Ci a ion: Slo , L.E.; Fo , F. D i e s o
Adop ion o Sus ainable P ickly Pea
(Opun ia icus-indica) Inno a ions and
Conse a ion Ag icul u e by
Smallholde Fa me s in Mo occo.
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/ag onomy14123014
Academic Edi o s: Luigi Mo a,
Eugenio Cozzolino, Zhenwei Song
and Pe e J. Ba
Recei ed: 28 Augus 2024
Re ised: 13 Decembe 2024
Accep ed: 16 Decembe 2024
Published: 18 Decembe 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
A icle
D i e s o Adop ion o Sus ainable P ickly Pea (Opun ia
icus-indica) Inno a ions and Conse a ion Ag icul u e by
Smallholde Fa me s in Mo occo
Lau a Eline Slo 1and Fa iha Fo 2,*
1
Ins i u Na ional de Reche che Pou L’ag icul u e, L’alimen a ion e L’en i onnemen (INRAE), 2 Place Pie e
Viala, 34000 Mon pellie , F ance; [email p o ec ed]
2Ins i u Ag o Mon pellie , 2 Place Pie e Viala, 34000 Mon pellie , F ance
*Co espondence: a iha. o @supag o.
Abs ac : Clima e change poses signi ican challenges o coun ies in No he n A ica such as
Mo occo. Smallholde a me s a e especially ulne able o clima e change because hey expe ience
se e al challenges in he adop ion o clima e- esilien p ac ices. The sus ainable and well-managed
cul i a ion o he cac us pea (Opun ia icus-indica) could con ibu e o conse a ion ag icul u e (CA)
in d y clima es h ea ened by clima e change. Due o i s high-wa e -use e iciency and abili y o
wi hs and ex emely d y condi ions, he cac us pea is inc easingly being ecognised as a mo e
sus ainable al e na i e o adi ional li es ock o aging in d yland a eas. Compa ed o many o he
common c ops and odde , he cac us pea is easy o es ablish, main ain, and has a weal h o uses. Two
inno a i e cul i a ion echniques a e being de eloped: (1) he use o mixed inoculum o mula ions
con aining AMF (A buscula Myco hizal Fungi) and PGPB (Plan G ow h-P omo ing Bac e ia) in
he soil; and (2) in e c opping be ween pe ennial (cac us pea ) and sho - e m species ( ield c ops).
We p opose o iden i y ac o s ha could acili a e a me s’ inno a ion adop ion. We conduc ed
ace- o- ace in e iews wi h 24 smallholde cac us pea a me s in Mo occo. We concluded ha
a me s do no ye ha e a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he p inciples o he inno a ions. The
main aim o a me s was o inc ease p oduc ion and income. Fa me s, in gene al, pay li le a en ion
o he en i onmen . The ecommenda ions ha a e gi en in ela ion o hese issues a e ha aining
and social ne wo ks a e essen ial in inno a ion ans e , adop ion needs o be acili a ed by p o iding
esou ces, an inno a ion ans e needs o be adap ed o he cu en and u u e needs o a me s, and
we need pa ience so ha a me s can slowly lea n he inno a ions.
Keywo ds: clima e change; clima e- esilien p ac ices; a me s’ income; Medi e anean ag icul u e;
d ough esis ance
1. In oduc ion
Clima e change poses signi ican challenges o ‘de eloping’ coun ies in No he n
A ica such as Mo occo because i causes high empe a u es, d ough s and soil deg a-
da ion [
1
–
3
]. A s a is ically signi ican end owa ds d ie condi ions has been de ec ed
in se e al Mo occan egions [
4
]. Cu en ly, Mo occo is ying o be a “model coun y”
o g een ene gy, e en when i expe iences challenges in eaching i s sus ainabili y goals,
especially in u al egions whe e he e is a high le el o po e y [
5
,
6
]. This happens in
a u al con ex o high po e y (14.4%) and ulne abili y a es (23.6%) [
7
]. Smallholde
a me s a e especially ulne able o clima e change and because hey li e in ma ginal a eas,
hey lack access o echnical and inancial suppo [8].
The cac us pea (Opun ia icus-indica) is seen as a well-sui ed c op o ha sh and a id
a eas, p o iding an in e es ing op ion o he a me s he e [
9
]. Recen in e es in he c op’s
mul iple po en ial uses as a eed sou ce and p o ec ion agains soil e osion and wa e loss
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ag onomy14123014 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag onomy
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 2 o 15
has opened up oppo uni ies o expo , job c ea ion and income gene a ion o smallholde
a me s [9,10].
The cac us pea is o en used as a ence a ound houses and small owns; ence plan s
a e also used o ui p oduc ion and, in he d y season, as a sou ce o o age. F ui s a e
ha es ed om unmanaged plan a ions and a e used o home consump ion o sold on
local ma ke s. The Opun ia cladodes a e used as eed o small uminan s and camels.
Ne e heless, he sus ainable and well-managed cul i a ion o he cac us pea could con-
ibu e o conse a ion ag icul u e (CA) in d y a eas h ea ened by clima e change [
11
,
12
].
Fo some yea s cac us pea p oduc ion has been inc easing and he annual p oduc ion in
Mo occo was epo ed o exceed 1.2 million onnes om 150,000 hec a es in 2011 [
13
]. A
ha ime, he coun y s a ed p og ammes o u he expand he cul i a ion in a id egions
(wi h UN suppo ) [13].
As o make use o he po en ial bene icial e ec s o he cac us pea in he d y Mo occan
clima e, he e is a need o ocus on sus ainable cul i a ion echniques [
11
]. CA inno a ions
cu en ly expe ience many challenges in hei adop ion like soil e osion and excessi e
pes icide and uel use [
14
,
15
]. Sus ainable p ac ices ha ocus on soil co e and o ganic
ma e enhancemen a e displaying posi i e esul s o many a me s and could imp o e
local esilience agains clima e change [16,17].
This pape is based on esul s o a esea ch p ojec ha ocuses on ‘P omo ing soil
e ili y, yield and income in Smallholde Ag icul u e o semia id and a id Medi e anean
egions by managemen o bene icial soil mic obio a, conse a ion ag icul u e and in e -
c opping’. This p ojec looks a he po en ial adop ion o a combina ion o se e al CA
inno a ions by cac us pea a me s. This includes he use o mixed inocula con aining
AMF (A buscula Myco hizal Fungi) and PGPB (Plan G ow h-P omo ing Bac e ia) in he
soil and in e c opping be ween pe ennial (cac us pea ) and sho - e m species ( ield c ops).
The aim o de eloping hese inno a ions is o educe soil e osion and he use o chemical
inpu s, o inc ease c op p oduc i i y/quali y and soil e ili y and o s imula e smallholde
associa ions and knowledge [18].
The de elopmen o CA inno a ions could be made pa o a iable s a egy o con-
ibu e o he ood secu i y o smallholde a me s, bu hey cu en ly expe ience many
challenges in hei adop ion and di usion [
19
]. Many o he commonly used op ions in
esponse o clima e change a e esou ce-in ensi e and beyond he each o esou ce-poo
smallholde a me s. Ecosys em-based p ac ices, like in e c opping, may be mo e acces-
sible o smallholde a me s as hey a e based on he managemen o exis ing esou ces.
This p o ides he oppo uni y o a me s o adap acco ding o hei con ex s, needs and
expe iences and o combine mul iple p ac ices ha p o ide long- e m esilience [8].
Based on a a me -cen ed inno a ion adop ion pe spec i e, we p opose in his pape
o iden i y he main d i e s and ba ie s o he adop ion o echnological inno a ions by
smallholde a me s.
The Li e a u e on Fa me ’s Inno a ion Adop ion
The e is a subs an ial body o he li e a u e on he adop ion o inno a ions by (small-
holde ) a me s. Se e al au ho s ha e alked abou he need o look a he economic, social,
echnical and ecological iabili y o a speci ic inno a ion [
20
,
21
]. I is impo an o build
pa ne ships wi h a me s in he alue chain o enhance inno a ion, as hese pa ne ships
can in eg a e p o i abili y, socie al needs and en i onmen al sus ainabili y [22].
Un il now, s udies ha e looked a he ex insic ac o s impac ing adop ion a he han
a how a me s pe cei e he bene i s and challenges o inno a ions. E en i esea che s
obse e ad an ages o an inno a ion, a me s do no necessa ily pe cei e his in he
same way [
23
]. The e is a gap be ween he de elopmen o sus ainable p ac ices and he
implemen a ion o hese p ac ices, which is hough o e lec he low adap i e capaci y o
smallholde a me s because o cons ain s in hei abili y o in es in esilien p ac ices [
8
].
Mo e in-dep h esea ch is needed in o how smallholde a me ’s decision making a ies
ac oss di e en a ming p ac ices and socioeconomic condi ions.
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 3 o 15
A a me -cen ed app oach can be used o engage smallholde a me s in he de el-
opmen o con ex -speci ic inno a ions [
24
]. A good unde s anding o he local con ex
and he a me esponse can p o ide in o ma ion abou pi alls and oppo uni ies [
15
,
25
].
The adop ion o inno a ions by (smallholde ) a me s is de e mined by many ac o s:
he a ailabili y o echnology and in as uc u e, human esou ces, knowledge ans e ,
access o (public) ex ension se ices, inancial esou ces, ma ke access, isk pe cep ion,
land/p ope y igh s, social in e ac ion, gende , ood secu i y, ag icul u e dependency,
ag o-ecological condi ions and a i udes owa ds he en i onmen [
9
,
25
–
30
]. Resea ch is
needed o gain a be e unde s anding o hese de e minan s [31,32].
The e is a need o s udy inno a ions ha a e accessible o smallholde a me s and
i hei ag o-ecological and socioeconomic con ex s [
8
]. To de ine he ele an adop ion
ac o s, in e iews wi h Mo occan smallholde cac us pea a me s we e conduc ed and
analysed abou a m and a me cha ac e is ics, cos s and bene i s, as well as p e e ences,
expe iences and a i udes in inno a ion adop ion. This pape begins wi h an in oduc ion
o he s udy a ea. I hen examines he me hodology. The esul s a e hen p esen ed in
se e al sec ions. Finally, he discussion, conclusions and ecommenda ions a e p esen ed.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy A ea
This s udy ook place in Mo occo. The economic g ow h o No h A ican coun ies
depends on he sus ainable use o wa e esou ces due o he (semi)a id clima e. This
is why hey need c ops ha can adap and g ow in hese a eas [
33
]. Mo occo is al eady
on he a id side o he clima e class spec um, wi h six in e iewed a me s li ing in an
a id clima e, i een a me s li ing in a semi-a id clima e and h ee a me s li ing in a d y
sub-humid clima e (Appendix A).
The a e age annual ain all does no exceed 412 mm in all o he Mo occan egions.
I was obse ed ha mo e d y pe iods a e aking place in se e al egions o Mo occo
compa ed o he pas , which challenges se e al ag icul u al p ac ices.
In his case, i becomes clea ha he cac us pea is sui able in e ms o clima e and a
a he impo an plan species o smallholde a me s in Mo occo [
34
]. The cac us pea is
o en plan ed o encing o an ag icul u al a ea [
12
]. The cac us pea is a sui able c op o
pe sonal consump ion and ca e, animal eed and comme cial pu poses [
35
]. Mo occans also
ea he ui s, p o iding hem wi h a sou ce o ib e, i amin C, an ioxidan s and laxa i e
p ope ies [
35
]. T adi ionally, a small amoun o he ui p oduc ion (10%) is used locally
and a la ge pa (80%) is sold esh on he na ional ma ke [36].
2.2. Fa me ’s Ques ionnai e
The a me -cen ed app oach was used o de ine he a iables ha can a ec he
adop ion o inno a ions by smallholde a me s. Di e en a iables we e used o make
a ques ionnai e including: (i) en i onmen al egional da a; (ii) iden i ica ion; (iii) hous-
ing; (i ) a m; ( ) cac us plan a ion; ( i) echnical knowledge; ( ii) ag icul u al p ac ices;
( iii) p oduc ion sys em; (ix) p oduc p ocessing; (x) ma ke ing; (xi) bene i s, cons ain s
and suppo needs; (xii) income and expenses; (xiii) a me beha iou owa ds inno a ion;
(xi ) knowledge and p ac ices abou soil e ili y; and (x ) willingness o adop inno a ions.
The ques ionnai e was used in s uc u ed ace- o- ace in e iews, which we e ca ied
ou in May and June 2023 wi h smallholde a me s who we e cul i a ing he cac us pea
in se en egions o Mo occo.
2.3. Sampling
A sample o a me s was ound by using snowball sampling. This me hod consis s o
asking each in e iewee o iden i y ano he pe son o con ac o an in e iew. Snowball
sampling can be a use ul way o conduc esea ch abou a me s who ha e expe ience wi h
cac us pea cul i a ion. Th ough his p ocess, a sample size o 24 Mo occan a me s was
gained in di e en egions o Mo occo (sample lis in Appendix A). This esea ch is quali a-
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 4 o 15
i e, so i does no seek o be ep esen a i e o he whole popula ion o Mo occan a me s.
Ins ead, his esea ch disco e s he ac o s and mechanisms ha in luence ag icul u al
inno a ion adop ion in di e en clima ic condi ions (Appendix A).
The in e iews wi h hese esponden s each ook abou 1–1.5 h pe pe son (including,
e.g., ea ing, d inking, phone calls and smoking). The esponden s could speak he language
in which hey we e mos com o able. This mean ha all o he in e iews we e conduc ed
in he Mo occan dialec . The answe s we e w i en down nex o he ques ions, a e which
each o m was signed by he pa icipan o acknowledge hei consen . Adding o ha ,
some obse a ional no es we e made.
2.4. Da a Analysis
A e execu ing he in e iews, he answe s we e ansla ed in o English and he da a
we e implemen ed and ca ego ised in Mic oso Excel. Sui able me hods and p ocedu es
we e used o analyse he inno a ion adop ion ac o s. The en i onmen al ac o s we e
combined, so ha he en i onmen al con ex o each egion was de ined.
Then, he answe s o he open ques ions o he in e iews we e gi en di e en codes
using Excel and hey we e di ided in o code g oups/ hemes. This can be comple ed in
ei he an induc i e o deduc i e ashion o using elemen s o bo h [
37
]. This esea ch
used bo h induc i e and deduc i e elemen s. The concep s which we e de i ed om he
li e a u e we e implemen ed in o he coding, bu he da a had in luence on he codes which
we e applied in he end.
All he in o ma ion abou he a m and he a me as well as hei en i onmen was
combined o de elop a a me ypology [29].
3. Main Resul s
We p esen he esul s o his esea ch in h ee sepa a e sec ions. In Sec ion 3.1, he
adi ional p oduc ion p ocess ollowed by he cac us pea a me s in e iewed is explained.
Sec ion 3.2 discusses he po en ial adop ion o inno a ions by hese a me s. Finally, he
ac o s ha may be associa ed wi h he adop ion o inno a ions a e p esen ed (Sec ion 3.3).
3.1. Fa m Cha ac e is ics and P oduc ion Resou ces
All o he in e iewed a me s we e men. All o hese a me s we e ma ied, excep
he younges in e iewed a me . Women play a ole in he coope a i e, p ocessing and
selling pa , bu he wi es o hese a me s a e in he backg ound o he a me ’s home. The
age o he a me s was mainly be ween 40 and 59; only six a me s we e younge han 40
and h ee we e olde han 60. A o al o 11 ou o 24 a me s had a o mal educa ion le el
up o p ima y educa ion, which means ha hey had educa ion un il he age o 12. Fou
o he a me s did no ha e any o mal educa ion. Fou a me s had eached a seconda y
educa ion le el, and h ee a me s eached a e ia y (p o essional school/uni e si y) le el
o educa ion.
Many o he in e iewed a me s own minimally managed cac us ields wi hou
adop ing a lo o new echniques o equipmen and none o he a me s use elec ici y.
Acco ding o almos all o he a me s (23), hey use a adi ional p oduc ion sys em in hei
a ming. Only one a me said ha he uses a semi-in ensi e p oduc ion sys em ins ead.
Ano he a me uses bo h sys ems, meaning ha he made a semi-in ensi e sys em in wo
plo s while he o he plo s emained adi ional.
The household size de e mines he amoun o human esou ces ha a e a ailable
on he a m. Mos a me households consis o household sizes ha ex end ou side o
he nuclea amily, wi h mo e han wo adul s pe household (20 households). These
adul s p o ide he wo k o ce o he households which mos ly exceed ou membe s
(23 households).
A i e-hec a e a ea was used as a h eshold o smallholde a me s. Medium-sized
a ms a e 5–15 hec a es and la ge a ms a e +15 hec a es [
38
]. Acco ding o hese c i e ia, 16
o he in e iewed a me s a e smallholde s, i e own medium-sized a ms and h ee own
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 5 o 15
la ge a ms. All o he in e iewed a me s li e in a sel -owned house and own land; he e
a e only a ew a me s who make use o en ed ( ou a me s) o collec i e (one a me )
land. Mos o hei cul i a ed land is ain ed and only wo a me s own a small amoun o
i iga ed a ea.
F om Table 1i becomes clea ha knowledge ans e h ough social in e ac ion plays
an impo an ole in he knowledge acquisi ion o he in e iewed a me s. The wo a me s
wi h no le el o and beginne -le el educa ion bo h only ely on daily p ac ice o hei
knowledge acquisi ion. Fa me s who say ha hey ha e an in e media e and expe ienced
le el o knowledge ely mo e on social in e ac ion, meaning he i age (17 a me s) and
ainings (2 a me s). As a knowledge channel, mos a me s (16) use di ec con ac , bu
some a me s (10) also use he In e ne o connec wi h o he s.
Table 1. Sou ce, channel and le el o knowledge o in e iewed cac us pea a me s abou cac us
pea cul i a ion.
Sou ce and Channel o
Knowledge
Le el o Knowledge Abou Cac us Pea Cul i a ion
No Le el Beginne In e media e Expe ienced
He i age 0 0 10 7
Daily p ac ice 1 1 2 3
T aining 0 0 2 0
Di ec con ac 1 1 7 6
In e ne 0 1 5 4
In e ms o access o anspo a ion in as uc u e, almos hal o he in e iewed
a me s (10) do no own a means o anspo . In addi ion, none o he in e iewed
a me s own hea ie means o anspo like a pick-up uck and ins ead, ca s, mo o cycles,
bicycles and animal-d awn ca s a e mo e common. Addi ionally, some a me s li e a ew
kilome es away om a pa ed oad, which makes i ha d o a el.
Some in e iewed a me s ha e ewe esou ces han o he s; his is shown h ough
he asse index (domes ic asse s, anspo , li es ock and a ming equipmen ).
Using he asse -based app oach o Mo is e al. [
39
], he weal h o he a me e-
sponden s was ca ego ised so ha di e en weal h le els we e dis inguished. This is an
app oach ha agg ega es asse s in o an index using weigh s o each asse equal o he
p opo ion o households who do no own his asse . The assump ion is made ha only he
ew weal hies households would be likely o own an asse wi h a high mone a y alue [
40
].
Following [
39
], he asse sco e was de i ed by assigning o each asse (g) a weigh equal o
he ecip ocal o he p opo ion o he s udy households who owns one o mul iple uni s o
ha asse (w
g
), hen mul iplying ha weigh by he numbe o uni s o asse s owned by he
household (
g
) and summing he p oduc o e all asse s. Thus, o each household (j), he
ollowing equa ion was used:
G
∑
g=1
gj ×wg
Then, he asse sco es o all a me s we e di ided in o qua iles and hey we e
ca ego ised in o di e en socioeconomic posi ions acco ding o hei sco e so ha hey
could be compa ed wi h each o he [39] (Figu e 1).
The Asse Index dis ibu ion among he a me s (Table 2and Figu e 1) p esen s a g ea
di e si y o a me ’s weal h, wi h a minimum ha is lowe han 10 and a maximum ha is
highe han 90. I we look o he obse ed dis ibu ion o weal h (Table 2), we can see ha
he di e en a me s a e equally di ided be ween he di e en ca ego ies. This means ha
he e is no o e - ep esen a ion o one weal h ca ego y.
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 6 o 15
Ag onomy 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 16
ha is highe han 90. I we look o he obse ed dis ibu ion o weal h (Table 2), we can
see ha he diffe en a me s a e equally di ided be ween he diffe en ca ego ies. This
means ha he e is no o e - ep esen a ion o one weal h ca ego y.
Figu e 1. Asse indices o a me s, wi h 1s qua ile ( ed), 2nd qua ile (yellow), 3 d qua ile
(g een), 4 h qua ile (blue).
Table 2. Dis ibu ion o asse index.
Ca ego y Range Numbe o Fa me s
1s qua ile ( ed) 6.78–14.33 6
2nd qua ile (yellow) 14.33–23.41 6
3 d qua ile (g een) 23.41–31.12 6
4 h qua ile (blue) 31.12–91.82 6
The housing quali y o mos Mo occan a me s is good; only one a me seems o li e
in a poo housing condi ion. Se e al cac us pea a me s own mul iple li es ock species
(e.g., quails, chickens and bees), which a e seen as bo h an asse and a sou ce o income as
hey can p o ide p oduc s like eggs, honey, milk and mea .
The esh cac us pea ui is he main p oduc om he cac us pea c op ha hese
Mo occan a me s a e manually ha es ing. The a me uses some kind o g ass o oam,
which he ubs on he skin o he ui o emo e he spines. A e ha , he can ei he ea o
sell he ui , wi hou hu ing himsel . Eigh a me s ha es he cladodes and six o hese
a me s sell hese cladodes o he ma ke . One a me made i a habi o sell also he cac us
pea lowe s. The cac us pea seed oil is he main ma ke ed p oduc when he esh ui
is no a ailable (obse a ions). Fa me s do no p ocess he ui s in o cac us pea oil hem-
sel es; o ganisa ions, speci ically coope a i es, pe o m he oil p essing and sell i as a
beau y p oduc . Howe e , due o a cochineal pes in es a ion (Dac ylopius opun iae), many
coope a i es ha we e in ol ed in cac us pea p ocessing ha e been closed down and
many a me s ha e s opped any p ocessing ac i i ies ha hey did be o e (obse a ions).
None o he a me s p ocess and/o sell p ocessed cac us pea p oduc s o he ma ke .
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
123456789101112131415161718192021222324
Asse index
N° a me
Figu e 1. Asse indices o a me s, wi h 1s qua ile ( ed), 2nd qua ile (yellow), 3 d qua ile (g een),
4 h qua ile (blue).
Table 2. Dis ibu ion o asse index.
Ca ego y Range Numbe o Fa me s
1s qua ile ( ed) 6.78–14.33 6
2nd qua ile (yellow) 14.33–23.41 6
3 d qua ile (g een) 23.41–31.12 6
4 h qua ile (blue) 31.12–91.82 6
The housing quali y o mos Mo occan a me s is good; only one a me seems o li e
in a poo housing condi ion. Se e al cac us pea a me s own mul iple li es ock species
(e.g., quails, chickens and bees), which a e seen as bo h an asse and a sou ce o income as
hey can p o ide p oduc s like eggs, honey, milk and mea .
The esh cac us pea ui is he main p oduc om he cac us pea c op ha hese
Mo occan a me s a e manually ha es ing. The a me uses some kind o g ass o oam,
which he ubs on he skin o he ui o emo e he spines. A e ha , he can ei he ea
o sell he ui , wi hou hu ing himsel . Eigh a me s ha es he cladodes and six o
hese a me s sell hese cladodes o he ma ke . One a me made i a habi o sell also he
cac us pea lowe s. The cac us pea seed oil is he main ma ke ed p oduc when he esh
ui is no a ailable (obse a ions). Fa me s do no p ocess he ui s in o cac us pea oil
hemsel es; o ganisa ions, speci ically coope a i es, pe o m he oil p essing and sell i as a
beau y p oduc . Howe e , due o a cochineal pes in es a ion (Dac ylopius opun iae), many
coope a i es ha we e in ol ed in cac us pea p ocessing ha e been closed down and
many a me s ha e s opped any p ocessing ac i i ies ha hey did be o e (obse a ions).
None o he a me s p ocess and/o sell p ocessed cac us pea p oduc s o he ma ke .
The a me s usually p oduce o he local esh ma ke and jus i e a me s p oduce o a
la ge ma ke . None o he a me s p oduce o expo .
Acco ding o a me s, he g ea es bene i o cac us pea a ming is he d ough esis-
ance o he c op as i helps hem o use ewe esou ces. The a me s a e also happy abou
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 7 o 15
he medicinal i ues, economic p o i abili y, c op p oduc ion in summe , odde p oduc-
ion and a a ou able clima e and soil (Table 3). Ye , his is h ea ened by cochineal pes
in es a ions. The a me s also men ion cons ain s in cac us pea alo isa ion, he physical
di icul ies o a ming, anspo , ma ke ing, wa e sca ci y and echnical cons ain s.
Table 3. Main bene i s o cac us pea cul i a ion.
Bene i s o Cac us Pea Fa m Acco ding o Fa me s
Answe s 1s Answe 2nd Answe 3 d Answe 4 h Answe To al Answe s
D ough esis ance 12 6 1 0 19
Use as odde 1 3 5 0 9
Economic p o i abili y/Income 4 2 2 0 8
Medicinal i ues o he ui 1 4 2 0 7
Fa ou able clima e and soil 2 1 2 0 5
Limi ed need o inpu s 0 3 1 1 5
Summe p oduc 1 1 1 0 3
To al men ioned bene i s 21 20 14 1 56
3.2. Po en ial Inno a ion Adop ion
Acco ding o he i s echnological inno a ion based on in e c opping, a ew o he
a me s some imes use in e c opping wi h annual o o he pe ennial species, so hese
a me s do no need o change much ega ding his pa o he inno a ions. Ne e heless,
mos a me s do no g ow cac us pea s in ows wi h ows o in e c ops in be ween, bu
use mixed c opping wi h andom pa ches o cac us pea and some o he c ops. Fo he
second inno a ion abou he use o bac e ia and myco hiza ungi, none o he a me s
display knowledge abou bene icial soil bac e ia and myco hizal ungi, mic obial e ilise s,
bios imulan s o biocha . Addi ionally, less han hal o he a me s (10) use a ype o
e ilise . Eigh a me s le pa o hei land lay allow so ha i can echa ge o he nex
c op. Abou hal o he in e iewed a me s (11) gi e impo ance o soil e ili y, bu he
o he a me s (13) say ha soil e ili y is no impo an . They do no gi e impo ance o
he soil e ili y, e en hough ha mos o he a me s men ion ha many o hei a ming
plo s ha e poo soil e ili y (32 plo s) (Figu e 2).
Ag onomy 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 16
The a me s usually p oduce o he local esh ma ke and jus i e a me s p oduce o
a la ge ma ke . None o he a me s p oduce o expo .
Acco ding o a me s, he g ea es bene i o cac us pea a ming is he d ough e-
sis ance o he c op as i helps hem o use ewe esou ces. The a me s a e also happy
abou he medicinal i ues, economic p o i abili y, c op p oduc ion in summe , odde
p oduc ion and a a ou able clima e and soil (Table 3). Ye , his is h ea ened by cochineal
pes in es a ions. The a me s also men ion cons ain s in cac us pea alo isa ion, he
physical difficul ies o a ming, anspo , ma ke ing, wa e sca ci y and echnical con-
s ain s.
Table 3. Main bene i s o cac us pea cul i a ion.
Bene i s o Cac us Pea Fa m Acco ding o Fa me s
Answe s 1s Answe 2nd Answe 3 d Answe 4 h Answe To al Answe s
D ough esis ance 12 6 1 0 19
Use as odde 1 3 5 0 9
Economic p o i abili y/Income 4 2 2 0 8
Medicinal i ues o he ui 1 4 2 0 7
Fa ou able clima e and soil 2 1 2 0 5
Limi ed need o inpu s 0 3 1 1 5
Summe p oduc 1 1 1 0 3
To al men ioned bene i s 21 20 14 1 56
3.2. Po en ial Inno a ion Adop ion
Acco ding o he i s echnological inno a ion based on in e c opping, a ew o he
a me s some imes use in e c opping wi h annual o o he pe ennial species, so hese
a me s do no need o change much ega ding his pa o he inno a ions. Ne e heless,
mos a me s do no g ow cac us pea s in ows wi h ows o in e c ops in be ween, bu
use mixed c opping wi h andom pa ches o cac us pea and some o he c ops. Fo he
second inno a ion abou he use o bac e ia and myco hiza ungi, none o he a me s
display knowledge abou bene icial soil bac e ia and myco hizal ungi, mic obial e ilis-
e s, bios imulan s o biocha . Addi ionally, less han hal o he a me s (10) use a ype o
e ilise . Eigh a me s le pa o hei land lay allow so ha i can echa ge o he nex
c op. Abou hal o he in e iewed a me s (11) gi e impo ance o soil e ili y, bu he
o he a me s (13) say ha soil e ili y is no impo an . They do no gi e impo ance o
he soil e ili y, e en hough ha mos o he a me s men ion ha many o hei a ming
plo s ha e poo soil e ili y (32 plo s) (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. Soil e ili y o a m plo s on he land acco ding o a me s.
19 17
32
0
10
20
30
40
Good A e age Poo
Numbe o plo s
Soil e ili y
SOIL FERTILITY OF ALL FARM PLOTS
Figu e 2. Soil e ili y o a m plo s on he land acco ding o a me s.
Howe e , a me s ha e some knowledge abou and use p ac ices ha ein o ce he
soil e ili y (Table 4).
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 8 o 15
Table 4. The soil e ili y p ac ices ha a me s know and use.
Soil Fe ili y P ac ices Which Fa me s Know Ve sus Use
Know (Numbe )
Know (%) Use (Numbe ) Use (%)
Fa mya d manu e 24 100 11 46
Mine al e ilise s 24 100 3 13
C op o a ion 10 42 9 38
Mixed c opping 10 42 2 8
Mulch 8 33 4 17
Compos 7 29 0 0
Reduced illage 5 21 3 13
G een manu e 4 17 1 4
AMF and PGPB 0 0 0 0
Mic obial e ilise s 0 0 0 0
Bios imulan s 0 0 0 0
Biocha 0 0 0 0
Fa me s use hese p ac ices o di e en easons: c op o a ion is used o yield
imp o emen and because i is pa o he i age and usual p ac ices, mixed c opping is
used because i is pa o he usual p ac ices, mulching is used o wa e conse a ion
and e ilisa ion and a mya d manu e and mine al e ilise s a e used o e ilisa ion and
yield imp o emen .
The o he a me s do no plough he soil o cac us pea p oduc ion. Fo in e c op-
ping and he use o bene icial mic oo ganisms, a no/minimal illage sys em is he mos
sui able sys em.
All o he a me s a e in e es ed in lea ning mo e abou bene icial soil bac e ia and
myco hiza o income imp o emen , knowledge de elopmen , quali y imp o emen , yield
imp o emen , cu iosi y o o ganic p oduc ion (Table 5).
Table 5. Main easons o lea ning mo e abou he inno a ion.
Why A e Fa me s In e es ed in Lea ning Mo e Abou Bene icial Soil Bac e ia and Myco hiza?
Reasons Numbe o Fa me s % o Fa me s
Income imp o emen 12 50
Knowledge de elopmen 4 17
Quali y imp o emen 3 13
Yield imp o emen 2 8
Cu iosi y 1 4
O ganic p oduc ion 1 4
Howe e , hey do no know how o answe he ques ion abou wha hey expec om
he inno a ions. Ten a me s say ha he e a e mul iple di e ences be ween he inno a ions
and hei cu en p ac ices, bu hey do no know wha he di e ences a e. Many a me s
(18) hink ha he inno a ions i hei cul u al adi ions, as hey can imp o e yields,
mode nise cu en p ac ices, imp o e income and make wo k easie . Six a me s indica e
ha he inno a ions migh no i wi h hei adi ions and cu en p ac ices, bu hey can
again no ell he easons (Table 6).
Ag onomy 2024,14, 3014 9 o 15
Table 6. Fa me s’ opinions abou p oposed inno a ions.
How Do Inno a ions Fi in T adi ions o Fa me s?
Reasons Numbe % o Fa me s
Imp o es yields o cu en c ops 6 25
Does no i /no bene i 6 25
Fi s, bu no eason 5 21
Imp o es income 4 17
Mode nises cu en p ac ices 2 8
Makes wo k easie 1 4
Only i e a me s a e willing o adop he inno a ions. Acco ding o hem, he ac o s
ha migh accele a e hei decision making owa ds adop ing he inno a ions a e inancial
aid, aining, p o i abili y, a ailabili y o equipmen and echnological ad an ages (Table 7).
Table 7. Facili a o s o inno a ion adop ion.
Wha Do Fa me s Need o Adop Inno a ions?
Needs Numbe % o Fa me s
Financial aid 6 25
T aining 4 17
P o i abili y o inno a ions 3 13
Equipmen 1 4
Technological ad an ages 1 4
This is in line wi h wha he a me s say hey need o hei a m in gene al. Recei ing
aining is one o he mos impo an needs as only wo a me s ha e ollowed a aining
un il now. Many a me s also say ha hey a e in need o inancial suppo , an inc ease in
he a ailabili y o pes icides and echnical equipmen and e ilise s.
Fa me s will need o make di e en in es men s o be able o use in e c opping and
he inoculum o bene icial mic oo ganisms in hei a m. They need o buy and apply he
inoculum, which is no ye sold comme cially (i is p oduced in-lab by he p ojec pa ne s).
The a me s also need o measu e hei soil e ili y o know how much inoculum o use, so
hey will need o pay o an analysis o hei soil. They will also need o plan an in e c op
o which he e a e cos s o he seeds and plan ing in ows. T aining sessions o lea n he
echniques will be o ganised, which will ake ime and money (e.g., o anspo ) om
a me s o be able o join.
The inno a ions will p o ide se e al expec ed bene i s. Fo example, AMF inocula ion
could enhance he ela i e wa e con en (RWC) in inocula ed cladodes (in p og ess).
Secondly, soil e ili y could be inc eased (in p og ess). Thi dly, AMF inocula ion has a
posi i e e ec on he numbe o new cladodes and hei size.
3.3. Fac o s Tha A e Po en ially Rela ed o Inno a ion Adop ion
Cac us pea p oduc ion p o ides some income o he in e iewed a me s, bu he
amoun is ela i ely low. This means ha he income ha comes om he cac us pea does
no co e he li ing cos s o an a e age Mo occan household (21% o he li ing cos pe
yea ). E en he a me who ea ns he highes e u n om cac us pea p oduc ion does no
su pass 43% o he li ing cos and he a me wi h he lowes e u n co e s only 4% o he
li ing cos .
One a me explained abou he isks in ol ed in elying solely on he income o cac us
pea a ming. Tha is why he di e si ied his income by wo king on o he businesses, e.g.,
