e conduc ing
ho ough secu i y sc eening in he in e media e s ops hey’ e making o
anyone who is no a U.S. ci izen o a law ul pe manen esiden o he
Uni ed S a es. Anyone a i ing in he Uni ed S a es will ha e unde gone a
backg ound check. And — and we mus all wo k oge he o ese le
housands o A ghans who ul ima ely quali y o e ugee s a us. The
Uni ed S a es will do ou pa . And we a e al eady wo king closely wi h
e ugee o ganiza ions o ebuild a sys em ha was pu pose ully des oyed
by my p edecesso .”160
In decons uc ing he esponse o P esiden Biden, he cong essional change occu ed unde he
A ghan Allies P o ec ion Ac o 2019 o he 116 h Cong ess. The amendmen s o his ac will be
examined in he subsequen sec ion.
The hi d coun ies e e o Qa a , and Ge many, whe e U.S.’s mili a y bases would ac as ex e nalized
e i o ies and cages o con ain he A ghans du ing hei immig a ion p ocessing. The A ghans we e
also encou aged o mo e o any o he hi d coun y o each he U.S. embassy o p ocess hei SIV –
wi h he only op ion being Pakis an. Mo ing e ugees o he mili a y bases echoes wha Le Espi i u
deno ed as Mili a ized Re uge e e ing o he e acua ion o he Vie namese. She belie ed his e ealed
a hidden “colonial and mili a ized na u e o hese e acua ions"161 wi h he pa e n being he ai li o
e ugees om Saigon o he Philippines, Guam, Thailand, Wake Island, Hawai, and u he
dis ibu ions ac oss mili a y bases ac oss he U.S..162 Le Espi i u concluded he mili a iza ion o e uge
was he cons uc he na a i e o “Good Re uge”, he U.S. u ning he Vie nam Wa in o a “Good
Wa ” – “an ul ima ely necessa y and mo al wa .”163
163 Ibid.
162 Ibid.
161 Espi i u. p.25
160 Ibid.
159 The Whi e House P ess
52
Espi i u u he ouched on he opic o so e eign y, wi h ha he na u e o he e acua ions and hei
selec ed des ina ions, was a colonial pa e n o ein o ce Ame ican p esence and con ol o e i s
his o ical paci ic dominions – Philippines, Guam, and Hawaii. Following Espi i u’s posi ion, we can
d aw a pa allel o he hi d heo y which s a ed he subjec s’ su i abili y dependence on he so e eign,
is concep ualized as Nec opeon, whe e he Nec opeon uncondi ionally se es and s eng hens he
so e eign’s consolida ion wi hin in e nal and ex e nalized e i o ies. In he same p e ense, we may
in e p e he Vie namese mig an s o embody he concep o Nec opeon, i hei mobili y and
mo emen , bound o he U.S.'s coo dina ion, was a eimagina ion o colonial consolida ion o a
so e eign.
P esiden Biden’s men ion o gi ing e uge o hose quali ied as e ugees is ano he epe i ion o he
Vie nam e acua ions. The U.S. p ocesses applican s in mul iple in e iew and p o ile examina ions,
and only ese les hose who ha e been quali ied o e ugee s a us. Al hough I was no able o each
in o man s who had he mig a ion p ocess ejec ed while being caged in a hi d coun y, we may
ex apola e he po en ial ou come o hose indi iduals by e lec ing on he Vie nam e acua ions.
Acco ding o Espi i u’s esea ch, “Those who could es ablish pas pe secu ion we e en i led o
ese lemen in hi d coun ies; hose who could no be deemed “economic mig an s'' and epa ia ed o
Vie nam.``164 By 1996, o he 120,000 sc eened Vie namese candida es, 27% we e ul ima ely quali ied
o e ugee s a us –as u e ed by P esiden Biden– and 63%, abou 75,000 we e epa ia ed.165
A simila p ocess ollows he mili a ized e ugees and su i al mig an s who ha e al eady been
b ough o he U.S. mili a y. In he case o he Vie namese e acuees, hose who we e accep ed as
e ugees we e g an ed ese lemen . Fo he “Le o e ” e ugees ejec ed om he p og am, as Espi i u
dubs hem, “ [ hey] became s a eless peoples who languished in closed camps o de en ion cen e s o
ex ended pe iods wi hou he ju idical p o ec ion o ci izenship.”166 Ul ima ely, as my hi d heo y
cons i u ed, elinquishing indi idual eedom –and pe Haddad’s unde s anding o ecip ocal ela ions
o subjec and so e eign– consolida es he U.S. so e eign y domes ically, by being p esen ed as he
“o he ”.
Con enien ly o he U.S. Neo-neo policymake s o he 116 h cong ess, P esiden T ump had
p e iously hampe ed he SIV p og am and educed he numbe o SIV quo as d as ically unde he
“Muslim Ban”, which was amed unde p o ec ing Ame icans.167 Unde he Biden adminis a ion, he
quo a didn’ change un il he 117 h cong ess was p essu ed o do so o speed up he e acua ion p ocess,
167 Ma k C. S o ella, “How T ump B oke he Sys em Tha O e s P o ec ion o A ghan Allies,” The Hill (The Hill, Augus
31, 2021),
h ps:// hehill.com/opinion/na ional-secu i y/570076-how- ump-b oke- he-sys em- ha -o e s-p o ec ion- o-a ghan-allies/.
166 Ibid. p.59
165 Ibid.
164 Ibid. p.54
53
gi en he p ocessing ime –bu eauc a ic en apmen – was 731 days in ea ly 2021.168 The Nec opoli ical
amewo k o e ugee ea men in he caging p ocess is analyzed in g ea e dep h in he nex sec ion.
4.2.3 Policy In P ac ice
A ghan Allies P o ec ion Ac o 2009 (AAPA) ep esen s an umb ella body o laws and policies he US
cong ess has been using o cons i u e wha we’ e a gued as Nec opoli ical. This sec ion s udies his
p o ec ion ac along wi h i s e olu ion h ough ela ed bills, o u he s eng hen he claims o he
second and he hi d heo ies.
The 115 h cong ess, unde P esiden T ump’s adminis a ion, se he p elude o he bu eauc a ic
en apmen s and a dead-end policy o he SIV p og am, by in oducing a key deadline o eligible
A ghans. The A ghan Allies P o ec ion Amendmen s Ac o 2018169 se Decembe 31, 2021, as he
deadline o he employmen pe iod o A ghan collabo a o s, e e ed o as aliens in he bill's body. The
same da e would be he deadline o inal eligible applica ions o he SIV p og am.
Al hough i ’s aguely hin ed a , we may in e p e his key da e as he de e mining means o educe he
capaci ies o he SIV p og am o u u e applican s. The bill se a deadline o eligible indi iduals and
o he employabili y pe iod – e go, anyone employed a e Janua y 1s , 2021 would be dubbed
ineligible, gi en hey’d ha e less han a yea o employmen . An in o man employed in logis ics,
desc ibed expe iencing “a jol o pa alyzing shock” when she lea ned o he ineligibili y in Ap il 2021,
ha ing wo ked o 9 mon hs in he U.S. Mili a y. She desc ibed, ha applying o a isa was a
p olonged p ocess o na iga ing he websi e o Ci izenship and Immig a ion se ices wi h a laby in h
o links and o ms. She was employed in he mili a y a he age o 21, wi h “ he single hope o lea e
he coun y wi h he pa en s.” She and ano he pa icipan who desc ibed he same essence o be ayal
by he isa p og am we e assu ed by hei con ac o mon hs p io , ha hey we e eligible o he SIV
h ough he comple ion o hei con ac in Decembe 2021.
The e was no change in he isa policy un il Augus 2nd, 2021, me e wo weeks be o e he all o
Kabul, when he P-2 isa p og am was in oduced o include hose whose wo king e ms didn’ quali y
hem o he SIV.170 As o he ime o w i ing his, ce ain indi iduals who applied o he P-2 p og am
in Sep embe 2021, ha e no ye ob ained hei isa – being in a s a e o limbo wi hin U.S.’s
hype -ex e nalized e i o ies.
170 U.S. Depa men o S a e, “U.S. Re ugee Admissions P og am P io i y 2 Designa ion o A ghan Na ionals - Uni ed
S a es Depa men o S a e,” U.S. Depa men o S a e (U.S. Depa men o S a e, Janua y 28, 2022),
h ps://www.s a e.go /u-s- e ugee-admissions-p og am-p io i y-2-designa ion- o -a ghan-na ionals/.
169 Cong ess.go . "S.2793 - 115 h Cong ess (2017-2018): A ghan Allies P o ec ion Amendmen s Ac o 2018." May 7,
2018. h ps://www.cong ess.go /bill/115 h-cong ess/sena e-bill/2793.
168 Ibid.
54
The i s bill in oduced o he sena e by he 116 h cong ess in he ame o A ghanis an – ollowing he
wi hd awal ag eemen wi h Taliban– was on Ap il 15 h.171 The bill p o ided mino amendmen s o he
AAPA, by alloca ing a me e 4,000 addi ional isa alloca ions o he SIV p og am, in addi ion o he
unused allo men s om 2015 h ough 2017 - 0. This ex ended he isa allo men s om 18,500 o
22,500. Du ing he same pe iod, Cong essional Resea ch Se ice epo s172 18,314 o eigne s and hos
na ionals we e employed in A ghanis an, he second highes eco d since 2016.173 Wi h disc epan
numbe s, he SIV p og am ba ely p o ided addi ional quo a o immedia e amilies o con ac o s.
4.2.4 Ma ke ing On Mise y
Ano he o m o so e eign consolida ion h ough nec opeonage is he use o policy making e o s as a
medium o ga ne en enched democ a ic suppo . A epea ed heme no ed du ing he policy analysis,
was he use o g ega ious names o policies o en ich ma ke ing and p omo ional e o s, ul ima ely
aking ad an age o he elec o al alues. The ollowing bills we e among he only bills in oduced
du ing he pe iod o e acua ion and wi hd awal which posi ed minimal p ac icali y, while ully se ing
he policymake s –so e eigns– as ma ke ing ools. I posi his is a o m o nec opeonage, unde wo
obse a ions: Fi s ly, he policies do no challenge he neu opoli ical amewo k o con ibu e o he
elie o he mig an s om he “slow-dea h”. Secondly, he main enance o he mig an s unde
nec opoli ical condi ions – h ough inac ion– posi i ely se es he policy make s o consolida e hei
democ a ic suppo . This was e iden gi en he p ess associa ed wi h he in oduced bills, and my
in e p e a ion ha mo e e o was in es ed in c ea ing ma ke able ac onyms, han p oducing p agma ic
esolu ions.
The bill, Eme gency Secu i y Supplemen al App op ia ions Ac , passed on July 31, 2021174 p o ided
addi ional amendmen s o he AAPA in an unexpec ed u n – o add a bu eauc a ic laye and
es ic ions o he SIV p og am, by equi ing he candida es o unde go medical examina ion, p io o
ob aining he SIV. A cu iously-named bill, “HOPE o A ghan SIVs ac o 2021”,175 o “Hono ing Ou
P omises h ough Expedi ion o A ghan'', amended he p e iously in oduced bil, no by ex ending he
SIV quo as, bu by a he emo ing he medical examina ion s ep, o un il a e he applican s had
a i ed in he U.S.. Essen ially he bill named as HOPE, g ounded no addi ional p o isions o he
175 Cong ess.go . "H.R.3385 - 117 h Cong ess (2021-2022): HOPE o A ghan SIVs Ac o 2021." No embe 9, 2021.
h ps://www.cong ess.go /bill/117 h-cong ess/house-bill/3385.
174 Cong ess.go . "H.R.3237 - 117 h Cong ess (2021-2022): Eme gency Secu i y Supplemen al App op ia ions Ac , 2021."
July 30, 2021. h ps://www.cong ess.go /bill/117 h-cong ess/house-bill/3237.
173 Ibid.
172 Cong essional Resea ch Se ices, “Depa men o De ense Con ac o and T oop Le els in A ghanis an and I aq:
2007-20202021,” Feb ua y 2021, h ps://doi.o g/h ps://sgp. as.o g/c s/na sec/R44116.pd .
171 Cong ess.go . "S.1474 - 116 h Cong ess (2019-2020): A ghan Allies P o ec ion Ac o 2019." May 15, 2019.
h ps://www.cong ess.go /bill/116 h-cong ess/sena e-bill/1474.
61
Concen a ion camps o “Assembly Cen es” o e ugees in pos wa Eu ope.190 Seeing he p eceden o
his phenomenon, I a gue his p ocess o econs uc ing he image o he U.S. mili a y bases as
necessa y es ablishmen s o assis ing e ugees, ein o ces he impo ance o hei p esence in he hi d
coun y e i o ies – hus, embodying ano he o m o consolida ing ex e nalized so e eign y.
The mig a ion ou e o he A ghan e acuees connec ed wo c i ically impo an U.S. ai bases in he
Middle Eas and Eu ope – Al Udeid and Rams ein ai base. T acing he mig a ion ou e conce ning he
wo k o Espi i u e eals p obable in en ions o econs uc he image o hese bases om a mili a y
launching pad agains U.S. ad e sa ies o an indispensable humani a ian co ido . An
ope a ionaliza ion o which en ails con olling he mo emen o mig an s – labo ing hei nec o
peonage.
The Saigon e acua ion analog o Al Udeid and Rams ein ai bases is Cla k AFB, which was he
“backbone o logis ical suppo o U.S. in ol emen in Sou heas Asia,”191 which was he
headqua e s o he U.S. o ces ac i e in he en i e Asia-Paci ic.192 Linking Cla k AFB wi h o he U.S.
bases du ing he e acua ion, was a ea i ma ion o mili a ism in he paci ic e i o ies unde he acade
o a e ugee co ido .193
Examining he ope a ional his o y o he Al Udeid and Rams ein Ai bases e eals he impo ance o
he wo si es o he U.S. 's mili a ism and ein o ced ex e nalized e i o ies. The Al Udeid ai base was
he launching pad o Ope a ion Dese S o m in 1991 which expelled I aq om Kuwai and c ippled i s
a my om posing a h ea agains he Pe sian Gul oil & gas ese oi s, anke s and acili ies.
Nowadays, he acili y being he hos o he la ges Ame ican base,194 enac s as a epellen agains I an,
which con ends o challenge he a guably de ac o mili a is ic hegemony o he U.S. o e he egion.
Wi h e e y s oke o ension, he base is used by he U.S. mili a y o coun e any I anian in en o
jeopa dizing he U.S.’s posi ion in he egion.195 Simila ly, he Rams ein Ai base was delibe a ely
designed as a NATO command cen e , while oday ac ing as a mul ina ional headqua e o he Allied
Ai Fo ces Cen al Eu ope.196 Mos ecen ly, he Ai base hos ed he In e na ional Ad iso y G oup on
196 Allied Ai Command Public A ai s O ice, “NATO Ai Chie s Mee in Rams ein ‘Ou Job Is o Ensu e We Main ain
Alliance So e eign y,’” ac.na o.in , accessed May 15, 2022, h ps://ac.na o.in /a chi e/2022/NACS_22_1.
195 O iana Pawlyk, “F-22s Deploy o Qa a o he Fi s Time amid I an Tensions,” Mili a y.com, June 28, 2019,
h ps://www.mili a y.com/daily-news/2019/06/28/ -22s-deploy-qa a - i s - ime-amid-i an- ensions.h ml.
194 Adam Taylo , “As T ump T ies o End 'Endless Wa s,' Ame ica's Bigges Mideas Base Is Ge ing Bigge ,” The
Washing on Pos (WP Company, Augus 23, 2019),
h ps://www.washing onpos .com/wo ld/as- ump- ies- o-end-endless-wa s-ame icas-bigges -mideas -base-is-ge ing-bigge
/2019/08/20/47ac5854-bab4-11e9-8e83-4e6687e99814_s o y.h ml.
193 Ibid. p.37
192 Ibid.
191 Ibid.
190 Ibid. p.36
62
Uk aine’s coun e ac ion o Russia and a poin o command o coo dina ed mili a y assis ance and
ein o cemen o he coun y.197
By ein o cing Espi i u’s mili a ized e uge o he case o A ghan mig a ion, we ind a ecu ing
pa e n o coo dina ing he mo emen o mig an s be ween mili a y bases wi h egional signi icance o
a guably consolida e he U.S.’s p esence wi hin i s hype -ex e nalized e i o ies – he hi d coun y.
This p ocess o labo ing he exis ence o he mig an s o consolida e so e eign y ul ills he a ionale
o he hi d heo y – Nec opeons being uncondi ionally employed o se e and s eng hen he
so e eign’s consolida ion wi hin in e nal and ex e nalized e i o ies.
4.3.4 Caged In Li ing Hell
Nea ly he en i e y o Ope a ion Allies Re uge elied on emo e con ol policies o con ain he majo i y
o he A ghan mig an s. Only a e he Al Udeid and Rams ein bases o e capaci a ed he e acua ion
engaged U.S.-based mili a y bases o hos SIV applican s and o he e acua ed e ugees. The leaked
memo accessed by Axios, desc ibed he li ing condi ions in Al Udeid as a “Li ing hell.”198 This
co ela ed wi h how he pa icipan s who spen weeks he e desc ibed he si ua ion. The o e
capaci a ed cage p o ided he minimum hospi ali y appa a us.
A e holding an in-dep h in e iew wi h a esiden who sha ed a con o e sial Facebook pos abou he
camp, i was e iden ha he acili y’s p ima y conce n was o ac as a con ainmen . Lack o Ai
Condi ioning, oile s, showe s, poo hygiene, and in es a ion o a s and pes s in u ia ed he esiden s.
The in o man desc ibed many we e eg e ul abou lea ing A ghanis an, belie ing in all since i y hey
would’ e ecei ed be e ea men by he Taliban. When asked when hey we e expec ing o be
ans e ed o he U.S. bases and Rams ein, he in o man con i med i depended on he s age
applica ion p ocess. The in o man u he added hey “don’ know ye ” whe he hey’d be epa ia ed
back o A ghanis an i he SIV applica ion ails, while “[ hey] expec i .” The case o epa ia ion
would ha e ac ed as a elie measu e in he inhuman condi ions which cons ained he expec edly
biopoli ical ins i u ion an amoun o “li ing hell”. The condi ion o con ining e ugees o his s a e o
ba e-li e was also echoed by Espi i u, desc ibing he li abili y condi ions as “c ammed oge he behind
chain link ences opped wi h ba bed wi e and pa olled by p ison au ho i ies, e ugees in closed camps
we e no allowed o go beyond he bounda ies se by he wi ed ences.”199
199 Espi i u, p.63
198 Hans Nichols and Jona han Swan, “‘A Li ing Hell’: Leaked Email Desc ibes Squalid A ghan Re ugee Condi ions,”
Axios, Augus 24, 2021, h ps://www.axios.com/2021/08/24/a ghan- e ugees-condi ions-qa a .
197 John A. Ti pak, “Long-Te m Uk aine Aid o Be Discussed a Rams ein Mee ing,” Ai Fo ce Magazine, Ap il 24, 2022,
h ps://www.ai o cemag.com/long- e m-uk aine-secu i y- o-be-discussed-a - ams ein-mee ing/.
63
The p ocess o caging as a emo e con ol also p o ided au ho i y o he U.S. o epa ia e e acua ed
A ghans wi h ailed SIV applica ions, wi hou in oking he Non- e oulemen p inciple o In e na ional
Human Righ s law conce ning e ugees – ega dless o he cage is an ex e nalized e i o y. Mos
changes and imp o emen s in he camp we e c edi ed o he ini ia i e o he U.S. Mili a y. A e
assessing e e y p oposed and passed policy du ing his pe iod o e acua ion, he only consis en heme
was a o m o inac ion which educed he li eabili y o he e ugees o he s a e o “li ing hell.” The
policies enac ed du ing his pe iod by he U.S. ailed o add ess he ho id si ua ion in he Al Udaid
camp, li ing condi ions, o he SIV p ocessing ime. Al hough I in ended o use pos human
pe o ma i i y o assess he dynamic o policy-p ac ice ela ions, he obse a ions con i med li le
policy dynamics in esponse o he ield ci cums ances.
While none o he pa icipan s was awa e o any case o epa ia ion, Axios epo ed he i s case on
Ma ch 1, 22, whe e an A ghan wi h an unclea c iminal eco d was se o e u n o A ghanis an.200 This
se s a p eceden o lag unwan ed indi iduals o u u e depo a ions. Pe he o iginal ag eemen signed
be ween he U.S. and he Taliban in Feb ua y, he Taliban –and no he A ghan go e nmen – we e o
be ully esponsible o he ese lemen o he epa ia ed indi iduals, o he wise he depo ees. Thus,
he U.S. 's ag eemen had c ea ed he an icipa ed in as uc u e o depo a ions.
Fo he SIV applican s who we e clea ed o mo e o he U.S., he se lemen p ocess posed a di e en
se o challenges, which s ill kep he indi iduals a he isk o depo a ion o ans e o a de en ion
cen e . Fo he Vie namese mig an s, his was he case o hose who had ailed he sc eening and he
in e iew p ocesses. Espi i u desc ibes he sc eening p ocess as a mys e y o he e ugees, “ hey
deba ed a g ea leng h o e wha o say and how o beha e, o e ing and solici ing ad ice om each
o he on he “magic wo ds'' ha would gain hem a ese lemen o e ”201 By i ue o he in e ne and
mode n elecommunica ions, A ghans used a ious Wha sapp g oups, Facebook pages and eleg am
channels o p o ide suppo on he SIV applica ion, including sha ing in e iew ques ions. Some
desc ibed using assis ance om he In e na ional Re ugee Assis ance P ojec (IRAP) o p epa e o he
in e iews. The in e iew p ocess would o en ake abou an hou i i included he amily membe s,
and did no pose conside able cons ain o e he A ghan applican s.
4.3.5 Se lemen
The expe ience o hose who we e anspo ed o he U.S. a ied depending on he p oximi y o hei
closeness o hei U.S. con ac o . Fo ins ance, in e p e e s who wo ked di ec ly wi h he U.S. o ces
in he ield and had ecei ed he SIV, we e quickly in oduced o se lemen o ganiza ions o
201 Espi i u. p.54
200 S e W. Kigh , “U.S. Depo s Fi s A ghan Back o A ghanis an,” Axios, Ma ch 1, 2022,
h ps://www.axios.com/2022/03/01/a ghan-depo a ion-a ghanis an-ice-immig a ion- aliban.
64
inco po a e hem in o hei communi ies. O he s who had ecei ed he SIV, and hose wi h pending
SIV who lacked linguis ic luency, we e kep in he cages ac oss a ious U.S. Mili a y and Ai bases.
Fo hose who had ecei ed he SIV, hey would be kep un il hey had been indoc ina ed o he
Ame ican way o li ing. Special educa ional classes included subjec s such as c edi sco e sys em,
dayligh sa ings, democ acy, elec ions, and he his o y o he Uni ed S a es.
Espi i u desc ibed his p ocess o indoc ina ion as a mean o ain e ugees o asylum in he Wes ,
while also pe suading hem o “in e nalize he alues and hie a chies o he Uni ed S a es and o
ans o m hem in o pa icula kinds o mode n human beings (bound o Wes e n libe al
democ acies).”202 To a numbe o assessed U.S. media ou le s, his p ocess was b oadcas ed wi h
posi i e conno a ion and d i ing a pa icula na a i e: Tha he mig an s we e being ained o be
Ame icans, no longe being he “o he s”, pe Haddad’s ca ego iza ion. The na a i e en o ced he
imp ession ha he A ghans we e inally se ling in hei new home, hank ul o he Ame icans and he
U.S. mili a y.203204205 The dehumanizing and desensi izing expe ience o he mig an s was ansla ed
in o he compassion and bene olence o he so e eign.
Fo hose who also had pending SIV applica ions, hey would unde go he same classes wi h less
in ensi y. To he la e g oup o people, hei s a us and u u e hanged in he balance o hei SIV
applica ion esul s. Pa icipan s exp essed unsu e o whe e hey’d go o had he applica ions been
ejec ed. I he U.S. go e nmen chooses o ac on he p eceden o he p ocesses Vie namese e ugees
ollowed, he a e o ejec ed A ghan mig an s is he mig a ionde en ion cen e s, which we e i s and
o emos we e cons uc ed o ein o ce he policies in oduced unde he aming o Ame ican secu i y.
Despi e he di e si y in demog aphics and p o essional backg ound he mig an communi y possesses,
hey’ e uni ed by ha ing mo ed o he U.S. in ags and wi h li le subs an ial asse s. The p ocess o
mo phing om he “o he s” iden i y o he iden i y o he subjec s homogenized by he so e eign,
indeb ed o hose who’ e been g an ed se lemen pe missions. Ra he han ha ing he libe y o choose
he p o ession hey’d wish o engage in, he pa icipan s desc ibed being cons ained o ha ing
“su i al jobs” – wo king in wa ehouses, jani o ial posi ions, deli e y se ices, and o he labo s
subs an ia ing he su i al. Rei e a ing he Foucauldian e m, o li e a he me cy o a so e eign s a e is
o be ba e-li e, ipe o ex e mina ion o escapades o he s a es –– he phenomenon o such ex en o
dependence is ano he medium o compounding he so e eign au ho i y o e he indi iduals.
205 ABC News. "A ghan e ugees wo k o s a a new li e in he US". 2021. YouTube, 8:11,
h ps://www.you ube.com/wa ch? =qA iXj I9lU
204 VOA News. "A ghan Re ugee Family Is Adjus ing o Li e in he US". 2021. YouTube, 4:16,
h ps://www.you ube.com/wa ch? =dg63O59mh9Y
203 Washing on Pos . "Newly a i ed A ghan amily se les in, bu wo ies abou hose le behind ". 2021. YouTube, 3:23,
h ps://www.you ube.com/wa ch? =C DOG6ZhcS8.
202 Ibid. p.60
65
In summa y, my esea ch con ends he caging and se lemen o he mig an s acili a es i e key
se ices o he delibe a e en enchmen o U.S. go e nmen ’s so e eign y wi hin i s in e nal and
ex e nal e i o ies:
1. Caging os e s he p esence o he U.S. go e nmen in he hi d coun y, and ea i ms he
necessi y o he mili a y bases as ex e nalized so e eign e i o ies;
2. Caging c ea es he spa io empo al equisi e o he U.S. go e nmen o use policy in oduc ion
and policy enac men as means o domes ically consolida e i s so e eign y;
3. Caging educes he li abili y o he mig an s o ba e-li e, he eby inc easing hei li abili y
dependence on he U.S.
4. Caging con o ms he policy amewo ks based on p o ec ing he U.S. and he secu i iza ion o
he sc eening p ocesses – o il e ou he “o he s” and consolida e domes ic so e eign y;
5. Caging p o ides he space o u he homogenized he subjec s in con o mi y wi h he
so e eign
None o hese ou se ices unc ion wi hou he in olun a y se ice o he nec opeon – a su i al
mig an whose s a e o condi ional exis ence has been condemned o he ope a ionaliza ion o
nec opoli ics.
66
5. Conclusion
Th ough inco po a ing in e p e i e policy analysis, pe o ma i i y, and e hnog aphy, his esea ch
examined he clandes ine nec opoli ical eali ies o he biopoli ical policies o he U.S.. In answe ing
“How Nec opoli ics is ope a ionalized in he Uni ed S a es’ mig a ion policy?”, we i s had o
heo ize he “why?” – how he U.S. go e nmen could bene i om in insically nec opoli ical
mig a ion policies? We es ablished he p emise ha nec opoli ical policies a e hose which cu ail
indi iduals’ eedom o ba e-li e, c ea e spa io empo al condi ions o (un)su i abili y, and cul i a e
he phenomena o Nec opeonage. Nec opeonage is he mode o exis ence o a Nec opeon, an
indi idual who has been subjec ed o in olun a y labo o he ma e o su i al. By e e encing he
wo ks o o he mig a ion schola s, Haddad and Fi zge ald, he s udy bases he “why” on a close
mul iplica i e codependen ela ion be ween he mig an s and he so e eign. Whe e he so e eign
needs o be needed o consolida e i sel , he mig an ein o ces he need.
The empi ical sec ion yielded a numbe o key indings. Ch onologically, he U.S.'s ag eemen wi h he
Taliban c ea es a pa adoxical s a e o so e eign-subjec ela ions be ween he A ghan, he A ghan
go e nmen , and he Taliban. By analyzing he dominee ing o he U.S. o e he A ghan go e nmen ,
he pape concluded i o ep esen he de ac o suze ain, and by ex ension, so e eign o e he A ghans.
The U.S.’s Feb ua y ag eemen wi h he Taliban would de ju e ecognize Taliban so e eign y only
wi hin he in a-A ghan dialogue and a co-exis ing go e nmen , while pa adoxically g an ing he
Taliban esponsibili ies only anoin ed o he so e eign – such as issuing passpo s, p o iding secu i y,
and handling he impending mig a ion and displacemen c isis wi hin A ghanis an. The subsequen
esul was a mishap in he o ma ion o a s able and consolida ed go e nmen wi hin A ghanis an,
which would only esul in in e nal con lic and an impending mig a ion c isis. This conund um o
so e eign-subjec ela ion se he p elude o he ope a ionaliza ion o nec opoli ics.
By ollowing he odyssey o he mig an s, we ealized how he exis en ial d ead was
weaponized/u ilized o sna e he mig an in o he bu eauc a ic en apmen . This exis en ial h ea
cons uc ed he phenomenological ounda ion o nec opoli ics – he equisi e essence o labo he
mig an s’ sense o su i al. The empo al dimension was es ablished h ough p o ac ing he SIV
applica ion p ocess, which was only exace ba ed by he in lux o applican s ollowing he U.S.'s
wi hd awal announcemen . The spa ial in as uc u e o nec opoli ics was cons uc ed h ough Caging
and emo e policies wi hin ex e nalized e i o ies. The a chi ec u e o his spa io empo al
nec opoli ical amewo k p o ided he U.S. wi h a a ie y o means o u ilize he mig an s and hei
mo emen s o os e i s so e eign y wi hin he in e nal and ex e nal e i o ies.
67
The i s explo ed means o ope a ionalizing nec opoli ics was h ough policy cons uc ion. A se o
legisla ed policies be o e he mig a ion had c ea ed a byzan ine en apmen o he A ghan su i al
mig an s. Policies ha we e in oduced du ing and ollowing he mig a ion, con ibu ed li le change o
he si ua ion in he ield. Ins ead, hey ac ed as p omo ional ools o policymake s o s eng hen hei
suppo , o o lobbyis s o p omo e hei b and o wo k. This labo ing o he limbo s a e o mig an s
was in e p e ed as he i s o m o nec opeonage – whe e he mig an s exis inso a as o ein o ce he
so e eign y o he go e nmen .
The esea ch u he aced he ou e o e acua ions and posi ed he in e p e a ion ha he ou es we e
delibe a ely chosen o c ea e a humanized na a i e o he U.S. Mili a y bases ou side he U.S. The
bases o me ly ecognized as launching pads o de as a ing in asions we e ins an ly ans o med in o
e acua ion checkpoin s and humani a ian co ido s. In his i ue, he U.S. could ein o ce i s
so e eign y o e i s ex e nalized e i o ies by poin ing o subs an ial necessi y and se ice U.S. bases
p o ide in he hi d coun ies – besides in asions.
The emo e policies and he policies o sc eening legisla ion o he caged immig an s would be used
as a means o gal anize domes ic suppo by aming hese policies unde “Ame ican Secu i y”. In he
sepa a ion o mig an s, as he “O he s' ', om he Ame icans – he bona ide subjec s– he U.S.
go e nmen c ea es a homogenized space ha would equi e he in eg a ion o he e ugees. The
caging p ocess was used as a medium o indoc ina e he mig an s in o he Ame ican way o li e – wha
we can in e p e as he way o being subjec ed o he so e eign.
In he unde aking o his esea ch, we’ e na a ed a my iad o ways in which he U.S. ope a ionalizes
he nec opoli ical amewo k. Ex e naliza ion o e i o ies, policy ma ke ing, and domes ic
homogeniza ion can all be in e p e ed as he key p ocesses o he U.S.’s consolida ion o so e eign y
h ough mig a ion policies. Fo a closing ema k, I’m compelled o d aw a e e ence o he ole Ci il
Socie y plays in bu s ing he Hippoc a ic bubble pe Fi zge ald’s ema k. The ac i e ole o Ci il
Socie ies in de ec ing he spu ious acade o humani a ianism o e mili a ized mig a ion is impe a i e
in p essu ing he policymake s o ake an ac i e s ance in p o ec ing he igh s o e ugees. I since ely
hope he indings o his esea ch con ibu e o expanding he knowledge a chi ec u e o mig a ion
policies and mig a ion s udies.
68
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