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This is he accep ed e sion o he ollowing a icle: Jan M ázek e al., "Ino ganic nanopa icles in ibe lase echnology, " in
*P oc. IEEE ICTON 2025*
The inal e sion is a ailable a : h ps://doi.o g/10.1109/ICTON67126.2025.11125185
Ino ganic nanopa icles in ibe lase echnology
Jan M ázek
Fibe lase s and non-linea op ics
Ins i u e o Pho onics and Elec onics
o he Czech Academy o Sciences
P ague, Czech Republic
[email p o ec ed]
Michal Kam ádek
Fibe lase s and non-linea op ics
Ins i u e o Pho onics and Elec onics
o he Czech Academy o Sciences
P ague, Czech Republic
[email p o ec ed]
Jan Aub ech
Fibe lase s and non-linea op ics
Ins i u e o Pho onics and Elec onics
o he Czech Academy o Sciences
P ague, Czech Republic
[email p o ec ed]
Jana P oboš o á
Fibe lase s and non-linea op ics
Ins i u e o Pho onics and Elec onics
o he Czech Academy o Sciences
P ague, Czech Republic
[email p o ec ed]
I an Kašík
Fibe lase s and non-linea op ics
Ins i u e o Pho onics and Elec onics
o he Czech Academy o Sciences
P ague, Czech Republic
[email p o ec ed]
Ondřej Pod azký
Fibe lase s and non-linea op ics
Ins i u e o Pho onics and Elec onics
o he Czech Academy o Sciences
P ague, Czech Republic
pod azký@u e.cz
Jana No o ná
Depa men o Ma e ial Enginee ing
Facul y o Tex ile Enginee ing,
Technical Uni e si y o Libe e
Libe ec, Czech Republic
[email p o ec ed]
I o Ba oň
Fibe lase s and non-linea op ics
Ins i u e o Pho onics and Elec onics
o he Czech Academy o Sciences
P ague, Czech Republic
[email p o ec ed]
Vik o Puchý
Di ision o Me allic Sys ems
Ins i u e o Ma e ials Resea ch o he
Slo ak Academy o Sciences
Košice, Slo akia
[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac — Ra e ea h doped y ium aluminium ga ne
ep esen s a key pho onic ma e ial o he cons uc ion o ac i e
op ical ibe s and scin illa o s. The success ul imp egna ion o
ga ne nanopa icles in he ibe s is a majo echnological s ep
ha is usually co e ed by nanopa icle deposi ion me hod. We
p esen he co ela ions be ween he mo phology o he silica
i , nanopa icle size and inal concen a ion o he dopan s in
he p e o m. Silica i exhibi ed a wide po e size dis ibu ion
wi h he smalles po e size o 138 nm and he maximum o
321 nm. The mal p ocessing o sol-gel p ecu so s ollowed by
con olled sedimen a ion allowed he p epa a ion o a se o
colloidal solu ions con aining holmium doped y ium
aluminium ga ne wi h ailo ed nanopa icle sizes. The
nanopa icles o he size o 205 nm we e success ully
imp egna ed in he i and p ocessed in he p e o m showing
he e ac i e index di e ence o 0.009. The esul s impac he
echnology o ac i e op ical ibe s which can be used o
cons uc ion o ibe lase s and dis ibu ed senso s o ha m ul
adia ion.
Keywo ds— op ical ibe , lase , ga ne , nanoc ys als
I. INTRODUCTION
The in en ion o ibe lase s changed he mode n wo ld,
and ibe lase s ha e become es ablished in many scien i ic
and indus ial applica ions [1], [2]. Thei unique posi ion in
elecommunica ions as a key componen o ampli ie s is
unques ionable oday [3]. Thei ou s anding pa ame e s,
including epe i ion equency and ou pu beam s abili y
allowed he cons uc ion o ad anced me ological de ices
including LIDARs [4]. In ensi e esea ch has pushed hei
ou pu powe in con inuous wa e mode o heo e ical limi s o
se e al hund ed kilowa s and hus secu ed hei i eplaceable
place in machining [5]. Fibe lase s usually bene i om he
emission o a e ea h (RE) elemen s [6]. Howe e , he
implemen a ion o he RE in he op ical ibe , ha is he hea
o he ibe lase , p esen s a echnological challenge. Common
labo a o y scale ibe op ic echnology use modi ied chemical
apo deposi ion (MCVD) me hod o p epa e highly pu e and
homogeneous glass and he ange o RE compounds, which
can be used in MCVD p ocess, is limi ed. Fo a long ime,
RE-doped ibe s we e p epa ed by he solu ion doping p ocess
[7], [8], which consis ed o imp egna ing solu ions o RE sal s
in a po ous i p epa ed by MCVD p ocess. The high ionic
s eng h o he applied solu ions eadily caused damage and
c acking o he i esul ing in backg ound a enua ion o he
ibe . Ano he disad an age o his me hod was he common
clus e ing o REs du ing he d ying p ocess, which educed
he luminescence e iciency. Chela e deposi ion echnique
made huge p og ess in he echnology o ac i e op ical ibe s
[9], [10], [11]. I applies ola ile chela e p ecu so s o
ino ganic compounds including RE o dope he ibe co e.
High p ice and low long- e m s abili y o his class o
p ecu so s a e he main d awback o his echnique. The e o e,
his me hod is e y use ul o la ge-scale applica ions, bu i s
use on a labo a o y scale is limi ed. The use o colloidal
solu ions as a sou ce o RE and o he non- ola ile compounds
ga e ise o a nanopa icle deposi ion me hod ha p e en s
unwan ed RE clus e ing and con ibu ed o inc eased lase
e iciency [12], [13], [14]. Ano he ad an age o his me hod
is he low ope a ing cos s and he wide ange o nanoma e ials
which can be used. Al hough he nanopa icle deposi ion
p o ided no el op ical ibe s wi h phenomenal p ope ies and
a ie y o applica ions [15], [16], [17] he s udies ocused on
he in e ac ion o he nanopa icles wi h he i a e limi ed.
The basic physicochemical p ope ies ha ha e been
e alua ed o solu ion doping [18], [19] me hods a e missing.
In his pape , we s udy he in e ac ion o y ium
aluminium ga ne (YAG) nanopa icles wi h silica i . We
show he ela ionship be ween he size o he nanopa icles
and he mo phology o he silica i , which has a c ucial
in luence on he imp egna ion o he nanopa icles in o he i .
The esul s ex end he undamen al knowledge o he
p ocesses in ol ed in nanopa icle deposi ion echnology and
can be used o p epa e ac i e op ical ibe s wi h imp o ed
op ical p ope ies o ibe lase s and scin illa o s..
II. EXPERIMENTAL
The holmium-doped ga ne nanopa icles we e p epa ed
by sol-gel app oach p esen ed elsewhe e [20], [21]. The
amo phous powde s we e he mally ea ed a 850 and 950 °C
o induce he c ys alliza ion and ailo he nanoc ys al size.
The amo phous powde s we e c ys allized a 850 and 950 °C
o induce he c ys alliza ion and ailo he nanoc ys al size.
The nanopowde s we e g inded in a plane a y mill o 24
hou s. The o als o 5 g o he g inded nanopowde s we e
dispe sed in 50 ml o anhyd ous e hanol (VWR) and sonica ed
o 30 minu es o o m he suspensions. The suspensions we e
sedimen ed o 6 hou s. The s able colloidal solu ions we e
decan ed om he sedimen s and used o nanopa icle doping
o he p e o ms.
We used he common modi ied chemical deposi ion
(MCVD) app oach o p epa e he p e o ms . To gene a e he
po ous silica i s in an inne wall o he silica subs a e ube
(He aeus), he combus ion eac ion o SiCl4 wi h oxygen an
a 1400 °C. The low a e o SiCl4 was 100 sccm. The colloidal
solu ions o he ga ne nanopa icles we e imp egna ed in he
i s and d ied ou o 24 hou s a an ambien empe a u e. The
d ied doped i s we e sin e ed and collapsed in he p e o ms
a 2100 °C.
The po e size dis ibu ion was measu ed on me cu y
in usion po osime e Au oPo e IV 9500 (Mic ome i ics). The
e acua ion p essu e and ime we e 80 µm Hg and 5 min,
espec i ely. Maximum in usion olume was 100 l∙g-1.
Scanning elec on mic oscope (SEM) Ly a 3 XMU (Tescan)
was used o isualize he mo phology o he nanopa icles in
he sin e ed powde s. The samples we e spu e ed by hin
ca bon laye be o e analyses o p e en su ace cha ging. We
used Gwyddion 2.55 da a isualiza ion and analysis so wa e
o analyze he nanoc ys al size and po e size dis ibu ions in
SEM scans. Pa icle size analyze Ze aPals (B ookha en) was
used o measu e he nanopa icle size dispe sed in he colloidal
solu ions. The e ac i e index p o ile o he p e o ms was
measu ed on A2600 analyze (Pho on Kine ics).
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The chemical and s uc u al p ope ies o he silica i play
a key ole in he imp egna ion p ocess including he
nanopa icle deposi ion. The chemical composi ion o he i
can change he a ini y o he i o dopan s and educe he
sin e ing empe a u e o he doped i in o he glass. To
minimize he mul iplici y o e ec s we used pu e silica i o
he expe imen s. Fig. 1 shows a isualiza ion o he deposi ed
i using SEM. Conside ing he silica soo exhibi s he ideal
sphe ical shape, he i is composed o sphe ical silica
nanopa icles wi h a mean size o app oxima ely 190 ± 10 nm.
Whe e he nanopa icles ouch each o he , small necks ypical
o sin e ing p ocesses can be obse ed. The a angemen o
he nanopa icles has a majo in luence on he o e all po osi y
o he i and se e al ypes o po es can be ecognized.
Nanopa icles a anged in close ouch o m a body o chains
and la ge agg ega es. The e is no ideal a angemen be ween
he nanopa icles; as app oxima ed in c ys al s uc u e models;
bu small in e spaces can be ecognized in he s uc u e. The
i egula a angemen o chains and agg ega es c ea es he
walls o la ge andomly shaped po es ha inc ease in size a
he su ace o he i and dec ease in size a he dep h o he
i . The la ges size o he po es on he su ace eached he
alue o 2330 and 1850 nm in diame e bu sizes abou 1200
nm we e no excep ional. The sizes o he po es loca ed deepe
om he su ace signi ican ly dec eased. These po e diame e s
did no exceed 519 nm and mos o he obse ed po es we e
less han 350 nm in diame e . The explana ion can be ound in
he mechanism o he deposi ion p ocess. Hea is ans e ed
om he ou side o he subs a e ube o he inne wall whe e
a i is o med, causing a empe a u e g adien om he
ou side o he axis o he subs a e ube. The deposi ion and
g ow h o he silica soo ake place simul aneously wi h he
sin e ing o he i . The pa o he i a ached di ec ly o he
subs a e ube is hea ed o a highe empe a u e han he
su ace pa acco ding o he empe a u e g adien . The highe
empe a u e a he in e ace be ween he subs a e ube and he
i acili a es he using o he c ea ed nanopa icles and
sealing o he po es. The e o e, po es loca ed deepe in he i
ha e a smalle diame e han po es loca ed close o he
su ace.
Fig. 1. SEM isualiza ion o he silica i used o he imp egna ion o he
nanopa icles.
Fig. 2. Po e size dis ibu ion o he silica i used o he imp egna ion o
he nanopa icles.
To e i y isual obse a ion by SEM, we eco ded
he po e size dis ibu ion on me cu y in usion po osime e
and he esul s a e shown in Fig. 2. The no malized equency
co esponds o he numbe o po es o a ce ain diame e . The
no malized equency cu e did no show he p esence o
po es smalle han 138 nm, eached a aising edge o he
alue o 162 nm and inc eased apidly eaching a maximum
o 321 nm. Then, he numbe o po es dec eased apidly o
he alue o 832 nm and egula ly dec eased o la ge po e
sizes. The ange o he po es o he size om 230 o 776 nm
wi h he maximum a 321 nm showed he highe no malized
equency han 50%. Wi h espec o he gene al po e size
dis ibu ion and es ablished e minology, he i can be
classi ied as a mac opo ous ma e ial wi h po e size highe han
50 nm. The eco ded da a was ai ly consis en wi h SEM’s
obse a ions. The maximum coun s o po es o he size a ound
321 nm co esponded o he pa ially sin e ed po es loca ed in
deepe pa s o he i close o he in e ace be ween he
subs a e ube and he i . These po es we e used om he
la ge po es du ing he deposi ion p ocess. The po es o he
sizes o se e al housands o nanome e s co esponded o he
po es localized close o he su ace o he i . Two speci ic
egions can be ecognized in he cha showing po e size
dis ibu ion o he diame e smalle han 160 nm and la ge
han 5000 nm. Al hough me cu y in usion po osime y
should be applicable o po e size measu emen s down o 10
nm, we did no obse e a esponse o po e sizes smalle han
138 nm. On one hand, small po es should be used as e o
minimize in e acial ee ene gy, leading o hei
disappea ance in a o o bulk ma e ial. On he o he hand,
o dina y CVD-p epa ed silica soo exhibi s mesopo ous
po osi y ha had no been obse ed in he eco d. The cause
can be ound in he limi ed peak- o-peak esolu ion o he
de ice used and gas po osime y should be applied o co e
his po e size ange. The po e size egion g ea e han 5000
nm ep esen ed di e en speci ici y. Such la ge po es we e no
obse ed in SEM images. Thei p esence can be a ibu ed o
he pene a ion o me cu y in o la ge a eas on he i su ace,
whe e he walls o sin e ed nanopa icles c ea e elie o e a
la ge dis ance. Values o he no malized equency in his
egion oscilla ed a ound 6.5 ± 0.5%.
The in o ma ion abou he po e size dis ibu ion can be
used o p edic he maximum nanopa icle size ha can be
used o success ul imp egna ion in he i . We can assume
ha he concen a ion o he imp egna ed nanopa icles o
de ined diame e is p opo ional o he no malized equency
o po e size. The la ge he nanopa icles, he less likely hey
a e o imp egna e inside he i . F om his poin o iew, he
highes p obabili y o imp egna ion o he nanopa icles inside
he i should be achie ed o he nanopa icle smalle han
321 nm. The la ge nanopa icles a e adso bed on he i
su ace and washed ou du ing he pou ing o he nanopa icle
solu ion. Howe e , such a size limi will be u he educed
o se e al easons. The in e ac ion o he nanopa icles wi h
he su ace o he po es is he i s one and he p obabili y o
imp egna ion will inc ease wi h he a ini y o he
nanopa icles o he i . Ano he eason is he i egula
a angemen o he po es. In o de o he nanopa icles o
each he deepe pa s o he i , hey mus pass h ough he
h oa s connec ing he indi idual po es. These h oa s ac as
sli s p e en ing he passage o la ge pa icles and allow
smalle pa icles o pass h ough only. Bo h phenomena can
ha e a nega i e e ec on he imp egna ion o nanopa icles
inside he i and educe he inal nanopa icle concen a ion.
TABLE I. OVERVIEW OF THE NANOPARTICLE SIZES
Nanopa icle size
Ga ne nanopa icles
DLS
(nm)
YAG 850 °C
205
YAG 950 °C
301
YAG sedimen
3200
We used dynamic ligh sca e ing (DLS) o measu e he
size dis ibu ion o he nanopa icles and o e alua e he long-
ime s abili y o he colloidal solu ions. The esul s a e shown
in Fig. 3 and he alues a e gi en in Table 1. Wi hin 6 hou s,
phase sepa a ion occu ed in he suspension and wo ac ions
we e clea ly obse ed, he whi e compac sedimen s a he
bo om o he ial and he anslucen solu ions abo e i . The
sedimen s con ained he pa icles la ge han a mic ome e
wi h b oad size dis ibu ion cen e ed a ound 3200 nm. The
size dis ibu ion o he anslucen solu ions showed maxima
a 205 and 301 nm o he powde s he mally ea ed a 850 °C
and 950 °C, espec i ely. Bo h size dis ibu ions we e qui e
na ow wi h he hal -wid h smalle han 28 nm.
The pa icles in he colloidal solu ions a e usually
agg ega ed in la ge clus e s s abilized by su ace cha ge o
su ac an s. The aging o he nanopowde s can cause an
inc ease in size. The la ge agg ega es a e no long- ime s able
and sedimen as e han he smalle one. The nanopa icles
emain dispe sed in he solu ion o a longe ime. Technology
places se e al equi emen s on he s abili y o colloidal
solu ions. The colloidal solu ions mus be empo a ily s able
o success ul imp egna ion in o he i . Poo s abili y may
esul in an inhomogeneous dis ibu ion o nanopa icles,
hence dopan s, as sedimen a ion would occu simul aneously
wi h imp egna ion. To co e his poin , he colloid solu ions
we e allowed o sedimen o se e al hou s o make he colloid
s able enough o homogeneous imp egna ion in o he i .
Ano he poin is he size o he dispe sed nanopa icles. The
Fig. 3. Pa icle size dis ibu ion o ga ne nanopa icles, showing he shi in
mean nanopa icle diame e wi h inc easing p ocessing empe a u e and he
ex eme alue eco ded o he sedimen . The inse shows a pho og aph o
he colloidal solu ion a e sedimen a ion.
nanopa icles mus be small enough o pass h ough he po es
and imp egna e he i deepe whe e he po es a e smalle .
Conside ing he p esen ed alues o he po e size dis ibu ion,
he size o he nanopa icles should be smalle han he
maximum o he po e size dis ibu ion a 321 nm, and bo h
colloidal solu ions should be success ully used o dope he
ibe co e.
To obse e he dis ibu ion o imp egna ed nanopa icles
in he p e o m co e, we used a e ac i e index p o ile , and
he esul s a e shown in Fig. 4. The p o iles o he e ac i e
indices o he p e o ms ollow a Gaussian dis ibu ion wi h
maxima a ound he cen al axis. The basis eached a alue o
1.457 ha co esponds o he e ac i e index o pu e silica
glass. The p e o m doped wi h 205 nm diame e nanopa icles
showed a maximum e ac i e index o 1.466, which
co esponded o a e ac i e index di e ence be ween he
doped co e and he qua z subs a e ube o 0.009. The EDS
mic oanalysis e ealed ha he concen a ions o he dopan s
we e 0.203, 0.49 and 0.002 a .% o Y2O3, Al2O3 and Ho2O3,
espec i ely. The p e o m doped wi h 301 nm diame e
nanopa icles showed a maximum e ac i e index o 1.4573
only. Wi h espec o he po e size dis ibu ion, he
nanopa icles o his size should be imp egna ed in he i .
Howe e , he imp egna ion was no success ul. The low
e ac i e index di e ence and he na owing o he e ac i e
index peak indica ed ha he nanopa icles we e no
imp egna ed deepe in he i bu we e adso bed only nea he
su ace. This ailu e can be a ibu ed o he diso de ed h oa s
in he i which p e en ed he passage o la ge pa icles.
Compa ing he diame e o he imp egna ed nanopa icles
wi h he maximum po e size, he diame e o he nanopa icles
should no be g ea e han 63% o he maximum o he po e
size dis ibu ion o be success ully imp egna ed in he i .
IV. CONCLUSIONS
We demons a ed he co ela ions be ween he
mo phology o he silica i , nanopa icle size and inal
concen a ion o he dopan s in he p e o m. Silica i
exhibi ed a wide po e size dis ibu ion wi h he smalles po e
size o 138 nm and he maximum o 321 nm. The po e size
was co ela ed o he dis ance om he subs a e ube. The mal
p ocessing o sol-gel p ecu so s ollowed by con olled
sedimen a ion allowed he p epa a ion o a se o colloidal
solu ions con aining holmium doped y ium aluminium
ga ne wi h ailo ed nanopa icle sizes. The nanopa icles o
he size o 205 nm we e success ully imp egna ed in o he i
ha was p ocessed in o he p e o m. The p e o m showed he
e ac i e index di e ence o 0.009 and he concen a ion o
Y2O3, Al2O3 and Ho2O3 o 0.203, 0.49 and 0.002 a .%,
espec i ely. The nanopa icles o he size o 301 nm caused
he e ac i e index di e ence 0.0003, by an o de o
magni ude lowe han in he case o he smalle nanopa icles.
The esul s impac he echnology o ac i e op ical ibe s
which can be used o cons uc ion o ibe lase s and
dis ibu ed senso s o ha m ul adia ion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The au ho s acknowledge he inancial suppo om he
Czech G an Agency con ac N° 23-05507S, in e academic
esea ch p ojec Mobili y plus con ac N° SAV-25-09. And
Eu opean Union and he Czech Republic's s a e budge unde
he p ojec LasApp CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004573.
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