HAUPTBEITRÄGE
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11614-025-00607-4
Ös e eichische Zei sch i ü Soziologie (2025) 50:20 0123456789
Re lec ions on he science socie y ela ionship.
A mixed-me hods s udy on science skep icism in Aus ia
Johannes S a kbaum · E ich G iessle · Pe e G and ·
Fabian Seise · Thomas König
Recei ed: 1 Augus 2024 / Accep ed: 17 Ma ch 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac A ecen deba e on science skep icism in Aus ia po ayed he coun y’s
popula ion as highly skep ical o science. The ac ual ex en o science skep icism e-
mained unclea du ing he deba e, and an explici de ini ion o i was ne e p o ided.
This pape examines he phenomenon o science skep icism in Aus ia by e iewing
s udies on public pe cep ions o science and by applying a mixed me hods app oach,
including seconda y analysis o su ey da a and analysis o p ima y da a om ocus
g oups and expe in e iews. Depa ing om di e en me hodological pe spec i es,
we show ha deg ees o c i icism o science a y acco ding o he way hey a e mea-
su ed, ha c i icism can be obse ed in all socie al g oups, ha indi iduals a e no
consis en in hei a i udes owa ds science, and ha c i ique is o en di ec ed a
scien is s’ p esumed mo i es o en anglemen s wi h poli ics a he han a science
pe se. We conclude ha he dualis ic pe spec i e ha domina es public deba es on
his opic does no esona e wi h he empi ical complexi y illus a ed in his pape .
Keywo ds Science skep icism · Public pe cep ions o science · T us · Mixed
me hods · Aus ia
Johannes S a kbaum · E ich G iessle · Pe e G and · Fabian Seise · Thomas König
Ins i u ü Höhe e S udien—Ins i u e o Ad anced S udies (IHS), Jose s äd e s aße 39, 1080 Vienna,
Aus ia
E-Mail: s a [email protected]
Thomas König
FORWIT. Aus ian Council o Science, Technology and Inno a ion (Ra ü Fo schung,
Wissenscha , Inno a ion und Technologieen wicklung), Vienna, Aus ia
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Übe legungen zum Ve häl nis on Wissenscha und Gesellscha . Eine
Mixed-Me hods-S udie zu Wissenscha sskepsis in Ös e eich
Zusammen assung Eine ak uelle Deba e in Ös e eich übe Wissenscha sskepsis
s ell e die Be ölke ung des Landes als besonde s wissenscha sk i isch da . Das a -
sächliche Ausmaß on Wissenscha sskepsis blieb in de Deba e unkla und auch
eine explizi e De ini ion wu de nich gegeben. Diese Bei ag un e such das Phä-
nomen de Wissenscha sskepsis in Ös e eich. Dazu we den zunächs S udien zu
ö en lichen Wah nehmung on Wissenscha ausgewe e . Eine da au olgende Me-
hoden iangula ion kombinie eine Sekundä analyse on Um ageda en mi de
Analyse on P imä da en aus Fokusg uppen und Expe enin e iews. Ausgehend
on den un e schiedlichen me hodischen Pe spek i en zeigen wi , dass das Ausmaß
de Wissenscha sk i ik je nach Messme hode a iie , dass K i ik in allen gesell-
scha lichen G uppen zu beobach en is , dass die Eins ellungen de Menschen zu
Wissenscha nich konsis en sind und dass sich K i ik o allem au e mein li-
che Mo i e on Wissenscha e :innen ode die Ve bindungen zwischen Wissenscha
und Poli ik ich e und wenige au die Wissenscha selbs . Wi kommen zu dem
Schluss, dass die dualis ische Pe spek i e, welche die ö en liche Deba e zu diesem
Thema dominie , de in diesem Bei ag da ges ell en empi ischen Komplexi ä nich
ge ech wi d.
Schlüsselwö e Wissenscha sskepsis · Ö en liche Wah nehmung on
Wissenscha · Ve auen · Me hoden iangula ion · Ös e eich
1 In oduc ion
In 2021, jou nalis s, scien is s, and poli icians in Aus ia ini ia ed a public discou se
ha po ayed he coun y’s popula ion as highly skep ical o science (Salzbu ge
Nach ich en 2022; Taschwe 2021), accompanied by calls o poli ical ac ion
(Nowo ny 2021; S a kbaum e al. 2022). P oponen s o he asse ion o p e ailing
science skep icism in Aus ia used, as hei main poin o e e ence, a Eu oba om-
e e su ey in which Aus ian esponden s exp essed ela i ely low in e es in and
expec a ions o science and echnology in some i ems compa ed o o he Eu opean
coun ies (Eu opean Commission 2021). Ad oca es o his claim also suppo ed
hei asse ion by poin ing a segmen s o he Aus ian popula ion ha had loudly
c i icized he go e nmen ’s policies o comba he COVID-19 pandemic, which we e
based in pa on he ad ice o scien is s. Tha science skep icism was widesp ead,
and had inc eased du ing he pandemic, became he dominan opos o public
discou se. Al hough he ac ual ex en o science skep icism in Aus ia emained
unclea du ing he deba e, and an explici de ini ion o he phenomenon was ne e
p o ided.
In esponse o his, he Aus ian Fede al Minis y o Educa ion, Science and
Resea ch (BMBWF) issued a call o ende s o a s udy o in es iga e skep icism
owa ds science and democ acy in Aus ia. The s udy, which was ca ied ou be-
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ween 2022 and 2023, explo ed he cha ac e is ics and ex en o science skep icism
in Aus ia, i s ela ion o socio-demog aphic ac o s, as well as his o ical, socio-
economic and s uc u al aspec s ha may be ele an o unde s anding he si ua ion
(S a kbaum e al. 2023).
Based on his s udy, his pape examines he phenomenon o “science skep icism”
in Aus ia applying a mixed me hods app oach including seconda y analysis o
su ey da a and analysis o p ima y da a om ocus g oups and expe in e iews.
We add ess h ee main ques ions: (1) Wha public a i udes owa ds science can
be obse ed and how a e hey dis ibu ed in Aus ia? (2) How can he c i ique o
science and science skep icism be di e en ia ed? (3) Wha a e he implica ions o
he public discussion on science skep icism in Aus ia? We s a wi h a e lec ion
on he science socie y ela ionship and di e en app oaches o science skep icism,
d awing on heo e ical conside a ions and in e na ional esea ch. Subsequen ly, we
in es iga e pe cep ions o science in he popula ion, how c i ical a i udes owa d
science dis ibu e among di e en g oups and in he popula ion, how expe s assess
his, and he ex en and cha ac e is ics o skep icism and o he c i ical a i udes
owa d science in Aus ia.
The indings show ha in Aus ia, posi i e iews domina e he public pe cep ion
o science. Ye , he e a e also di e en o ms o science c i ique in he popula ion,
bu hei p e alence a ies acco ding o how c i ique and skep icism a e de ined
and measu ed. In addi ion, disapp o al mainly conce ns selec i e pa s o science o
he ela ionship o i wi h o he socie al ins i u ions, such as poli ics and economy.
Fu he mo e, science c i ique is no es ic ed o pa icula social g oups. The pape
emphasizes ha he discussion abou science skep icism in Aus ia is ye ano he
poli ical con o e sy abou he p ope place o science in socie y.
2 Re lec ing science skep icism
Luhmann (2024) concep ualizes science as one o se e al subsys ems o mode n
socie ies. Bo n in he scien i ic e olu ion o he se en een h cen u y o gene a e
solid knowledge in he mids o eligious di ision (Romme ei e al. 2013), and
hen pu sued only by a ew gen leman scien is s om he uppe echelons o socie y,
science was p o essionalized in he nine een h cen u y (Webe 1946). I de eloped
in o a as social subsys em and en e p ise in he wen ie h cen u y ha is cen al
o he cul u al and economic concep o mode ni y (S eh 2023). Today, h ough an
implici social con ac (Gus on 2000), science con ibu es o socie al subsys ems
such as he economy and poli ics by p o iding knowledge. In e u n, science ecei es
public unding unde his implici social con ac . Because o i s cen al ole o
economic g ow h, go e nmen s a ound he wo ld p omo e science (Du an 1994;
G iessle 2024). Howe e , science is no unchallenged, as he ecen deba es on
science skep icism exempli y.
The e is no uni ied de ini ion o science skep icism in he academic li e a u e
and he e m is used o a a ie y o a i udes. Al hough skep icism is o en iewed
nega i ely, i is also in eg al o scien i ic p ac ice, known as “o ganized skep icism”
(Me on 1957, p. 560). This is he ou h o he Me onian no ms, which also include
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communism, uni e salism and disin e es edness. They desc ibe an ideal e sion o
science, emphasizing common owne ship, inclusi eness, o ien a ion owa ds he
bene i o science and c i ical e lec ion o scien i ic wo k. Howe e , his is no
he kind o skep icism ha domina ed he Aus ian discou se. We discuss a ious
app oaches ela ed o science skep icism, so ing hem b oadly in o h ee g oupings:
s udies on nega i e a i udes owa ds science in gene al; s udies ha link iden i ies
and social posi ions o science skep icism; and s udies ha in es iga e c i icisms o
collabo a ions be ween science and policy.
Skep icism is o en used o desc ibe a ious nega i e a i udes owa ds science.
C i icism o science has long been amed in Eu opean science and policy discou se
as a de ici o he ci izen y, sugges ing in pa icula a lack o public knowledge and
unde s anding ha could be emedied h ough educa ion and science communica ion
(Royal Socie y 1985). F om his pe spec i e, science skep icism and o he nega i e
a i udes owa d science a e concep ualized as a de ici ha is mainly loca ed in
segmen s o he popula ion and is associa ed wi h a lack o knowledge o us .
Many o he exis ing s udies ocus on popula ions ha exp ess c i ical a i udes
aiming o in es iga e explana o y ac o s. Typically, hese s udies su ey he p e a-
lence o and explana o y ac o s o a i udes owa ds science and y o iden i y
g oups ha hold sen imen s such as low us in science o science skep icism. The
ou comes depend hea ily on he wo ding o he su ey ques ions and how hey con-
cep ualize nega i e a i udes owa ds science, such as science skep icism. In o he
wo ds, he objec o s udy is ei ied by i s concep ualiza ion in su ey ques ions.
Con a y o he p e ailing public discou se in Aus ia, se e al su eys show ha
in mos coun ies, la ge pa s o he popula ion exp ess high le els o us in science
(Eu opean Commission 2021; Cologna e al. 2025) and ha science is one o he mos
us ed ins i u ions (Ipsos 2023). Va ious s udies, mos ly quan i a i e, y o iden i y
socie al g oups ha a e mo e p one o exp ess nega i e a i udes owa ds science.
Howe e , se e al s udies show ha p edic o s o nega i e a i udes, such as poli ical
p e e ences, eligiosi y, o science li e acy, a e no uni e sal explana o y ac o s, bu
a y by opic and ield o science (Schei le and Co co an 2021). Philipp-Mulle e al.
(2022) ind ha while poli ical “conse a i es” a e mo e likely o ejec scien i ic
indings (e.g., on e olu ion o clima e change), his end is no consis en ac oss
echnological ields, as “libe als” a e, o example, mo e c i ical in a eas such as
nano echnology. Consis en wi h his, Ru jens e al. (2022) show, using compa a i e
su eys, ha p edic o s such as spi i uali y o poli ical o ien a ion di e among ields
o science, such as clima e change o gene ic modi ica ion.
O he s udies ha e looked a he ac ual ejec ion o science by segmen s o he
ci izen y, o en e e ed o as science skep icism. This conce ns a smalle bu mo e
c i ical g oup o he public. Pa heymülle and Ebe l (2023, p. 89) no e ha science
skep icism e e s o a gene al o undamen al c i icism o science ha is ideolog-
ically mo i a ed and esis s scien i ic sc u iny. Simila ly, S a kbaum e al. (2023)
ope a ionalize skep icism “as a sys ema ic and unjus i ied ejec ion o science,” i.e.,
a ejec ion o scien i ic knowledge ha spans se e al a eas o science.
Se e al s udies highligh he impo ance o mis- and disin o ma ion o explain
ejec ion o scien i ic knowledge. Asle e al. (2024) conclude ha online sea ches
o e alua e misin o ma ion can inc ease i s pe cei ed c edibili y, as esponden s end
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up in in o ma ional spaces wi h low-quali y sou ces con i ming w ong in o ma ion.
Thus, he au ho s call o inc easing media li e acy in he popula ion and egula ing
sea ch engines. Spampa i e al. (2023, p. 9) ound “ ha clima e disin o ma ion
in luences how people eel abou , hink o and e alua e clima e change and clima e
ac ions” and show ha he exposu e o disin o ma ion canno simply be coun e ed
by (psychological) mi iga ion s a egies. Oswald and B igh (2022) demons a e ha
belie s o communi ies, who sel -iden i y as clima e skep ics, a e cha ac e ized by
long- e m s abili y and hese g oups eac wi h coun e a gumen s o science-based
knowledge.
Se e al s udies examine iden i ies and easoning ela ed o skep icism, a he han
explo ing a i udes owa d science. Dissen ing oices wi hin he scien i ic communi y
ha e c i icized s udies ha ame c i icism o science as a cha ac e is ic (o de ici )
o ce ain popula ions. Al eady decades ago, his led o calls o mo e engagemen
o socie al ac o s in esea ch and inno a ion (R&I) o be e unde s and di e en
posi ions, a he han aming c i icism solely as a p oblem (Wilsdon and Willis
2004). Fu he mo e, se e al s udies challenge he ole o science as a p i ileged o m
o knowledge p oduc ion by highligh ing he impo ance o conside ing di e en
o ms o local knowledge, such as ha o ac i is s o a me s (Eps ein 1998; Wynne
1996). Resea ch ha aligns wi h his adi ion is ypically in e es ed in unde s anding
he social and cul u al condi ions ha os e he eme gence o c i ique o skep icism
and how i is jus i ied.
The e is a body o li e a u e—mos ly quali a i e— ha ac i ely and e lexi ely
engages wi h g oups c i ical o science. Hal inne and Sa a hchand a (2023)show
ha people in he US who a e skep ical abou an h opogenic clima e change a e no
homogeneous, bu a he exp ess many di e en belie s. Se e al people wi h whom
hey in e ac ed exp essed o e all con idence in science and expe ise bu a ionalized
hei c i ical posi ion by ques ioning he compe ence o clima e scien is s. Simila ly,
Ne esini (2024) ecommends a oiding exclusi ely nega i e aming when dealing
wi h g oups c i ical o science.
O he s udies a e mo e explici abou aspec s o cul u al and social iden i y as
ele an ac o s in he explana ion o nega i e a i udes owa ds science. Based on
su ey da a, S oe ze and Zimme mann (2024) see g oup iden i y as a plausible ex-
plana ion o clima e change denial, concluding ha people may ejec o downplay
an h opogenic clima e change because i is pa o hei poli ical iden i y. Add essing
his c i icism, hey sugges i would equi e a weakening o changing ela ed g oup
no ms. Philipp-Mulle e al. (2022), h ough a e iew o se e al s udies, explo e
ac o s ele an o an i-science a i udes, all o which indica e a social and cul u al
dis ance be ween science and indi iduals o g oups exp essing an i-science a i udes.
Such ac o s include a pe cei ed lack o c edibili y o science communica ion and
i s sou ces, a sense o belonging o g oups ha iden i y wi h an i-science a i udes,
o con lic s be ween scien i ic messages, pe sonal alues, and he p e e ences o
epis emic s yles o ecipien s.
The ela ionship be ween science and policy is a ield ela ed o skep icism ha
has gained pa icula a en ion since he s a o he COVID-19 pandemic. In his
con ex , selec i e consul a ion o scien i ic disciplines and a lack o anspa ency
we e poin ed ou by c i ics (P ainsack 2022). Indeed, much o he c i icism ha
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has been labeled science skep icism in public deba es e e s o he in ol emen o
science o scien is s in policy making o an alleged en anglemen wi h economic
in e es s, which would mean he iola ion o ano he Me onian no m o science,
i.e., “disin e es edness” (Me on 1942).
Bogne ’s (2021) concep o he epis emiza ion o he poli ical p o ides a use-
ul amewo k o concep ualizing his app oach o science skep icism. He a gues
ha he e is a endency o poli ical deba es o be amed by epis emic (e idence-
o knowledge-based) claims. Thus, poli ical decisions and hei legi imacy a e in-
c easingly ied o scien i ic e idence and ac ual co ec ness, especially in imes o
con o e sy and c isis. F aming policy decisions as me ely e idence-based encou -
ages he neglec o issues o alues, con lic ing in e es s, and delibe a ion, while
a he same ime elie ing policymake s o some o he esponsibili y o making
decisions. Such e idence-based claims p omo e a policy o no al e na i es, which
is always in con lic wi h some poli ical o socie al in e es s. The poli ical p ocess
may hen appea o supp ess al e na i e iewpoin s.
A he same ime, as Bogne (2021) a gues, science in such cons ella ions be-
comes a majo add ess o c i icism o poli ical decisions and is hus subjec o he
same pola iza ion and con es a ion as poli ics. G oups opposed o ce ain policies
may hen challenge he science (o scien is s) in ol ed, no necessa ily because hey
doub science i sel , bu because i is seen as poli ical and eli is . They hen b ing
in selec i e science-based claims o al e na i e expe ise o challenge he (main-
s eam) science in ol ed in policymaking, which b ings us back o he issue o
misin o ma ion.
Finally, hese e lec ions show ha science skep icism encompasses a a ie y o
hings, including le els o public knowledge, a i udes owa ds science, ejec ion o
scien i ic knowledge, as well as he engagemen o science wi h economic in e es s
o he poli ical domain. Nega i e exp essions o science, such as skep icism, a e
esea ched and concep ualized di e en ly, which also leads o di e en conclusions
abou i s p e alence and quali y.
3 Me hodology
This pape consolida es indings om he a o emen ioned s udy on skep icism o-
wa d science and democ acy in Aus ia (S a kbaum e al. 2023). In o de o p o ide
a comp ehensi e unde s anding o science skep icism in Aus ia we analyzed polled
public opinions, na a i es in g oup con ex and expe insigh s. The da a consis ed
o : (a) a seconda y analysis o su ey da a which p o ided a basic o e iew o a -
i udes owa ds science; (b) ocus g oups explo ing how c i icism is easoned and
embedded in g oup se ings; and (c) expe in e iews. This me hodological iangu-
la ion was implemen ed o inc ease he alidi y o he esul s and o a i e a a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding o science skep icism.
(a) Fo he quan i a i e analysis, he pape u ilized su ey da a om he Eu o-
ba ome e 516 (2021), Eu opean Social Su ey (ESS) wa e 10, he Aus ian Co ona
Panel P ojec (ACPP) 2020–2022, he Ci izens’ A i udes Unde Co id-19 Pandemic
(CAUCP) su ey 2020 and he Wellcome Global Moni o (WGM) 2018 and 2020.
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These su eys collec exp essed opinions o membe s o he public and each o
hese include da a on he Aus ian popula ion. We included only da a om one su -
ey wa e in 2021 o he Eu oba ome e and ESS bu included mul iple yea s om
he o he su eys. ACPP included da a om Ma ch 2020 o Augus 2022. CAUCP
da a consis ed o ou wa es collec ed in 2020, and WGM included da a om 2018
and 2020.
Di e ences in da a collec ion, sample size, he way hese su eys concep ualize
science, and which ques ions hey include made a di ec compa ison mo e chal-
lenging. We hus did no combine hese da a a indi idual le els, bu con as ed he
indings o each su ey, o gene a e a mo e comp ehensi e pic u e o a i udes o-
wa ds science. The su eys allow longi udinal and compa a i e insigh s in o public
unde s andings o science and show how science, in e u n, epis emically co-c ea es
he no ion o science skep icism. Nex o a c i ical and in e p e i e analysis, his
s udy used a combina ion o desc ip i e and mul i a ia e analyses, such as ecoded
da a and i ems o logis ic eg ession. Fo u he de ails, see S a kbaum e al. (2023,
p. 139 .).
(b) In addi ion, i e ocus g oups wi h a o al o 39 pa icipan s om he Aus ian
popula ion we e conduc ed, wi h se en o en pa icipan s pe g oup. These g oups
we e designed o acili a e con e sa ion among a se o ci izens o in es iga e how
opinions eme ge in g oup se ings and how discussions e ol e (Reed and Pay on
1997). Pa icipan s we e ec ui ed h ough public ad e isemen s, con ac ing ins i u-
ions and ia pe sonal con ac s. The ocus g oups we e held in ea ly 2023 in Vienna,
Uppe Aus ia, and S y ia. Ou o e all sample was ela i ely balanced in e ms o
educa ional backg ound, age, and gende , al hough he e was a bias owa d pa ic-
ipan s wi h highe educa ion, and a s onge p esence o olde adul s and younge
people (S a kbaum e al. 2023, pp. 243–246).
The ocus g oups we e conduc ed in a wo-s age p ocess. Fi s , pa icipan s an-
swe ed a ques ionnai e, which, in addi ion o socio-economic aspec s, co e ed also
nine su ey-ques ions ela ed o science and democ acy, e.g. om he Eu oba ome e
516. These assessed how pa icipan s scale ( ou - and i e-poin Like ) he impo -
ance o science, hei us in science, as well as how hey pe cei e he impac o
poli ics. The nex s ep consis ed o a acili a ed discussion ini ia ed by he mode a o ,
elying on a semi-s uc u ed in e iew guide inco po a ing open ended ques ions.
Each g oup hus discussed he su ey i ems hey answe ed in he ques ionnai e a he
beginning, which co e ed hei de ini ions o science, science in e e yday li e and i s
ela ionship o common sense, us in science, he in luence o poli ics on science,
and a ques ion add essing democ acy. This wo-s age p ocess allowed in es iga ing
how pa icipan s e alua e and unde s and ele an su ey ques ions. I also showed
ha he ocus g oup sample was somewha less c i ical o science and democ acy
in compa ison o he o e all Aus ian popula ion, al hough c i ical oices we e also
p esen , and, h ough ha , i pa ed he way o he discussion.
The ocus g oups we e ansc ibed and coded using A las. i, ollowing a g ounded
heo y app oach (S auss and Co bin 1998) as we aimed o explo e new knowledge
induc i ely. Rele an phenomena we e coded in an open coding p ocess, in which
he coding s uc u e was de eloped by selec i e and axial s eps wo king owa ds
heo e ical sa u a ion and a common ed h ead. As we we e in e es ed in sha ed
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meanings and he eme gence o opinions in g oup con ex (Reed and Pay on 1997),
phenomena, i.e., coded segmen s o da a, we e no es ic ed o exp essions o in-
di iduals bu also included na a i es and pa s o discussions in ol ing se e al
pa icipan s.
Addi ionally, we iden i ied pa icipan s pa icula ly c i ical o science and hei
con ibu ion o he discussion. These 14 people we e iden i ied by clus e ing hose
pa icipan s who ei he exp essed an opinion con a y o he scien i ic consensus
(in knowledge- ela ed ques ions) a leas wice o did no explici ly exp ess us in
science in he ques ionnai e a he beginning o he ocus g oups. This g oup includes
pe sons wi h di e en educa ional backg ounds and is gende balanced wi h se en
male and six emale pa icipan s. Se en people s a ed an age o mo e han 60 yea s,
while h ee people we e unde 30 yea s old, wi h he emaining h ee people aged
be ween 30 and 59.
(c) The 12 semi-s uc u ed expe in e iews aimed o co e he discou se on
skep icism owa ds science and democ acy in Aus ia (Bogne e al. 2002). The
selec ed in e iewees we e well-in o med abou he opics o “science” and “soci-
e y”, and had engaged in public deba e a e en s o in he media o , in one case,
we e ecommended by one in e iewee. Expe s had a wide pe spec i e on he opic
and came om a b oad ange o p o essions. The sample o se en men and i e
women consis ed o h ee na u al scien is s, wo humani ies schola s, one social
scien is , wo jou nalis s, one psychologis , one lawye and adminis a i e scien is ,
one science o icial, and one pe son om a science communica ion backg ound.
In e iews we e conduc ed om 2022 o 2023 and las ed be ween 23 o 90min;
he a e age was abou 45min. Mos in e iews we e conduc ed in pe son; a small
numbe o in e iews we e conduc ed online. In e iewees answe ed open ques ions
which we e de i ed om he cen al objec i es o he s udy and we e in ended o
cla i y wha he expe s unde s and by science, science skep icism and socie y, how
hey e alua e and assess hese, wha e idence o expe ience his assessmen is based
on, wha hey pe cei e as he causes o science skep icism in Aus ia, wha he ideal
ela ionship be ween science and socie y would be, and wha measu es would be
necessa y o es ablish his ela ionship. Like he ocus g oups, he in e iews we e
ansc ibed and coded ollowing g ounded heo y (S auss and Co bin 1998) and by
using A las. i.
4Resul s
This chap e explo es science skep icism by conside ing (a) gene al pe cep ions o
science, (b) he dis ibu ion and p e alence o c i ique in he Aus ian popula ion, and
(c) he mul i- ace ed cha ac e o such c i ique. Each aspec is add essed sepa a ely
wi h da a om su eys, ocus g oups, and expe in e iews, excep o (b) as his was
no subjec o he in e iews. This s uc u e was chosen o di e en ia e he a ious
pe spec i es on science skep icism ha come wi h hese epis emic app oaches.
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Ös e eichische Zei sch i ü Soziologie (2025) 50:20 Page 9 o 23 20
4.1 Pe cep ions o science
4.1.1 Su ey da a
Ac oss he in es iga ed su eys and mos i ems, he Aus ian popula ion suppo s
posi i e s a emen s abou science mo e s ongly han nega i e ones. ACPP, Eu o-
ba ome e , CAUCP, WGM, and ESS da a indica e ha us in scien is s, and mo e
gene ally in science, is almos always highe o e ime and ac oss coun ies han
in o he ins i u ions and g oups, such as poli ical pa ies, he pa liamen o he po-
lice (S a kbaum e al. 2023, p. 141 .). Exempla y desc ip i e da a om he ESS
ound 10 in Fig. 1shows high us in scien is s in Aus ia, which is compa able o
he le els o us o he police and he judicial sys em. T us owa ds any ins i u ion
e en loosely connec ed o he poli ical ealm is conside ably lowe han us in
scien is s. Poli ical pa ies and poli icians hemsel es expe ience he lowes le el o
us .
The e a e p onounced nega i e pe cep ions o science om Aus ian esponden s,
pa icula ly in ela ion o speci ic i ems and opical domains, such as nuclea ene gy.
Howe e , in compa ison o o he coun ies, Aus ians a e o e all no mo e nega i e
abou science (e.g., Fig. 2).
The le panel in Fig. 2shows gene al us in scien is s in Eu ope, based on ESS
da a. He e again, he mean us alues a e plo ed and he associa ed con idence in-
e als a e shown. The e ical line ma ks he a e age us in scien is s wi h a alue
o 7.06 ac oss all coun ies displayed. In he coun ies wi h a e age us alues o
he le o his line, he o al o all esponses is below a e age us in scien is s. The
igh panel shows he mean alues o ag eemen and disag eemen ega ding he
s a emen , ha “g oups o scien is s manipula e, ab ica e, o supp ess e idence in
o de o decei e he public”. The highe he alues, he s onge he ejec ion o his
s a emen . The a e age app o al/disapp o al sco e among he coun ies p esen ed
he e is 3.42. In coun ies whose mean app o al a ings lie o he le o his line,
esponden s ag ee mo e s ongly wi h his s a emen . Thus, he Aus ian esponden s
show a compa ably high a e o disag eemen wi h he s a emen , which indica es
Fig. 1 ESS: T us in di e -
en ins i u ions in Aus ia
2021 (mean alues). (Own
calcula ions using da a om
ESS 10 (2021, n= 1931, weigh =
dweigh ). The mean con idence
and he 95% con idence in e al
a e displayed)
Poli ical Pa ies
Poli icians
EP
UN
Pa liamen
Jus ice
Police
Scien is s
3 4 5 6 7
Mean T us
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20 Page 16 o 23 Ös e eichische Zei sch i ü Soziologie (2025) 50:20
migh e en ually ge a lo o money o wha he [...] disco e ed o in en ed”(FG1).
These quo es ollow a simila pa e n: The noble, male scien is in an an agonis ic
ela ionship wi h dishones pa s o science and ex e nal o ces ha co up science.
Du ing he ocus g oups, skep icism and o he o ms o science c i ique we e also
labelled as a p oblem ha o igina es om he popula ion. Especially he 14 people,
who exp essed eluc ance owa ds science in he p e-ques ionnai e, we e engaged in
discussions abou how oo ew people in socie y would ask c i ical ques ions. Some
pa icipan s po ayed pa s o he popula ion as igno an and miseduca ed. One
pa icipan emphasized: “humani y is becoming mo e and mo e s upid and nobody
[emphasis] has any common sense anymo e [...] nobody [emphasis] has a decen
le el o educa ion any mo e” (FG3). O he s concluded ha scien is s a e no app e-
cia ed enough in Aus ia (FG3) and ano he pa icipan poin ed o he igno ance o
he popula ion ega ding many ( echnological) impac s o science: “I use e e y hing,
bu I don’ hink abou i anymo e, i ’s jus he e. I hink you mus make people a bi
mo e awa e o how i all came abou , whe e i comes om”(FG1).
Some ocus g oup pa icipan s explained he assumed lack o c i ical hinking and
educa ion in Aus ia as he ou come o a delibe a e s a egy employed by poli ics,
he media, o o he seemingly powe ul ac ions o socie y. The nex sequence
exempli ies how ocus g oup pa icipan s pe cei ed he pe o mance o COVID-19
expe s in ele ision p og ams in he Aus ian B oadcas ing Co po a ion (ORF) as
selec i e and manipula i e. Only wo (B3 and B7) o he 14 people, who exp essed
c i icism in he p e-ques ionnai e, we e in ol ed in he ou -pe son discussion abou
media below.
B7: [...] I belie e he [ he expe ] was he leas quali ied pe son in he wo ld o
say any hing abou i , bu he said some hing abou e e y hing [emphasis] and
he ORF s ee ed i ha way.
B9: yes
B5: And poli ics [...]
B7: The ORF has an educa ional mission.
B9: Would ha e. Would ha e [emphasis]
B3: Would ha e.
B7: Would ha e. We pay o ha . And, I mean, I am saying his almos mali-
ciously, bu he e is ha dly any o he b oadcas e ha manipula es like he ORF.
B9: Yes, ha ’s igh , ha is no malicious, ha is ealis ic. (FG3).
Consequen ly, nega i e exp essions owa ds science eme ged in a ious ways
du ing he discussions. This included c i icism o speci ic pa s o science, selec ed
scien is s, o he ins i u ional en anglemen s o science wi h o he ields such as pol-
i ics, media and economy. In he g oups, a lack o c i ical hinking was also b ough
up, once again illus a ing he he e ogenei y o wha is e e ed o as skep icism.
4.3.3 Expe in e iews
In line wi h he da a p esen ed abo e, he expe in e iews e ealed di e en ap-
p oaches o and unde s andings o science skep icism. Expe s ei he saw skep icism
as a ejec ion o science, as an essen ial pa o science, o as a c i ical a i ude o-
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Ös e eichische Zei sch i ü Soziologie (2025) 50:20 Page 17 o 23 20
wa ds he u iliza ion o science. Expe s men ioned social con lic s abou science
and echnology such as he COVID-19 pandemic, gene ically modi ied o ganisms,
nuclea ene gy, and he clima e c isis. Indeed, su ey da a con i ms ha ce ain o
hese echnologies o science-a eas a e nega i ely iewed by Aus ians (S a kbaum
e al. 2023, p. 111). The con o e sy abou hese a eas is no only abou di e -
en assessmen s o echnological isks, bu includes issues conce ning eedom o
exp ession, he igh o sel -de e mina ion and au onomy, di e en concep ions o
economy, jus ice, socie y, wha ela ionship be ween science, socie y and na u e
would be “app op ia e” and compe ing concep ions o socie al u u es in social and
ecological e ms. A he co e, hese a e also con lic s abou he ole o science in
socie y.
In addi ion o di e en unde s andings and de ini ions o skep icism, he e a e also
di e ing explana ions o i s incidence. Some a gumen s add ess a pe cei ed dis ance
be ween science and socie y, which is said o a ise due o he sepa a ion be ween
science and he li ewo ld o he popula ion and he di icul y o unde s anding and
g asping esea ch. Ano he expe na a i e ocuses on he inc easing complexi y o
socie y and he esul ing inc eased demands on he indi idual, which is also linked
o he educa ion sys em ha is blamed o ailing o communica e he wo kings o
science and i s impo ance o p ospe i y. Consis en wi h he indings om su eys
and ocus g oups, we see explana ions o science skep icism based on an assumed
gene al skep icism owa ds eli es, including poli icians bu also scien is s, and issues
o us in ins i u ions mo e b oadly.
In summa y, science c i ique appea s in di e en o ms and in ensi ies. While
a smalle segmen o 10% o he popula ion ejec s science ac oss di e en domains,
o he o ms o c i icism, conce ning he mo i es o scien is s o en anglemen s wi h
poli ics a e a conce n o a much wide g oup. Focus g oups and expe in e iews
also show ha c i icism and p esumed causes a e a ied.
5 Discussion
The cu en public deba e on science skep icism ga he s, unde his e m, qui e
di e en o ms o science c i ique. The e is also no clea de ini ion in he academic
li e a u e o in empi ical s udies. This pape discusses di e en app oaches o science
skep icism and p o ides empi ical insigh s in o his mul i ace ed phenomenon. I
shows ha mos Aus ians ha e a a o able iew o science and ha he e is no
clea e idence o a ecen inc ease in nega i e a i udes owa d science (S a kbaum
e al. 2023, p. 261 .). Explo ing di e en o ms o c i icism in he popula ion can
con ibu e o an unde s anding o science skep icism.
Ope a ionalizing science skep icism as a (sys ema ic and unwa an ed) ejec ion
o science, ocuses on a smalle bu mo e c i ical g oup. Seconda y analysis o da a
om a ecen Eu oba ome e s udy (Eu opean Commission 2021) shows ha abou
10% o he Aus ian popula ion can be conside ed science skep ics acco ding o his
de ini ion. Based on di e en su ey da a, Pa heymülle and Ebe l (2023) a i e
a sligh ly highe numbe s and iden i y a sha e o 14% o Aus ians who exp ess
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mode a e in e es and low us in science o ejec i s indings as science skep ics.
This p opo ion is no insigni ican , howe e , a om being he majo i y.
The seconda y analysis o su ey da a emphasizes how he sha e o c i ics o
skep ics di e s depending on how skep icism is ope a ionalized in su eys. 20 o
30% o he esponden s in Aus ia, depending on he i ems and su ey we analysed,
a e c i ical o scien is s’ mo i es and compe ences o c i icize pe cei ed in e link-
ages be ween poli ics and science. Mos o en, c i icism add esses ce ain a eas o
echnology o scien i ic disciplines, pe cei ed malp ac ices, o links be ween sci-
ence, poli ics, and economic in e es s. In line wi h Bogne ’s (2021) concep o he
epis emiza ion o he poli ical, ou ocus g oup da a showed ha wi hin ou sample,
he e was li le ejec ion o science, howe e his was amed by a c i ique o pe -
cei ed poli ical o economic meddling in science. An idealized image o science,
close o he Me onian no ms (Me on 1942), was seen, in his line o a gumen , as
h ea ened by eli is con ol o science and a disin e es ed public. Co espondingly,
based on su ey and in e iew da a wi h an Aus ian sample, Pa heymülle and
Ebe l (2023) ound ha science skep icism is also an exp ession o a comp ehensi e
wo ld iew ha includes a b oade skep icism owa ds democ a ic and poli ical in-
s i u ions. The au ho s conclude ha he assump ion ha science lacks independence
om poli ics and business con ibu es in a pa icula way o i s ejec ion. Findings
o a ela ed dialogue p ocess wi h Aus ian ci izens show anspa ency and indepen-
dence o science om poli ical and economic in e es s as a key ecommenda ion
o he discussan s (Bech hold e al. 2023). The BMBWF s udy con i ms ha peo-
ple wi h highe no ma i e expec a ions o democ acy and who pe cei e democ acy
as wo king be e in Aus ia exp ess highe le els o us in scien is s (S a kbaum
e al. 2023). Consequen ly, c i icism o science also s ems om con lic s o e he
sup emacy o ce ain o ms o knowledge and om b oade c i ique o poli ics and
democ a ic ins i u ions.
Many in e na ional s udies y o iden i y ac o s explaining why indi iduals o
g oups hold an i-science a i udes o ha e li le us in science. Howe e , depending
on he ield o opic, hese s udies also show ha c i icism o ce ain a eas o
science is mo e p onounced in di e en g oups, he e o e, he e is no single g oup
o science skep ics (Ru jens e al. 2022). Simila ly, F ei and Nach wey (2022)show
ha p o es s agains measu es o con ain COVID-19, which ha e been backed by
scien is s, included people om all social and educa ional s a a o socie y. This
s udy con i ms ha science c i ique is no limi ed o speci ic social g oups. Ou da a
also show ha indi iduals a e no consis en in hei a i udes owa ds science. Focus
g oup pa icipan s who had p e iously exp essed gene ally posi i e a i udes owa ds
science, we e also among hose who s a ed science c i ique in he discussions. In line
wi h hese indings, Ne esini (2024) highligh s ha communi ies ha e use ce ain
scien i ic knowledge a e no homogeneous no exclusi ely igno an and i a ional
mino i ies.
A lack o knowledge abou science is epea edly named as a ac o ele an o
skep icism (B omme 2022), also in ou expe in e iews and ocus g oups. Thus,
science and poli ics o en add ess science skep icism wi h e o s o inc ease sci-
ence li e acy, i.e., o imp o e he le el o scien i ic knowledge o he popula ion.
Howe e , ou su ey and ocus g oup da a show no clea link be ween he ex en o
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Ös e eichische Zei sch i ü Soziologie (2025) 50:20 Page 19 o 23 20
scien i ic knowledge and nega i e a i udes owa ds science. Acco dingly, Ten Ka e
e al. (2021) e eal ha well-educa ed people ejec scien i ic knowledge as well,
d awing on he example o accine e usal. The idea ha inc easing he knowledge
and engagemen o ci izens will aise, in a linea way accep ance o science, has
exis ed o decades and has been challenged e e since (Suldo sky 2016). A s udy
by Lackne e al. (2023) emphasizes he complex ole o knowledge by showing
ha o e con idence abou knowing answe s abou science issues peaks a in e me-
dia e knowledge le els and ha his g oup also exp esses he leas posi i e a i udes
owa ds science. The au ho s hus conclude ha inc easing science li e acy will no
simply lead o inc eased suppo o science.
Howe e , dis ance be ween science and socie y exis s o some ex en . Focus
g oups sugges ha many ci izens know li le abou how science wo ks in p ac ice,
which was also discussed in he expe in e iews. Also, he e is a high le el o
ag eemen (53%) in he Aus ian popula ion ha knowledge o science and esea ch
is no ele an o e e yday li e (Eu opean Commission 2021). Some esea ch sug-
ges s ha his has o do wi h people’s social iden i y, which migh con lic wi h he
ins i u ion o science and i s epis emic s yle (Philipp-Mulle e al. 2022;Oswald
and B igh 2022; Spampa i e al. 2023). This iewpoin speaks in a o o mak-
ing science mo e pa icipa o y and ancho ing i mo e i mly in e e yday cul u e o
di e en social g oups (Dawson 2018).
A he same ime, science is mo e p esen in mos people’s li es han e e .
O e he cen u ies, science has mo ed o he cen e o Wes e n socie ies, challeng-
ing eligion as a co e alue, and d i ing economic g ow h, heal h, and educa ion.
S eng hening inno a ion capaci y has also been a consis en goal o Aus ian ede al
go e nmen s o decades and has led o ema kable de elopmen s like compa ably
high expendi u e on R&I (Jange and König 2020). And ye , science’s ole is no
wi hou challenges.
While science is mode n socie ies’ bes app oach o gene a e and alida e new
knowledge, i is also a human endea o and hus subjec o biases and e o (Kuhn
1962). Some esea che s call o a oiding idealized images o science and “p om-
ising less” (Collins and Pinch 1993, p. 142), as ailed p omises migh os e an i-
science a i udes. The same au ho s sugges ha science should engage wi h c i icism
a he han ac ing like a “nes o an s wi h an in ude ” (Collins and Pinch 1993,
p. 142). While add essing science c i icism is essen ial, a c i ical iew on science
is equi ed as well. Science has his o ically also ha med g oups and con ibu ed o
sexual iden i y disc imina ion and acial inequali y (G a es e al. 2022).
The Aus ian public deba e on science skep icism is in many ways d i en by
a dualis ic pe spec i e on a i udes owa ds science, which di ides he popula ion
in o a g oup o science suppo e s and a g oup o science denie s. The dominan
discou se in he media, which is p ima ily shaped by jou nalis s, poli icians, sci-
en is s and science unc iona ies, cha ac e izes a conside able pa o he Aus ian
popula ion as skep ical o science, i.e. as i a ional in compa ison o he o he pa
and o hemsel es. While his is ue, as we show in his pape , o a speci ic, bu
conside ably smalle pa o he popula ion, and o some o ms o adical c i ique,
i is ce ainly no he case o all o ms o c i ique o science. And i is ce ainly
no he case o he majo i y o he popula ion in which us in science domina es.
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Mo eo e , he claim ha science skep icism p e ails is based mainly on quan i a i e
esea ch, which cons i u es a speci ic pe spec i e on his opic. Also, esea che s’
unde lying and some imes unconscious assump ions abou science skep icism a ec
he esul s and hei in e p e a ion. This pape c i ically e iews ele an quan i-
a i e su eys and adds quali a i e da a om ocus g oups and expe in e iews.
These da a show ha science skep icism is held by di e en g oups, and pa ly e en
by g oups ha a e gene ally posi i e abou science. This mixed-me hods app oach
b oadens he pe spec i e on science skep icism and b ings in o ocus hose la ge
g oups o ci izens and expe s who a e cen al o he public discou se.
Acknowledgemen s The collec ion o empi ical da a o his a icle was unded by he Aus ian Minis y
o Educa ion, Science and Resea ch (BMBWF, GZ: 2022-0.383.902). We would also like o hank ou co-
au ho s o he o iginal s udy on which his a icle is based. We would like o hank all he pa icipan s in
he ocus g oups and expe in e iews. We a e also g a e ul o he addi ional unding p o ided by he IHS
o w i e his pape and o co e he open access ees. Finally, we hank Maggie Ha diman o p oo eading.
Funding Open access unding p o ided by Ins i u e o Ad anced S udies Vienna.
Con lic o in e es J. S a kbaum, E. G iessle , P. G and, F. Seise and T. König decla e ha hey ha e no
compe ing in e es s.
Open Access Diese A ikel wi d un e de C ea i e Commons Namensnennung 4.0 In e na ional Lizenz
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Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps
and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Johannes S a kbaum is a sociologis and poli ical scien is and ecei ed his Ph.D. om he Uni e si y
o Vienna in 2019. He has been esea ching he in e ac ion o science and socie y in he ields o medicine,
mobili y and science policy o mo e han 10 yea s. His cu en esea ch ocuses on science o policy
as well as on socio-economic ene gy communi ies. Recen publica ions: “Na iga ing ca e: unde s anding
cance pa ien s’ expe iences wi h sys emic adionuclide he apy”, 2025, Suppo i e Ca e in Cance , h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/s00520-025-09380-2, wi h S. Thi cui e al. | “Responsible Inno a ion ac oss socie al sec-
o s: a p ac ice pe spec i e on Quad uple Helix collabo a ion”, Jou nal o Responsible Inno a ion, 2024,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23299460.2024.2414531, wi h B aun e al.
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E ich G iessle s udied sociology and his o y in Vienna and Maas ich and holds a PhD in sociology.
Be o e joining he IHS in 1999, he conduc ed esea ch a he Uni e si y o Vienna, he AIT and he Ludwig
Bol zmann Socie y. In 2016 he s a ed a esea ch g oup on science, echnology and social change a he
IHS, which he led un il 2023. His esea ch in e es s include social s udies o science and echnology, e hi-
cal, legal and social aspec s o esea ch and inno a ion and democ a ic pa icipa ion. Recen publica ions:
“The Regula ion o Assis ed Rep oduc i e Technologies in Eu ope. Va ia ion, Con e gence and T ends”
(2022) wi h L. Slepiˇ
cko á e al. (eds.). Rou ledge | “Imp o e alignmen o esea ch policy and socie al
alues”, Science, 369 (6499), pp. 39–41, 2020, wi h P. No i zky e al.
Pe e G and is p ojec leade o he Eu opean Social Su ey (ESS) in Aus ia a IHS since 2017. His
esea ch in e es s ocus on he analysis o beha io al and a i udinal da a, wel a e a i udes and elec o al
beha io as well as on he in e ac ions be ween ecological and social a i udes. Recen publica ions: “De-
se ingness als Heu is ik ode als Au oma ismus?” Ös e eichische Zei sch i ü Soziologie, 48, 2023,
11–36, wi h M. Fink e al. | “Wel a e solida i ies in he age o mass mig a ion: E idence om Eu opean
Social Su ey 2016”, Ac a Poli ica, 56(2), 2021, 351–375, wi h M. Fink e al.
Fabian Seise is s uden Assis an a he Ins i u e o Ad anced S udies and a mas e s uden in he
ield o Science and Technology S udies a he Uni e si y o Vienna. His in e es s a e o ien ed owa ds
pa icipa o y me hodologies, democ acy, and delibe a i e o ma s as well as memo y wo k and Se ious
Game Design.
Thomas König is managing di ec o o he Aus ian Council o Sciences, Technology, and Inno a ion
(FORWIT). His ields o expe ise a e on he in e play o science and poli ics, scien i ic esea ch o ganisa-
ions, and he his o ical and epis emological ounda ions o he social sciences. Recen academic publica-
ions: “A Case o Scien i ic Policy Ad ice in Aus ia Du ing he Pandemic” (2025, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s11024-025-09572-4, wi h M. S amp e ) | “Mul i-laye ed sampling s a egy o quali a i e in e iews”
(2025, h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/13645579.2025.2453935, wi h E. Mohammadi and B. Zimme mann).
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