O ende s pe o m mos o hei o enses alone bu
migh be willing o pa icipa e in a co-o ense.
The majo i y o co-o enses in ol e wo people.
P ope y c imes: High co-o ending a es, small g oup
sizes
O en ins umen al; in ol e physical help and
in o ma ion sha ing
La ge g oups educe indi idual p o i
Violen c imes: Low co-o ending a es, la ge g oup sizes
A ise om social dynamics, di usion o esponsibili y, and
heigh ened g oup iolence
Female o ende s commi ewe c imes han
males bu ely equally on co-o ending
Females may be coe ced in o co-o ending
by pa ne s
O en lea n abou new c ime oppo uni ies
om male co-o ende s
Young o ende s a e mo e likely o co-o end
and in la ge g oups
G ea e pee exposu e du ing adolescence
Co-o ending dec eases wi h expe ience
A e age g oup size
Co-o ende s p e alence
Co-o ense p e alence
Age g oup
Da abase
sea ch
Domain
knowledge
Exis ing
e iews
110 included s udies
C ime ype Sex
P ope y
Violen
Male
Female
You h
Adul s
~5000
s udies
Legend
Pooled p e alence o co-o enses:
0.29, 95% C I: (0.22–0.35) based on a
o al o 45,973,445 o enses
Pooled p e alence o co-o ende s:
0.50, 95% C I: (0.43–0.56) based on a
o al o 3,459,133 o ende s
0.39, 95% C I: (0.32–0.47) 0.27, 95% C I: (0.21–0.34) 0.56, 95% C I: (0.49–0.63) 0.44, 95% C I: (0.37–0.51)
0.53, 95% C I: (0.45–0.61) 0.54, 95% C I: (0.46–0.62)
0.71, 95% C I: (0.65–0.77) 0.41, 95% C I: (0.34–0.48)
Pooled a e age g oup size: 2.73,
95% C I: (2.63–2.84)
2.67, 95% C I: (2.41–2.88) 2.79, 95% C I: (2.66–2.93)
2.83, 95% C I: (2.64–3.01) 2.54, 95% C I: (2.08–2.90)
2.88, 95% C I: (2.59–3.18) 2.66, 95% C I: (2.38–2.91)
Quan i ying C iminal Collabo a ions
A sys ema ic e iew and Bayesian me a-analysis o co-o ending cha ac e is ics
Ruslan Klymen ie , Dayle Ha ey, Luis E. C. Rocha & Ch is ophe Vande i e
“Co-o ending is a key ing edien o high a es o c iminali y.”
(McCo d and Conway, 2002, p.25)
Inclusion c i e ia
A leas one desc ip i e measu e
Diso ganized c imes
"Co-o ending" as co-p esence a a
c ime e en o co-a es
Measu es o in e es
P e alence o co-o enses
P e alence o co-o ende s
A e age g oup size
Longe i y o co-o ending g oups
Ne wo k analysis measu es
Addi ional a iables
C ime ype (P ope y, Violen ,
O he , All)
Sex (Male, Female, Bo h)
Age g oup (You h, Adul s, All)
Bayesian analysis
All sc ip s and da a used in his s udy
a e a ailable ia he Open Science
F amewo k pla o m a
h ps://doi.o g/10.17605/OSF.IO/RUF9K
Klymen ie , R., Ha ey, D., Rocha, L. E. C., &
Vande i e , C. (2025). A sys ema ic e iew
and Bayesian me a-analysis o co-o ending
cha ac e is ics. Na u e Human Beha iou ,
9(10), 2135–2152.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41562-025-02244-z
Co-o ending is a e m used o desc ibe he ac o wo o mo e indi iduals collabo a ing o commi
an o ense (Wee man, 2003).
Reiss (1988) a gues ha s udying co-o ending is i al o unde s anding he causes o c ime and
designing p e en ion policies, as a es ing one o ende may no educe c ime when o he s can
con inue o ending, eplace hem, o ec ui new pa ne s.
Howe e , he ull scale o co-o ending emains unknown.
McCo d, J., & Conway, K. P. (2002). Pa e ns o
ju enile delinquency and co-o ending. In E. Wa ing &
D. Weisbu d (Eds.), C ime and Social O ganiza ion
(1s ed., pp. 15–30). Rou ledge.
Reiss, A. J. (1988). Co-o ending and c iminal
ca ee s. C ime and Jus ice, 10, 117–170.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1086/449145
Wee man, F. M. (2003). Co-o ending as social
exchange: Explaining cha ac e is ics o co-
o ending. The B i ish Jou nal o C iminology, 43(2),
398–416.
BACKGROUND
METHODOLOGY
RESULTS REFERENCES
DISCUSSION
CODE & DATA
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CITATION
This wo k was suppo ed by he Resea ch Founda ion
– Flande s (FWO) (g an numbe s G017122N, C.V. and
L.E.C.R.; W001625N, L.E.C.R. and C.V.), Belgian Fede al
Science Policy O ice (g an numbe B2/223/P3/Be-
Fo In el, C.V.) and Special Resea ch Fund (g an numbe
2024/01/709, L.E.C.R.).
A wo k c edi : Na alia H omanchuk
✉
Co espondence: Ruslan.Klymen ie @UGen .be;
Ch is ophe.Vande i e @UGen .be
