33
NATURAL SCIENCES Indago, Vol. 39, 12 Oc obe 2025, pp. 33–44
u n:lsid:zoobank.o g:pub:7FD61B68-7555-48E2-9308-FE713FAB9CA2
Recei ed: 31 May 2023 / Re ised: 1 Dec. 2023 / Accep ed: 24 Jul. 2024
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17255374
ISSN (p in ) 0067-9208
The impac o p eda ion in communal sheep locks in he cen al F ee S a e P o ince, Sou h A ica
And ies J. S auss1,2*, Jan Willem Swanepoel2 & Jaspe J. E. Cloe e3
1F ee S a e Depa men o Ag icul u e and Ru al De elopmen , P i a e Bag X01, Glen, 9360 Sou h A ica
2Depa men o Sus ainable Food Sys ems and De elopmen , Facul y o Na u al and Ag icul u al Sciences,
Uni e si y o he F ee S a e, P.O. Box 339, Bloem on ein, 9300 Sou h A ica
3Wes e n Cape Depa men o Ag icul u e: Elsenbu g Ag icul u al T aining Ins i u e,
P i a e Bag X1, Elsenbu g, 7607 Sou h A ica
ORCID: S auss, A.J.: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5248-7285
ORCID: Swanepoel, J.W.: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0812-2657
ORCID: Cloe e, J.J.E: h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0007-0375-4149
*Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed]
ABSTRACT
The communal wool a me s in he Thaba Nchu and Bo shabelo a ea in he F ee S a e P o ince s uggle o imp o e hei
li elihoods. Va ious limi a ions, such as diseases and pa asi es, li es ock he , insu icien capi al, high eed cos s, challenges
in ma ke ing, labou cons ain s, ele a ed en expenses, and a lack o p o essional knowledge, hinde hei abili y o make
signi ican economic con ibu ions. This s udy desc ibes he composi ion o ac s and impac s ela ed o p eda ion in communal
sheep locks in he cen al F ee S a e P o ince, ollowing a c oss-sec ional desc ip i e s udy using quan i a i e me hods. Du ing
in e iews, esea che s u ilised a s uc u ed ques ionnai e o ga he quan i a i e da a on small-s ock losses o e a 12-mon h
pe iod. Da a we e collec ed om 351 (28 %) o he 1255 communal sheep a me s in he Thaba Nchu and Bo shabelo dis ic s.
The mean mone a y wo h o a ypically communal a me sheep lock (mean = 27.36 sheep/ a me ) was ZAR 30,861.96/ a -
me , wi h an a es ed educ ion o 49.2 % o he lock (ZAR 16,103.99/ a me ) epo ed by he a me s. The losses we e due o
a ious ac o s, such as diseases and pa asi es (37.4 %), wea he condi ions (d ough , lood, s o ms) (22.1 %), he (23.2 %),
p eda ion (12.1 %), dispu es o e pas u es and wa e (4.6 %), and o he losses (me abolic diso de s and acciden s) (0.6 %). Loss
due o p eda ion in communal sheep locks was 5.9 % o he o al lock size. P eda ion esul s in he loss o 1.63 pe 27.36 sheep
in he communal lock. Mos a me s did no expe ience any loss due o p eda ion; in mos cases, he loss was no mo e han
i e sheep pe a me . The e was a s a is ically signi ican associa ion be ween he numbe o sheep olde han 12 mon hs and
loss due o p eda o s, χ2(2) = 7.83, p = 0.02. Pa icipan s wi h mo e han i e sheep olde han 12 mon hs we e likelie o su e
om p eda o s. Mos p eda ion loss was due o unp edic able killings by ag an domes ic dogs. Shephe ding played he mos
i al ole in educing damages due o p eda o s.
KEYWORDS: Dep eda ion, diseases, a ming, li es ock, p eda o s, he , ag an domes ic dogs, wea he , Sou h A ica
INTRODUCTION
P eda ion and i s consequen ial impac s bea na io-
nal ami ica ions on ood secu i y, employmen a es
and socio-economic de e io a ion, pa icula ly wi hin
small -s ock a ming in Sou h A ica (A enan &
Be g man 2021). In 2019, he quan i iable expenses
incu ed due o p eda ion- ela ed losses in small
and la ge li es ock eached ZAR 2,710 million and
ZAR 511 million, espec i ely (Van Nieke k e al.
2021). The da a and hei implica ions o biodi e si y
and policy o mula ion p edominan ly o igina e om
he comme cial sec o , while he comp ehension o
p eda ion’s in luence emains inadequa e in commu-
nal a ming egions o Sou h A ica (Tu pie & Aki-
nyemi 2018).
A i s in ensi e 5-yea s udy quan i ied small-s ock
losses (ZAR 1,218,283) in he sheep lock (854) o he
Glen Ag icul u al College in he F ee S a e P o ince,
Sou h A ica (physically iden i ied losses s a me
ques ionnai es). P eda ion exe ed a mo e signi ican
impac (72 %) on he o e all lock size compa ed o
he combined e ec s o diseases (2 %), me abolic dis-
o de s and acciden s (20 %) and li es ock he (6 %)
(S auss e al. 2021).
The p ima y p eda o s accoun able o mos econo-
mic losses in ag icul u al indus ies a e Black-backed
jackals (Lupulella mesomelas) and Ca acal (Ca acal
ca acal). Addi ionally, ag an domes ic dogs (Canis
amilia is) can subs an ially ha m small li es ock,
pa icula ly nea human se lemen s (S auss e al.
2021; Van Nieke k e al. 2021). Acco ding o S auss
(2009), abou 70 km wes o he Thaba Nchu – Bo sha-
belo a ea, ag an domes ic dogs, o example, we e
esponsible o he second mos signi i can num be
o losses, 20 % o kills (ac ual ange o 13–26 %). In
he same s udy, Black-backed jackals we e es pon-
sible o 70.2 %, and Ca acal o 10 % o losses.
Limi ed and eliable p eda ion managemen in o ma-
ion is a ailable om o he p o inces and com munal
a eas in Sou h A ica (Tho n e al. 2013; Cons an
34 S auss e al. — Impac o p eda ion in communal sheep locks
2014). A lack o eco dkeeping, especially o small
s ock p oduc ion and ma ke ing by he communal
a me s in he Thaba Nchu and Bo shabelo a ea in he
F ee S a e, hinde s hem om de e mining hei main
cons ain s and makes hem ulne able o aud. Poo
eco dkeeping makes i di icul o a me s o ack
hei in en o y e ec i ely. This can esul in he o
unau ho ised li es ock sales, as he e may be no clea
documen a ion o he numbe o sheep owned by he
a me s and hei cu en s a us. Va ious ac o s, such
as diseases and pa asi es, li es ock he , insu icien
capi al, high eed cos s, challenges in ma ke ing, la-
bou cons ain s, ele a ed en expenses, and a lack
o p o essional knowledge, hampe a me s’ abili y
o make signi ican economic con ibu ions (Nyam e
al. 2022).
Animals in poo shape may also be mo e ulne able
o p eda ion. Low ain all, h ough i s e ec on ege-
a ion, may ad e sely a ec animal heal h (Le ine
e al. 2008). Diseases, pa asi es and hos ile clima ic
condi ions ha con ibu e o d ough and o e g azing
a e equen in communal a eas in he F ee S a e P o-
ince (Van de Wes huizen e al. 2020). Sick and ul-
ne able li es ock a e a highe isk o being killed,
e.g. by Black-backed jackals when p eda o s’ o he
ood sou ces diminish du ing d ough s o o e g azing
(Scheiss-Meie e al. 2007; Bah a e al. 2016; S auss
e al. 2021). P eda ion inc eases when p ope he ding
is lacking, a usual si ua ion in communal a ming
a eas (Lu chmina ayan 2014; Hawkins e al. 2023).
The impac o p eda ion on he small s ock in com-
munal a eas in Sou h A ica can de as a e bo h in-
di idual a me s and en i e communi ies (Tu pie &
Aki nyemi 2018). Animal, especially small s ock,
hus band y is a signi ican sou ce o income and li e-
li hood o many u al a me s and losing only a ew
sheep can subs an ially impac hei inancial s a bi-
li y. P eda ion mis o une ad e si ies is o en exa ce -
ba ed by many small-s ock a me s ha ing limi ed
esou ces and in as uc u e o p o ec hei animals
om p eda o s (Lu chmina ayan 2014).
This s udy desc ibes he composi ion o ac s and
im pac s ela ed o p eda ion in communal sheep
locks in he cen al F ee S a e P o ince, ollowing
a c oss-sec ional desc ip i e s udy using quan i a i e
me hods.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
S udy a ea
The s udy was conduc ed in he Thaba Nchu–Bo sha-
belo a ea o he Mangaung dis ic in he F ee S a e
Figu e 1: Map depic ing su eyed communi ies in he Thaba Nchu
–
Bo shabelo a ea in he Mangaung dis ic in he cen al and sou h-eas e n
pa s o he F ee S a e P o ince, Sou h A ica. (DARD, GIS sec ion, 2023)
35
Indago Vol. 39 (2023–2025)
P o ince, Sou h A ica (Fig. 1). This egion has la ,
olling g asslands, c op ields, isola ed sands one
ko pjes and moun ains. The p o ince is a c op and
li e s ock p oduc ion a ea di ided in o i e dis ic s:
Man gaung, Xha iep, Lejwelepu swa, Fezile Dabi
and Thabo Mo u sanyana. Howe e , ocus g oups
o pe sonal communica ion and aining we e can-
assed in he Thaba Nchu and Bo shabelo a ea in he
Man gaung dis ic , whe e mos communal a me s
a e si ua ed.
The Thaba Nchu and Bo shabelo a ea has 40 com -
mu ni ies (59,957 ha g azing a ea). Among hese, 21
(53%)—encompassing 30,182 ha o g azing land ea-
u ing a ious ege a ion ypes, speci ically swee
g ass eld, sou g ass eld, and mixed sou g ass eld
(Van de Wes huizen e al. 2018)—we e chosen o
ensu e a balanced co e age ac oss he s udy a ea.
The clima e in he a ea is cha ac e ised by cold win-
e s wi h an a e age daily minimum o -0.6 °C wi h
os , and ho summe s wi h an a e age daily ma-
ximum o 33.6 °C (Fig. 2) (ARC-NRE 2023). The
long- e m annual ain all (6 June 2012 – 29 Janua y
2022) o he Bo shabelo and Thaba Nchu a ea is
546 mm (Fig. 3). Mos o he ain all (>70 %) is e-
cei ed in he summe om No embe o Ma ch
(Fouché e al. 1985).
The F ee S a e Depa men o Ag icul u e and Ru al
De elopmen (DAFF 2018) ecommends a long- e m
g azing capaci y o 6 ha pe La ge S ock Uni (LSU)
o he Bo shabelo and Thaba Nchu a ea (Meissne
e al. 1983).
Sampling p ocedu e
The pa icipan s we e selec ed ia a non- andom,
pu posi e, con enience sampling me hod o each
he communal wool a me s in he Mangaung dis ic .
Ap p oxima ely 1255 small-s ock communal a me s
we e in he Mangaung dis ic (Mocwi i 2022). A
sample size calcula o (h p://www. aoso .com/
samplesize.h ml) was used o de e mine he sample
size o gene alise he popula ion. Fo his s udy, 295 o
mo e obse a ions ha e a con idence le el o 95 %, wi h
he ac ual alue wi hin ± 5 % o he obse a ion alue.
Da a collec ion p ocedu e
E hical clea ance was ob ained om he Uni e si y
o he F ee S a e Resea ch E hics Commi ee o
his p ojec (UFS-HSD2021/0422/21). A s uc u ed
ques ionnai e was used in one-on-one in e iews
o ob ain quan i a i e da a on small-s ock losses.
I ook app oxima ely 40 min o comple e he 73
ques ions in he ques ionnai e. The designed ques-
ion nai e cap u es household demog aphics, em-
po a y and pe manen a m wo ke s, a ming expe-
ience, he p ima y sou ce o a ming knowledge
ob ained, small-s ock losses, in as uc u e, in ol e-
men o ex ension se ices and inpu cos s. While
he su ey was in English, all in e iews ook place
in he pa icipan s’ na i e languages ollowing he
in e p e a ion o he English e sion. Fo he in e -
iews, 16 inal-yea ag icul u al s uden s a he Uni-
e si y o he F ee S a e ecei ed aining in he
ques ionnai e. Mos o hese enume a o s’ home
language was Seso ho, bu Se swana, isiZulu and
Figu e 2: Maximum (Tx) and minimum empe a u es (Tn) and he long- e m a e age empe a u es (9.7 yea s) om Woonhuis wea he s a ion
(29.15276
°S 26.57214
°E; al . 1269 m a.s.l.) 25 km wes o he Thaba Nchu
–
Bo shabelo a ea. (ARC-NRE 2023)
36 S auss e al. — Impac o p eda ion in communal sheep locks
isiXhosa-speaking enume a o s we e also selec ed.
This enabled he pa icipan s, mainly Seso ho-speak-
ing, o alk openly wi h li le es ic ion. Th oughou
he da a collec ion phase, supe iso s sys ema ically
obse ed enume a o s o main ain uni o mi y, de ec
ou lie s, and ensu e he p ecision o he ga he ed
da a. The esea che dissemina ed he ques ionnai e
o esponden s and assu ed hem ha hei da a would
be con iden ial.
Ex ension o ice s ec ui ed pa icipan s by making
use o an inclusion c i e ia lis . Small s ock com p ises
wool sheep, dual-pu pose sheep, mu on sheep and
goa s. Al hough he e we e abou 1255 small-s ock
a me s, only hose a ming wool- ype sheep we e
included. Da a collec ion was om No embe 2021
un il Feb ua y 2022, when mos o he ewes would
ha e lambed and he lambs weaned (S auss e al.
2021). The da a collec ed (e.g., a me demog aphics,
li es ock numbe s, p o duc ion, ep oduc ion, losses)
included one yea ’s da a (2021/2022). Annual di ec
allocable a iable cos s (DAVC) ( e e ina y se ices
and me di cine, anspo , odde , e ilise , a m me-
cha nisa ion, ma chi ne y/equipmen hi e, epai and
main enance, and ope a ional cos s: banking, cell
phone, ma ke ing and b anding) we e also col lec ed
and o u he he s udy, addi ional inancial cal cu-
la ions we e neces sa y.
The ollowing di ec losses o e 12 mon hs we e de-
penden a iables in he ques ionnai e ha a ec ed
li es ock owne s and ag icul u al p oduc ion in ge-
ne al:
• Disease and pa asi e: This e e ed o losses caused
by li es ock diseases and in es a ions o pa asi es
ha could lead o illness and dea h o he animals.
Such losses may be due o inadequa e e e ina y
ca e and/o insu icien p e en a i e measu es.
• D ough : This e e ed o losses igge ed by a p o-
longed pe iod o d y wea he , which could lead o
a sho age o wa e and eed o li es ock and, in
ex eme cases, dea h o he animals.
• Floods: This e e ed o losses p o oked by hea y
ain all o i e o e low, which could esul in he
d owning o li es ock, damage o in as uc u e
and buildings, and loss o c ops. Floods can also
lead o soil e osion, u he a ec ing ag icul u al
p o duc i i y.
• Thunde /Ligh ning: This e e ed o losses caused
by ligh ning s ikes, which could lead o he dea h
o inju y o li es ock and damage o buildings and
in as uc u e. Thunde can also cause s ess and
an xie y in li es ock, a ec ing hei p oduc i i y.
• The dependen a iables ‘d ough ’, ‘ loods’ and
‘ hun de /ligh ning’ we e g ouped as losses due o
wea he condi ions.
• Dispu es o e pas u e and wa e : This a iable e-
e ed o losses caused by con lic s o e access
o g azing lands and wa e sou ces, which migh
ha e e sul ed in o e g azing, soil deg ada ion and
de c eased p oduc i i y. In mos a ming com mu-
ni ies, ex en si e g azing a eas a e un enced, and
some imes, he sheep locks o di e en commu ni-
ies o e en small s ock om Leso ho ge mixed up.
Dispu es hen a ise due o di e ences in owne ship
(lack o ani mal iden i ica ion ma ks and eco d
keeping) o adi ional use igh s. The winning
pa y o he dis pu e gains he sheep and he losing
pa y egis e s a loss.
• Li es ock killed by p eda o s/dogs: This a iable
e lec ed losses caused by a acks om p eda o s
like he Black-backed jackal, Ca acal and ag an
Figu e 3: Rain all da a o 2020, 2021 and long- e m a e age ain all (9.7 yea s) om Woonhuis (29.15276
°S 26.57214
°E; al . 1269 m a.s.l.)
wea he s a ion 25 km wes o he Thaba Nchu
–
Bo shabelo a ea. (ARC-NRE 2023)
37
Indago Vol. 39 (2023–2025)
do mes ic dogs (de Waal 2009, 2021; Van Nieke k
2010), which could lead o inju y o dea h o li e-
s ock.
• The : This e e ed o losses caused by he he o
li es ock, which esul ed in economic damages o
he communal a me s.
• O he : This dependen a iable e e ed o losses
cau sed by o he ac o s no explici ly men ioned
abo e, such as acciden s and me abolic diso de s
(e.g., bloa and acidosis). These losses may be less
amilia bu signi ican ly impac ag icul u al p o-
duc i i y and li elihoods.
The ollowing independen (explana o y) a iables
ex plain o p edic changes in a dependen a iable,
namely p eda ion:
• The pe iod he communal a me was p ac ising
wool p oduc ion;
• Mon hly income;
• Fa m in as uc u e (absence o condi ion o en ces
and k aals o sa egua d he sheep);
• Sheep demog aphics ( lock s uc u e);
• The numbe o pe manen and empo a y s a o
sa egua d he sheep.
Da a managemen and analysis
Acco ding o Van Nieke k (2002), using ques ion-
nai e su ey me hods enables esea che s o gauge an
indi idual’s knowledge, he na u e o he in o ma ion
hey hold, hei alues and belie s, and hei a i udes
owa d he ques ionnai e opic. When admi nis e ing
a ques ionnai e su ey, pa icipan s espond mo e
a ou ably, and he esul s a e supe io o elepho-
nic in e iews o mail su eys (Van Nieke k 2002).
The ques ionnai e in his s udy was c ea ed by using
he E aSys so wa e. The SPSS ( e . 29) p og am
p ocessed and analysed he da a. Scanned comple ed
ques ionnai es iden i ied ou lie s and po en ial e o s.
The mean alues o missing obse a ions we e ad-
ded o calcula e he sum in each ca ego y. A e age
p ices o li es ock auc ionee s in Bloem on ein,
± 60 km om he s udy a ea, we e used o calcula e
he alue o communal a me s’ sheep locks. Chi-
squa e ana lysis was done o desc ip i e s a is ics
and ac o s a ec ing sheep losses due o p eda ion.
The esul s o he analysis is p esen ed below in he
o m o ables, g aphs and ex .
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
S uc u e o he sheep locks in he s udy a ea
Da a om 9603 sheep we e ob ained h ough in e -
iews wi h 351 a me s. The minimum numbe o
sheep owned by an indi idual was 1, while he ma-
xi mum was 200 (Table 1). The a e age numbe o
sheep owned by he popula ion was 27.36 ± 32.11.
This numbe also included lambs (Table 2). O e all,
he indings p o ide insigh in o he sheep owne ship
pa e ns.
Financial alue o he communal a me s’ sheep
locks
The inancial alue o he sheep was de e mined by
he ca ego ised lock s uc u e mul iplied by he on-
he-hoo p ices in Feb ua y 2023 (Mybu g 2023)
and he a e age li e weigh s (bi h-, weaned- and
12-mon h weigh s) o sheep in ex ensi e g azing
con di ions (S auss 2009). The o al numbe o sheep
in each ca ego y was calcula ed wi h he a e age
alue pe sheep o es ima e he o al collec ion o all
sheep (Table 2).
The o al alue o 28 % o he commu nal a me s’
sheep locks was es ima ed a ZAR 10,832,547.45
(ZAR 30,861.96/ a me ), wi h he highes con i-
bu ion coming om ewes o e one yea o age
(ZAR 5,769,553.50) (Table 2). The e o e, he alue
o he 1255 communal wool a me s in he Bo-
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o he communal sheep locks.
To al numbe o sheep
NValid 351
Missing 0
Mean 27.36
Median 17.00
Mode 4
S d. de ia ion 32.11
Range 199
Minimum 1
Maximum 200
Sum 9603
38 S auss e al. — Impac o p eda ion in communal sheep locks
sha belo and Thaba Nchu a ea can be es ima ed a
(ZAR 30,861.96 × 1255 = ZAR 38,731,759.80).
The cos o he di e en a ming inpu s pe yea was
alloca ed o all li es ock ac i i ies. The o al LSU o
sheep we e ob ained by mul iplying he o al numbe
o sheep wi h he LSU in each ca ego y: 0–4 mon hs
(0.08 LSU), 5–12 mon hs (0.15 LSU), ewes >1 yea
(0.17 LSU) and ams >1 yea (0.25 LSU) (Meissne
e al. 1983). Then, he LSUs we e calcula ed o all
li es ock o de e mine he con ibu ion in each ca-
e go y (Table 3). The sheep LSU con ibu ion was
34.4 %, which was used o calcula e he annual cos s/
sheep (Table 4).
Financial implica ions o losses and mo ali ies
in he communal a me s’ sheep locks
The annual di ec allocable a iable cos o commu-
nal sheep locks can be analysed using a ious com-
po nen s, each con ibu ing a speci ic pe cen age o
he o al amoun (Table 4):
Labou e e s o expenses associa ed wi h hi ing and
compensa ing pe sonnel ( empo a y o pe manen
a m wo ke s/manage s) in ol ed in he manage-
men and ca e o communal sheep locks. This in-
cludes eeding, shea ing, gene al lock main enance
and, mos impo an ly, he ding. The labou cos o
ZAR 25.33/sheep (15.73 %) was among he highes
con ibu o s o he cos pe sheep (Table 4) and a ied
be ween seasons and communi ies. The labou cos in
ou su ey was h ee- old highe han in a s udy on
he p o i abili y o Me ino sheep (casual labou , 5 %)
(Geye & Ven e 2015).
Ve e ina y medicine and se ices a e essen ial o
main aining he heal h and well-being o he com-
munal sheep locks. The componen was he highes
allocable cos pe sheep (ZAR 28.69/sheep, o
17.82 %; Table 4) and included e e ina y con sul a-
ions, accina ions, medica ions, dosing and any spe-
cialised se ices equi ed. The cos in his ca ego y
was he same (17.6 %) in he s udy by Geye and
Ven e (2015) and only sligh ly highe compa ed o a
simila sheep lock a FSDARD (Glen) (11.9 %) wi h
no ex a e e ina y cos because s a e e e ina ians
ook ca e o he s a e-owned sheep (S auss e al.
2021).
T anspo (incl. uel) encompasses expenses as so cia-
ed wi h mo ing he sheep and anspo ing wool and
ela ed ma e ials om one loca ion o ano he . The
amoun o ZAR 26.40/sheep (16.39 %) in cluded uel
cos s (bakkie/ ac o ), ehicle/ ac o main enance,
and o he anspo - ela ed expenses, and was he
hi d highes allocable cos pe sheep (Table 4).
Fodde cos ep esen s he expenses incu ed o eed
he communal sheep locks. This includes pu chas-
ing o p oducing hay like luce ne, plan ed pas u es,
and supplemen a y eeding: maize, licks, pelle
con cen a es and mine al sal . Only a ew pas u es
(p i ma ily oa s) and maize a e sel -p oduced o
assis wi h odde low. The amoun o ZAR 26.98
(16.75 %) was he second-highes allocable cos pe
sheep (Table 4). Geye and Ven e (2015) indica ed
ha eeding cos was 58 % o he o al DAVC, i.e.
signi ican ly highe han he eeding cos (16.75 %)
epo ed in ou su ey. Communal a me s depend
p ima ily on he go e nmen assis ance, especially
odde , which explains he ma ked di e ence.
Machine y/equipmen hi e, epai and main enance
incu ed expenses o ZAR 5.26/sheep (3.27 %) asso-
cia ed wi h he en al, epai and main enance o
machine y (e.g. sheep shea ing) and equipmen (e.g.
wool p ess, dosing gun) used in communal sheep
a ming (Table 4).
The o he allocable cos s like shea ing (ZAR 17.07/
sheep, 10.62 %), ope a ional cos s (ZAR 7.50/sheep,
4.66 %), a m mechanisa ion (ZAR 15.05/sheep,
9.34 %), e ilise (ZAR 4.54/sheep, 2.82 %), and
ma ke ing and b anding (ZAR 3.94/sheep, 2.62 %)
also con ibu ed o he o al o ZAR 163.40/sheep
(Table 4).
The inancial loss in sheep locks was subs an ial,
amoun ing o ZAR5,652,500.51 (ZAR16,103.99/ a -
me ) (Table 5). As mos a me s could un o u na ely
no asc ibe losses in speci ic age classes o ce ain
causes, he a e age sheep alue o ZAR1036.56 and
ZAR160.75 cos /sheep (Tables 2, 4) was used o cal-
Table 2. The inancial alue (ZAR) o he communal sheep locks pe age ca ego y. The assump ion is ha each ca ego y has a uni
o m dis ibu ion o alues.
Age ca ego y Mean, kg Mean, R/kg ZAR/sheep To al numbe o sheep
(mean and s d. de .) To al alue, ZAR
0–4 mon hs 4.9 38.50 188.65 (5.6 ± 7.7) 1947 367,301.55
5–12 mon hs 24.6 38.50 947.10 (6.0 ± 8.1) 2094 1,983,227.40
Ewes >1 yea 53.0 25.50 1351.50 (12.2 ± 12.6) 4269 5,769,553.50
Rams >1 yea 79.0 21.00 1659.00 (4.7 ± 6.2) 1635 2,712,465.00
a . 1036.56 10,832,547.45
39
Indago Vol. 39 (2023–2025)
cula e he o al inancial losses in Table 5. The i nan-
cial implica ions in he ca e go y diseases and pa a-
si es (ZAR2,114,449.46) we e signi ican ly highe in
all ca ego ies o losses like he (ZAR1,308,659.83),
wea he condi ions (ZAR1,252,386.26) and p eda ion
(ZAR683,664.01).
To al losses in communal a me s’ sheep locks
The numbe o losses due o a ious ac o s such as
diseases and pa asi es, ex eme wea he , dispu es
o e pas u e and wa e , p eda ion, he , me abolic
diso de s, and acciden s o alled 4721, equi alen o
49.2 % o he o al sheep (Table 5).
The highes pe cen age o losses was a ibu ed o
diseases and pa asi es (37.4 %), ollowed by wea he
condi ions (d ough s, loods, s o ms) (22.1 %), he
(23.2 %) and p eda ion (12.1 %) (Fig. 4). Du ing he
s udy pe iod (2021/2022), abo e-no mal ain all was
eco ded o bo h 2020 (763 mm) and 2021 (738
mm) (Fig. 3). The abno mal di e ences be ween he
maximum and minimum empe a u es, e.g., in July
2021 (Tx = 23.5, Tn = -5.1), oge he wi h below-
a e age ain all (Ma ch – July 2021) and he abo e-
a e age ain all (Augus 2021 – Jan 2022) (Figs 2, 3),
can explain he high numbe o losses o diseases and
pa asi es and o wea he condi ions (Fig. 4). Losses
due o dispu es o e pas u es and wa e (4.6 %) we e
ela i ely low. Howe e , he inancial alue o he
loss (ZAR 261,013.58; Table 5) was s ill subs an ial.
I could a ec he well-being o communal a me s
emendously. A lack o eco dkeeping and animal
iden i ica ion also con ibu ed o losses due o dispu es
o e pas u es and wa e when li es ock ge s mixed
up be ween communi ies and wi h li es ock om
Leso ho. In compa ison wi h o he s udies by S auss
e al. (2021) in he cen al F ee S a e, o he losses
(me abolic diso de s and acciden s) we e ela i ely
low (0.6 %; Fig. 4). The majo i y o communal a -
me s (58 %) did no engage in eco dkeeping p ac-
ices, while 29 % main ained pa ial eco ds, and only
13 % main ained de ailed eco ds. Consequen ly, he
epo ed losses migh exhibi a po en ial bias; ne e -
heless, poo main enance o documen a ion signi-
ican ly in luenced communal a me s’ manage men
p ac ices and long- e m sus ainabili y.
S auss e al. (2021) indica ed ha lamb losses due
o p eda ion we e up o 81.6 % o lambs bo n, and
pos -weaned losses we e 18.6 % o he o al lock
size o e nine yea s. Acco ding o Viljoen (2015),
lamb losses due o p eda ion on he Na ional Wool
G owe s Associa ion moni o a ms we e also a s ag-
ge ing 46 %, wi h 89 % occu ing be o e weaning
age. Al hough losses due o p eda ion (5.9 %, o
Table 3. To al La ge S ock Uni s (LSUs) o communal a me s’ li es ock in Thaba Nchu and Bo shabelo a ea. Calcula ion o di e en
ca ego ies acco ding o Meissne e al. (1983).
Desc ip ion Li es ock numbe LSUs %
Sheep 9603 1604 34.4
Ca le 2962 2962 63.5
Goa s 610 98 2.1
4664 100
Table 4. Annual di ec allocable a iable cos s (ZAR) o communal sheep locks (2021–2022).
Desc ip ion Annual cos
(9603 sheep)
Cos pe
sheep
% o o al
cos
Labou 243,198.95 25.33 15.73
Ve e ina y medicine and se ices 275,497.35 28.69 17.82
T anspo (including uel) 253,503.25 26.40 16.39
Fodde * 259,062.39 26.98 16.75
Fe ilise 43,559.03 4.54 2.82
Fa m mechanisa ion 144,485.26 15.05 9.34
Machine y/equipmen hi e, epai & main enance 50,513.39 5.26 3.27
Ope a ional: banking, cell phone 72,086.29 7.50 4.66
Ma ke ing and b anding 37,831.40 3.94 2.62
Shea ing ** 163,959.00 17.07 10.62
To al 1,543,696.31 160.75 100
* Plan ed pas u es, supplemen a y eeding, e.g. luce n, maize, licks, pelle concen a es and mine al sal .
** This included shea e , woolhandle , and classe o only ams, ewes and lambs 5–12 mon hs.
40 S auss e al. — Impac o p eda ion in communal sheep locks
ZAR 683,664.01; Table 5) in sheep locks we e s ill
eno mous, hey we e ma kedly lowe han hose in
comme cial sheep locks (up o 13 %, amoun ing o
R2.34 billion (Tu pie & Akinyemi 2018)) bu com-
pa able o losses o 2.98–7.35% due o p eda ion on
a ms in Cen al Ka oo (Con adie & Na ass 2017).
The losses caused by p eda ion we e 1.63 pe 27.36
sheep (Table 6), he a e age lock size pe a me ,
ep esen ing a loss o 5.9 % (Table 5). While his
emains a conside able loss, mos a me s (61.3 %)
epo ed no losses due o p eda ion. Mos losses we e
no mo e han i e sheep pe a me .
The Black-backed jackal was esponsible o only a
ew losses, and no losses o Ca acal we e epo ed.
Howe e , ag an domes ic dogs we e esponsible
o mos o he damages, con adic ing indings om
o he s udies in Sou h A ica, whe e he Black-
backed jackal was esponsible o o e 70 % o he
losses (S auss e al. 2021).
Mos sheep we e los due o diseases and pa asi es,
wi h 69 % o pa icipan s indica ing some loss and
mos (39 %) indica ing a loss o 1–5 sheep du ing
he p eceding 12 mon hs. Loss due o p eda o s was
he ou h con ibu ing ac o ( ollowing wea he and
he ), wi h 36 % o pa icipan s expe iencing loss
due o p eda o s and mos (31 %) indica ing a loss o
1–5 sheep du ing he p eceding 12 mon hs.
Al hough s ock he could ha e subs an ial inan-
cial implica ions, mos a me s did no expe ience i
(Fig. 4). Un o una ely, i he s ock he syndica es
ope a e in a speci ic a ea, hey can elimina e he
en i e communal sheep lock. This happened in he
Sp ing on ein communi y, whe e h ee a me s los
all hei sheep o o ganised c ime g oups.
In 2022, 38,000 li es ock he cases we e epo ed
in he F ee S a e P o ince, o which 21.6 % we e
om he neighbou ing owns nex o he Leso ho
bo de (Louw 2023). Sp ing on ein communi y in
he Thaba Nchu dis ic is a ba e 30 km om he
Leso ho bo de . Howe e , c iminal syndica es do
no con inuously ope a e om Leso ho. Many s ock
he losses occu mo e p o oundly wi hin he Sou h
A ican bo de s. Sheep a e he wo king capi al o he
communal a me s; he e o e, he capi al needs o
be eplaced when s ock he occu s (NSTPF 2015).
Many communal sheep a me s indica ed ha hey
we e selling hei li es ock o ensu e some income
ins ead o losing e e y hing. Al hough o he losses
we e mo e ema kable, selling he only sou ce o
income would cause se ious inancial p oblems o
he a me , he en i e communi y, and unemploymen
in he F ee S a e P o ince.
Table 5. The o al inancial implica ion (in ZAR) o losses and mo ali ies in he su eyed communal sheep lock (9603 sheep).
Losses Numbe o losses
(% o o al lock)
1036.56 a ./sheep
+ 160.75 cos /
sheep
To al
Diseases & pa asi es 1766 (18.4 %) 1197.31 2,114,449.46
Wea he condi ions (d ough , lood, s o ms) 1046 (10.9 %) 1197.31 1,252,386.26
Dispu e o e pas u e and wa e 218 (2.3 %) 1197.31 261,013.58
P eda ion 571 (5.9 %) 1197.31 683,664.01
The 1093 (11.4 %) 1197.31 1,308,659.83
O he losses: Me abolic diso de and acciden s 27 (0.3 %) 1197.31 32,327.37
To al losses 4721 (49.2 %) 5,652,500.51
Figu e 4: A ibu es o sheep losses epo ed by 351 communal
a me s in he Cen al F ee S a e exp essed as a pe cen age o he
o al losses.
41
Indago Vol. 39 (2023–2025)
Causes o p eda ion losses in communal a me s’
sheep locks
Chi-squa e analysis showed a s a is ically signi ican
associa ion be ween he numbe o sheep olde han
12 mon hs and loss due o p eda o s, χ2(2) = 7.83,
p = 0.02. Pa icipan s wi h mo e han i e sheep olde
han 12 mon hs we e likelie o expe ience loss due o
p eda o s (Table 7).
S auss e al. (2021) indica ed ha k aaling was one
o he success ul non-le hal me hods o mi iga e
p eda ion. In he p esen s udy, he condi ion o he
a m ences and k aals had no signi ican (p>0.05)
in luence on educing losses due o p eda ion. Mos
losses we e due o ag an domes ic dogs. Almos
e e y household had dogs and could no p edic when
hose dogs o s ay dogs would cause losses i ele an
o he condi ions o he ences and k aals, hei a -
ming expe ience and mon hly income. Sa egua ding
he sheep agains p eda o s by empo a y o pe ma-
nen wo ke s e iden ly in luenced he scale o his
dam age. The a me s indica ed ha whe e losses did
occu , 57 % o hem we e associa ed wi h no a m
wo ke s. When labou e s we e appoin ed—1 o 2
wo ke s, o mo e han wo wo ke s— he losses due
o p eda ion dec eased ma kedly, by 27 % and 17 %,
espec i ely (Table 7). The lessen p eda ion losses
o mesop eda o s could be a ibu ed o imp o ed
shephe ding. A ecen s udy indica ed ha p eda ion
losses we e i e- old lowe when shephe ding was
implemen ed compa ed o a eas whe e shephe ding
was no pa o he a me ’s managemen p ac ices
(Hawkins e al. 2023). Con adie and Piesse (2015)
Table 6. Desc ip i e s a is ics o ac o s a ec ing he loss o sheep in communal locks.
Diseases and
pa asi es
Wea he
condi ions Dispu es P eda ion The O he
losses
N Valid 351 351 351 351 351 351
Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 5.03 2.98 0.62 1.63 3.11 0.08
Median 3.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mode 3 0 0 0 0 0
S d. de ia ion 5.609 4.896 2.291 2.767 6.121 0.475
Range 21 21 21 21 21 3
Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maximum 21 21 21 21 21 3
Sum 1766 1046 218 571 1093 27
Key: 1 = 0, 2 = 1–5, 3 = 6–10, 4 = 11–20, 5 = 21+
Table 7. Fac o s a ec ing he loss o sheep due o p eda ion.
Losses due o p eda o s
p- alueNo Yes
n % n %
Pe iod p ac ising wool
p oduc ion
Fi e yea s o less
Mo e han i e yea s
107
94
53 %
46 %
55
71
44 %
56 % 0.09
Mon hly income ZAR3330 o less
Mo e han ZAR3330
146
52
74 %
26 %
92
30
75 %
25 % 0.74
Numbe o sheep 12
mon hs o younge
None
1–5
Mo e han 5
29
150
24
14 %
74 %
11 %
16
86
25
12 %
68 %
20 %
0.15
Numbe o sheep olde
han 12 mon hs
None
1–5
Mo e han 5
16
139
48
8 %
68 %
24 %
5
75
47
4 %
59 %
37 %
0.02
Condi ion o a m
ences/ k aals
Wo king condi ion
No in wo king condi ion/absen
124
79
61 %
39 %
86
41
68 %
32 % 0.22
Numbe o wo ke s
( empo a y and
pe manen )
No wo ke s
1 o 2 wo ke s
Mo e han 2 wo ke s
100
78
25
49 %
38 %
12 %
72
34
21
57 %
27 %
17 %
0.08
