J. Biodi . & En i on. Sci.
Kouamé e al.
REVIEW PAPER OPEN ACCESS
Ag o o es y in woody-enc oached Sub-Saha an sa annas: T ans o ming
ecological challenges in o sus ainable oppo uni ies
Yao Anice Ge ais Kouamé*1, Pabo Qué in Oula2, Kouamé Fulgence Ko i1, Ollo Sib1,
Adama Bakayoko3, Ka idia T ao é1
1Labo a oi e d'Amélio a ion de la P oduc ion Ag icole (LAPA), Ag o o es y Depa men ,
Jean Lo ougnon Guédé Uni e si y, BP 150 Daloa, Cô e d'I oi e
2Depa men o Economic and Managemen Sciences, Jean Lo ougnon Guédé Uni e si y,
Daloa, Cô e d'I oi e
3Resea ch Pole o En i onmen and Sus ainable De elopmen , Na u al Sciences Depa men ,
Nangui Ab ogoua Uni e si y, Abidjan, Cô e d’I oi e
Key wo ds: Woody plan enc oachmen , Ag o o es y, Sa anna managemen , Sus ainable ag icul u e,
Sub-Saha an A ica
DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12692/jbes/27.3.10-22
[ Published: Sep embe 04, 2025 ]
ABSTRACT
Woody plan enc oachmen (WPE) is he widesp ead p oli e a ion o ees and sh ubs in o his o ically open
ecosys ems. This phenomenon a ec s Sub-Saha an sa annas, challenging biodi e si y conse a ion and
ag icul u al p oduc i i y. While ypically iewed nega i ely in p o ec ed a eas due o impac s on g ass-
dependen species and ecological p ocesses, WPE has nuanced e ec s in ag icul u al con ex s. Enc oaching
woody species can enhance soil e ili y, mode a e mic oclima es, con ol e osion, and p o ide aluable non-
imbe o es p oduc s, suppo ing ag icul u al esilience and u al li elihoods. This pe spec i e pape
ad oca es ag o o es y as a ans o ma i e way o con e WPE om an ecological h ea in o an oppo uni y
o sus ainable land managemen . D awing om success ul Wes A ican ag o o es y p ac ices, including
Assis ed na u al egene a ion, Pa kland ag o o es y, and Alley c opping, we illus a e hei bene i s o
ag icul u al p oduc i i y, clima e esilience, and income di e si ica ion. Howe e , scaling up ag o o es y aces
echnical and ins i u ional ba ie s, no ably limi ed a me knowledge, insu icien ex ension se ices,
insecu e land enu e and weak ma ke s uc u es. We ecommend clea land and ee enu e policies, explici
ag o o es y in eg a ion in o na ional policies, inancial incen i es such as subsidies and paymen s o
ecosys em se ices, and capaci y building h ough a ge ed aining. Finally, we highligh c i ical esea ch
p io i ies, emphasizing species-speci ic ecological s udies, socio-economic e alua ions, clima e esilience
assessmen s, and pa icipa o y communi y engagemen . Ou ongoing esea ch in he Guinean sa annas o
Cô e d’I oi e nea Lam o Rese e and Mon Sangbé Na ional Pa k add esses all hese aspec s, aiming o
enhance u al li elihoods, ood secu i y, and biodi e si y conse a ion.
*Co esponding Au ho : Yao Anice Ge ais Kouamé kouamey[email p o ec ed]
Jou nal o Biodi e si y and En i onmen al Sciences | JBES
ISSN: 2220-6663 (P in ); 2222-3045 (Online)
Websi e: h ps://www.innspub.ne
E-mail con ac : [email p o ec ed]
Vol. 27, Issue: 3, p. 10-22, 2025
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11
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INTRODUCTION
Sub-Saha an sa annas a e among he mos ex ensi e
and ecologically signi ican ecosys ems in A ica,
co e ing o e 13 million squa e kilome e s. These
landscapes a e cha ac e ized by a coexis ence o C3
woody species and C4 g asses and suppo hund eds
o millions o people whose li elihoods p edominan ly
depend on ain- ed ag icul u e and pas o alism
(Sanka an e al., 2008; de Leeuw e al., 2019).
Main aining his open sa anna s uc u e is c ucial, as
i sus ains biodi e si y, suppo s essen ial ecological
p ocesses such as nu ien cycling, and p o ides
c i ical habi a s o nume ous specialized species
(Ven e e al., 2018; Osbo ne e al., 2018).
In ecen decades, many sub-Saha an sa annas ha e
expe ienced signi ican s uc u al ans o ma ions
due o woody plan enc oachmen (WPE) a
widesp ead inc ease in ee and sh ub densi ies a he
expense o g assy ege a ion (Axelsson and Hanan,
2018; Anchang e al., 2019). O e he pas h ee
decades, woody ege a ion has expanded by
app oxima ely 7.5 million km² in his egion,
ep esen ing ~55% o non- o es sa anna biomes,
while only 2.2 million km² (16%) expe ienced woody
co e loss (Ven e e al., 2018). This ne gain
co esponds o an 8% inc ease in woody co e
con inen -wide, wi h pa icula ly high enc oachmen
a es obse ed in Caesalpinioid sa annas (+20%)
and coun ies like Came oon, Cen al A ican
Republic, and Uganda whe e a e age inc eases
exceeded 30%.
Se e al s udies ha e documen ed ha WPE is
p ima ily d i en by ising a mosphe ic CO₂ le els,
shi s in i e egimes, changes in he bi o e
communi ies, and demog aphic p essu es, wi h a -
eaching consequences o sa anna ecosys em
dynamics, biodi e si y conse a ion, and local
li elihoods (S e ens e al., 2016; A che e al., 2017;
Ven e e al., 2018).
T adi ionally, WPE is pe cei ed nega i ely due o i s
de imen al e ec s on g ass-dependen biodi e si y,
dis up ion o i e egimes, and al e a ion o
hyd ological cycles (Eld idge e al., 2011; Honda and
Du igan, 2016; Acha ya e al. 2018). Consequen ly,
managemen in e en ions, especially wi hin
p o ec ed a eas, ha e his o ically aimed a
main aining open sa annas h ough mechanical
hinning and p esc ibed bu ning o p ese e
biodi e si y and ecosys em unc ions (Smi , 2004;
Case and S a e , 2016; Basse e al., 2020; Giles e
al., 2021; N'D i e al., 2021). Beyond ecological
consequences, he e a e also signi ican socio-
economic impac s, pa icula ly o u al communi ies
dependen on pas o alism and ou ism-based
economies. Inc eased woody co e educes g azing
a eas, in ensi ies human-wildli e con lic s, and
educes ou ism a ac i eness (Dono an e al., 2018;
Lu uno e al., 2022; Whi e e al., 2024).
None heless, he e ec s o WPE in ag icul u al
landscapes a e nuanced, p esen ing po en ial
oppo uni ies alongside e iden challenges.
Enc oaching woody species can deli e subs an ial
ecosys em se ices, such as soil e ili y enhancemen ,
e osion con ol, mic oclima e mode a ion, and
p o ision o economically aluable non- imbe o es
p oduc s (NTFPs), including odde , uelwood, and
medicinal plan s (Blase e al., 2014; Awe o, 2024;
Ding and Eld idge, 2024). Recognizing and
s a egically managing hese species can he e o e
inc ease ag icul u al p oduc i i y and esilience o
clima e a iabili y, u ning an ecological h ea in o
an oppo uni y o sus ainable land managemen
(Wes on e al., 2015; Roessle e al., 2025).
In his con ex , ag o o es y he in en ional
in eg a ion o woody ege a ion in o ag icul u al
sys ems eme ges as a p omising and adap i e
s a egy. By capi alizing on selec i e managemen
a he han indisc imina e emo al o enc oaching
species, ag o o es y p ac ices such as Assis ed
na u al egene a ion, Pa kland ag o o es y, and
Alley c opping ha e demons a ed no able successes
in imp o ing soil e ili y, c op yields, and income
di e si ica ion in a ious Wes A ican con ex s
(Law y e al., 1994; Bayala e al., 2014; Bayala e al.,
2015; Roessle e al., 2025). These sys ems can
e ec i ely con e woody enc oachmen challenges
in o mul i unc ional landscapes ha o e bo h
ecological sus ainabili y and enhanced u al
li elihoods.
J. Biodi . & En i on. Sci.
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This a icle explo es how ag o o es y can ans o m
he managemen o woody-enc oached sa annas om
a ocus on ecological deg ada ion o oppo uni ies o
en i onmen al and socio-economic bene i s. Fi s , we
syn hesize cu en knowledge on ecological and socio-
economic impac s o WPE. Subsequen ly, we discuss
how a ge ed ag o o es y in e en ions can le e age
hese impac s posi i ely. We hen iden i y c i ical
echnical, ins i u ional, and policy ba ie s o
success ul implemen a ion. Finally, we p opose
esea ch di ec ions and p ac ical s a egies necessa y
o scaling up ag o o es y, emphasizing i s
impo ance in achie ing sus ainable de elopmen ,
ood secu i y, and clima e esilience objec i es in sub-
Saha an A ica.
Con as ing ecological impac s and socio-
economic oppo uni ies o woody plan
enc oachmen
WPE ep esen s a signi ican ecological
ans o ma ion in sub-Saha an sa anna ecosys ems,
ma ked by he p oli e a ion o ees and sh ubs a he
expense o g asses (Fig. 1). This phenomenon is
d i en by mul iple in e ac ing ac o s, including
al e ed i e egimes, educed g azing p essu es,
clima e a iabili y, ele a ed a mosphe ic CO2
concen a ion, and changing land-use p ac ices
(S e ens e al., 2016; Case and S a e , 2016; A che e
al., 2017; Ven e e al., 2018).
Fig. 1. S uc u al con as be ween open sa anna
(le ) and woody-enc oached sa anna ( igh ) in he
Lam o Rese e, Cô e d’I oi e (6°13′–6°25′N and
5°15′–4°97′W).
Ecologically, WPE subs an ially al e s ege a ion
dynamics and ecosys em unc ioning. I educes g ass
co e , dis up s i e equency and in ensi y, and
signi ican ly modi ies habi a s uc u es, ul ima ely
a ec ing species composi ion and biodi e si y (Smi
and P ins, 2015; A che e al., 2017; Ande sen and
S eidl, 2019; Lima e al., 2021; Wieczo kowski and
Lehmann, 2022) (Fig. 2). Inc eased woody biomass
u he exace ba es hese ecological shi s by educing
g ass-dependen nu ien cycling p ocesses and
al e ing hyd ological dynamics h ough educed
wa e in il a ion and in ensi ied compe i ion o
g oundwa e esou ces (Mi cha d and Flin op, 2013;
Honda and Du igan, 2016; Acha ya e al., 2018;
Osbo ne e al., 2018; Basan e al., 2023). These
al e a ions o en h ea en he pe sis ence o
g assland-specialis species while acili a ing he
p oli e a ion o gene alis woody species, he eby
comp omising biodi e si y he e ogenei y (Alo s and
Fowle , 2013; S e ens e al., 2016; B ewe , 2017;
A che e al., 2017; Whi e e al., 2024).
Fig. 2. Con as ing ecological and socio-economic
impac s o woody plan enc oachmen and he
po en ial bene i s o in eg a ing ees and sh ubs in o
ag icul u al landscapes.
The open sa anna is cha ac e ised by widely spaced
ees and a con inuous laye o C4 g ass, whe eas he
woody-enc oached sa anna exhibi s an inc eased
densi y o mul i-s emmed sh ubs and medium-sized
ees, indica ing a shi owa ds a mo e closed canopy
s uc u e. Such enc oachmen al e s ecosys em
unc ions and p esen s challenges and oppo uni ies
o he sus ainable managemen o ag icul u al land
h ough he in eg a ion o ag o o es y.
Wi hin p o ec ed a eas, he consequences o WPE
ex end beyond ecological conce ns o include socio-
economic implica ions. Inc eased woody co e
educes isibili y and accessibili y, which has a
nega i e impac on ou ism and e enues om
wildli e-based eco ou ism, bo h o which a e c ucial
o inancing conse a ion (G ay and Bond, 2013;
J. Biodi . & En i on. Sci.
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Dono an e al., 2018; Lu uno e al., 2022). Dense
woody ege a ion also inc eases human-wildli e
con lic by p o iding shel e o p eda o s and la ge
he bi o es, enabling hem o mo e close o inhabi ed
a eas and inc easing he isk o li es ock p eda ion
and subsequen economic losses (A kinson e al.,
2022; Lu uno e al., 2022; Kuipe e al., 2023).
Fu he mo e, dense ege a ion acili a es illegal
ac i i ies such as poaching and illegal logging,
complica ing managemen e o s and inc easing
conse a ion cos s (Muboko e al., 2014; Dono an e
al., 2018; Hunninck e al., 2020).
Despi e hese challenges, ecen e idence sugges s
ha con en ional app oaches aimed a emo ing
enc oaching woody ege a ion may no ully es o e
sa anna ecosys ems o e ec i ely mi iga e he
s uc u al and unc ional al e a ions induced by
enc oachmen (Foga y e al., 2020; Eld idge and
Ding, 2021). Indeed, many enc oached a eas exhibi
some ecological cha ac e is ics, such as enhanced soil
e ili y, imp o ed wa e e en ion and inc eased
ca bon seques a ion po en ial. These a ibu es can
be used s a egically and bene icially a he han
being elimina ed h ough indisc imina e clea ing
(Eld idge and Ding, 2021; Ding and Eld idge, 2024).
The e o e, adap i e managemen app oaches ha
ad oca e he selec i e e en ion and a ge ed
in eg a ion o bene icial woody species in o sa anna
ecosys ems a e gaining ac ion as iable al e na i es
(Foga y e al., 2020; Eld idge and Ding, 2021).
Un egula ed woody plan enc oachmen can lead o
declines in g assland p oduc i i y, al e a ions in i e
egimes, and inc eased human–wildli e con lic s
(Eld idge e al., 2011; A che e al., 2017; Dono an e
al., 2018). Howe e , s a egic managemen — h ough
species selec ion, a chi ec u al con ol, and densi y
egula ion- can ha ness he ecological unc ions and
li elihood oppo uni ies p o ided by ees and
sh ubs. These bene i s include soil e ili y
imp o emen , mic oclima e egula ion, ca bon
seques a ion, enhanced ood secu i y, and income
di e si ica ion (Blase e al., 2014; Awe o, 2024).
Ou side o p o ec ed a eas, he ecological and
socio-economic e ec s o WPE a e highly con ex -
dependen , a ying acco ding o he speci ic woody
species in ol ed, local land-use p ac ices and
li elihood s a egies. In pas o al egions, o
example, excessi e woody enc oachmen can
educe a ailable g azing land, he eby nega i ely
impac ing li es ock p oduc i i y and h ea ening
u al li elihoods (Eld idge e al., 2011; Lu uno e
al., 2018; Ha e e al., 2021; Lu uno e al., 2022).
Simila ly, ag icul u al communi ies expe ience
challenges as inc eased woody co e in ensi ies he
cos and labou equi ed o land clea ing and
educes he a ailabili y o a able land (Anchang e
al., 2019; Lu uno e al., 2022).
Howe e , in ag icul u al and pas o al con ex s,
enc oaching woody species can deli e subs an ial
ecosys em se ices, enhancing ag icul u al
p oduc i i y and esilience o clima e a iabili y
(Fig. 2). Ce ain species, pa icula ly ni ogen-
ixing legumes such as Faidhe bia albida A. Che .
(Fabaceae), Acacia spp. Mill. (Fabaceae) and
Pa kia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.B . ex G.Don.
(Fabaceae), can signi ican ly imp o e soil e ili y,
boos c op yields and p o ide i al odde du ing
d y pe iods (Uma e al., 2013; Bayala e al., 2015;
Sileshi, 2016; Akpalu e al. 2020). Fu he mo e,
he collec ion o economically aluable non- imbe
o es p oduc s (NTFPs), including uelwood,
odde , medicinal plan s, and edible ui s, o e s
conside able po en ial o income di e si ica ion
and imp o ed household esilience, pa icula ly
when adequa ely in eg a ed in o local ma ke
sys ems (Binam e al., 2015b; De ebe and Alemu,
2023; Asamoah e al., 2024).
The e o e, a he han iewing WPE as an ecological
h ea alone, i can be s a egically le e aged h ough
con ex -speci ic ag o o es y sys ems. Adap i e
managemen s a egies emphasising selec i e ee
e en ion, species-speci ic hinning and in eg a ing
bene icial woody species in o ag icul u al and
pas o al p ac ices can ans o m WPE om a liabili y
in o an asse (Fig. 3). The e o e, ecognising and
p omo ing he dual ecological and socio-economic
oles o enc oaching woody species is c i ical o he
sus ainable managemen and op imisa ion o
p oduc i i y in sub-Saha an sa annas.
J. Biodi . & En i on. Sci.
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Ag o o es y o e s an inno a i e and adap i e
s a egy o managing WPE, ans o ming a
signi ican ecological challenge in o oppo uni ies o
sus ainable land managemen (Fig. 3). By
in en ionally in eg a ing ees and sh ubs in o
ag icul u al and pas o al sys ems, ag o o es y
capi alizes on he ecological se ices p o ided by
woody ege a ion, while mi iga ing hei po en ially
nega i e impac s (Rosens ock e al., 2019; Kuyah e
al., 2019; Mukhlis e al., 2022).
Fig. 3. S a egic phases o ans o ming woody-
enc oached sa annas in o e icien ag o o es y
sys ems. The diag am illus a es key s eps including
ini ial assessmen and managemen o woody
ege a ion, selec ion and es ablishmen o sui able
ag o o es y sys ems, and ongoing managemen and
pa icipa o y moni o ing o ensu e ecological
sus ainabili y and socio-economic bene i s (adap ed
om Bayala e al., 2014; Ven e e al., 2018; Kuyah e
al., 2019).
Ag o o es y as a s a egic app oach o
ans o m woody enc oachmen in o
ecological and economic oppo uni ies
Empi ical e idence om a ious sub-Saha an A ican
coun ies illus a es he e ec i eness o ag o o es y
in add essing woody enc oachmen . Fa me -
Managed Na u al Regene a ion (FMNR), o
ins ance, has signi ican ly e i alized deg aded
ag icul u al lands in Nige by allowing selec i e
managemen o na u ally egene a ing woody species.
This p ac ice subs an ially enhances soil e ili y,
boos s c op p oduc i i y, and di e si ies a m
incomes h ough p oduc s de i ed om ees
(Wes on e al., 2015; Binam e al., 2015a; Rosens ock
e al., 2019). Simila success ha e been documen ed
in Bu kina Faso and Senegal, whe e in eg a ing
speci ic woody species like Faidhe bia albida in o
c opping sys ems ma kedly imp o ed nu ien
a ailabili y, inc eased c op yields unde d ough
condi ions, and p o ided aluable odde o li es ock
(Ma s on e al., 2017; Anchang e al., 2019).
Beyond di ec ag icul u al p oduc i i y bene i s,
ag o o es y signi ican ly con ibu es o
en i onmen al conse a ion and clima e esilience
(Fig. 4). Selec i e p ese a ion and managemen o
na i e ee species wi hin ag o o es y sys ems help
mi iga e soil e osion, enhance ca bon seques a ion,
and c ea e wildli e habi a co ido s, he eby aligning
ecological objec i es wi h ag icul u al p oduc i i y
(Jose, 2009; De ine e al., 2017). These in eg a ed
sys ems also suppo pollina o s and bene icial
insec s, which a e essen ial o ag icul u al
sus ainabili y, especially unde changing clima ic
condi ions (Liu e al., 2018).
Fig. 4. Ecological and socio-economic bene i s o six
majo ag o o es y sys ems. This ypology is de i ed
om key e iews on ag o o es y sys ems and hei
mul i unc ionali y in Sub-Saha an A ica and beyond
(Nai , 1993; Gao e al., 2014; Roy e al., 2025).
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Howe e , he adop ion o ag o o es y p ac ices
equi es ca e ul planning and species selec ion o
a oid unin ended ecological and socio-economic
consequences (Figs 2 and 3).
In Cô e d'I oi e and o he Wes A ican coun ies, he
de elopmen o ag o o es y p ac ices has ollowed
di e en ajec o ies. Some imes hese p ac ices ha e
se ed as a ool o e o es a ion, while a o he imes
hey ha e accele a ed de o es a ion. Re o es a ion-
o ien ed ag o o es y aims o es o e deg aded
landscapes by g adually in eg a ing ees in o
a mland o s eng hen ecosys em unc ions and
p omo e biodi e si y conse a ion. Howe e ,
de o es a ion-d i en ag o o es y occu s when
na u al non-deg aded o es s a e con e ed in o
ag o o es y sys ems, esul ing in subs an ial
biodi e si y loss and land deg ada ion (Zo-Bi and
Hé aul , 2023). These con as ing ou comes highligh
he impo ance o de elop ag o o es y in e en ions
ha p omo e ee e en ion and en ichmen plan ing
wi hin al eady cul i a ed o deg aded lands, a he
han acili a ing u he o es clea ing unde he
p e ex o ag o o es y expansion.
To ensu e he long- e m sus ainabili y and
mul i unc ionali y o sa anna landscapes, ag o o es y
sys ems should p io i ize na i e, mul ipu pose ee
species ha o e bo h ecological and socio-economic
ad an ages. Fo example, ni ogen- ixing ees such as
Faidhe bia albida and Pa kia biglobosa ha e p o en
pa icula ly e ec i e in enhancing soil e ili y,
imp o ing wa e -use e iciency, and suppo ing
in eg a ed c op-li es ock sys ems (Poulio e al., 2012;
Sileshi, 2016; Ma s on e al., 2017). Addi ionally, ui -
bea ing and mul ipu pose ees like shea ee Vi ella ia
pa adoxa C.F.Gae n. (Sapo aceae) and baobab
Adansonia digi a a L. (Mal aceae) p o ide aluable
economic oppo uni ies, u he incen i izing local
communi ies o adop and sus ainably manage hese
ag o o es y p ac ices (Nasa e e al., 2019; Meinhold
and Da , 2021).
Fu he mo e, in eg a ing ag o o es y sys ems such
as Alley C opping, Sil opas o al Sys ems, and
Taungya Sys ems in o woody-enc oached landscapes
o e s a ious ecological and economic ad an ages
(Fig. 4). Alley C opping, whe e ees a e plan ed in
c op alleys, e ec i ely con ols e osion, en iches soil
nu ien s, and seques e s ca bon, he eby enhancing
c op yields and di e si ying a me income (USDA,
2011; Hombegowda e al., 2022).
Sil opas o al Sys ems, combining ees wi h li es ock
managemen , imp o e g ass p oduc i i y, main ain
soil mois u e, and inc ease li es ock p oduc i i y,
hus suppo ing bo h ecological balance and u al
li elihoods (June e al., 2019). Meanwhile, he
Taungya Sys em, in eg a ing empo a y cul i a ion o
ood c ops wi h e o es a ion ini ia i es, con ibu es
o o es eco e y while ensu ing a me li elihoods
du ing ini ial es ablishmen pe iods (Appiah e al.,
2020; Mukosha e al. 2024).
By aligning ag o o es y s a egies wi h local
ecological con ex s and socio-economic eali ies, WPE
can be s a egically le e aged as a c i ical ool o
sus ainable land managemen . Ra he han being
iewed solely as an ecological challenge, ag o o es y
enables he ans o ma ion o woody enc oachmen
in o p oduc i e landscapes, os e ing en i onmen al
sus ainabili y, biodi e si y conse a ion, and
economic esilience in sub-Saha an sa annas.
Technical and ins i u ional challenges in
ag o o es y implemen a ion
Despi e i s signi ican po en ial, he widesp ead
adop ion and implemen a ion o ag o o es y in
woody-enc oached sub-Saha an sa annas ace se e al
echnical and ins i u ional challenges ha mus be
add essed s a egically. These ba ie s equi e
in eg a ed app oaches ha in ol e a ge ed echnical
suppo , capaci y building, policy adjus men s, and
obus ma ke s uc u es o ensu e he sus ainable
success o ag o o es y sys ems.
One p ima y echnical challenge is he selec ion o
app op ia e woody species compa ible wi h exis ing
ag icul u al sys ems. Inco ec species selec ion can
lead o excessi e compe i ion o c i ical esou ces
such as wa e , nu ien s, and sunligh , nega i ely
impac ing ag icul u al p oduc i i y and inc easing
ulne abili y o smallholde a me s (U aile e al.,
2021; Lu uno e al., 2022). E ec i e ag o o es y
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hus equi es comp ehensi e ecological knowledge o
iden i y species-speci ic in e ac ions, a chi ec u e and
g ow h pa e ns, and syne gies ha minimize
nega i e impac s and maximize ecological and
economic bene i s (Jose, 2009; Liu e al., 2018).
Addi ionally, ag o o es y p ac ices demand
specialized managemen skills ha a e o en limi ed
among a me s and u al communi ies. Essen ial
p ac ices such as op imal ee spacing, p uning
echniques, ha es ing s a egies, and sys em
main enance equi e a ge ed knowledge and aining
ha may be lacking in u al con ex s. To add ess his
challenge, subs an ial in es men in a me
educa ion, ex ension se ices, and p ac ical aining
p og ams is essen ial, ensu ing he success ul
adop ion and sus ainabili y o in eg a ed ag o o es y
sys ems (Kuyah e al., 2019; Fané e al., 2024).
F om an ins i u ional pe spec i e, insecu e land
enu e and unclea ee owne ship igh s cons i u e
signi ican ba ie s. Wi hou clea and secu e enu e
igh s, a me s a e eluc an o in es in ag o o es y
p ac ices whose bene i s ypically acc ue o e he long
e m. This unce ain y is pa icula ly acu e in
communal land sys ems whe e land-use igh s and
ee enu e a e o en ambiguous o con es ed
(Kgosikoma and Mogo si, 2013; Sanou e al., 2017;
Zabala e al., 2025). Consequen ly, s eng hening
land enu e amewo ks and clea ly de ining ee
owne ship igh s a e c i ical policy p io i ies o
incen i izing long- e m in es men s in ag o o es y.
Fu he mo e, exis ing ag icul u al and o es y
policies o en ail o adequa ely ecognize o suppo
ag o o es y, ope a ing ins ead wi hin dis inc
sec o al silos. Res ic i e egula o y amewo ks and
insu icien policy in eg a ion be ween ag icul u al,
o es y, and en i onmen al sec o s can signi ican ly
limi he adop ion and expansion o ag o o es y
p ac ices (Cu en e al., 1998; Asseldonk e al., 2023;
Do e al., 2025). De eloping comp ehensi e,
in eg a ed policies ha explici ly p io i ize
ag o o es y wi hin b oade ag icul u al and u al
de elopmen s a egies can signi ican ly mi iga e
hese ins i u ional ba ie s and encou age widesp ead
adop ion.
Ma ke access and economic incen i es also p esen
subs an ial challenges. Fa me s need iable economic
oppo uni ies and ma ke s uc u es ha p o ide ai
alue o p oduc s such as uelwood, ui s, medicinal
plan s, and odde de i ed om ag o o es y sys ems
(Binam e al., 2015b; Ma s on e al., 2017).
S eng hening local ma ke s, es ablishing alue
chains o ag o o es y p oduc s, and p o iding
a ge ed economic incen i es (e.g., subsidies o ee
seedlings o paymen s o ecosys em se ices) could
signi ican ly enhance a me mo i a ion and adop ion
a es. Fo example, he comme cialisa ion o
ag o o es y p oduc s emains la gely in o mal in
Cô e d'I oi e, Bu kina Faso and Nige , wi h weak
alue chains limi ing a me s' abili y o gene a e
s able incomes om ee-de i ed goods such as non-
imbe o es p oduc s (NTFPs) and odde (Binam e
al., 2015b). Binam e al. (2015b) highligh ed how he
lack o o ganized ma ke s and ai p icing
mechanisms discou ages smallholde a me s om
in es ing in ee-based sys ems, educing he
adop ion a es o ag o o es y despi e i s po en ial
bene i s.
Mo eo e , ag icul u al ex ension se ices equen ly
lack he necessa y capaci y, specialized knowledge,
and esou ces o e ec i ely suppo ag o o es y
p ac ices. Ex ension agen s o en ha e insu icien
expe ise ega ding in eg a ed ee-c op-li es ock
sys ems, limi ing hei abili y o p o ide ele an
ad ice and suppo o a me s. Add essing his issue
equi es a ge ed in es men s in ex ension se ices,
specialized aining p og ams o ex ension wo ke s,
and enhanced dissemina ion o ag o o es y
knowledge and echnologies a he communi y le el
(Kuyah e al., 2019).
Finally, socio-cul u al accep ance and communi y
in ol emen ep esen c i ical ac o s in luencing
ag o o es y adop ion. Pa icipa o y app oaches ha
ac i ely engage local communi ies, inco po a e
indigenous knowledge, and align wi h cul u al no ms
and p ac ices a e essen ial o achie ing sus ained
adop ion and communi y owne ship o ag o o es y
sys ems. Inclusi e s akeholde engagemen and co-
managemen amewo ks a e hus indispensable o
o e coming social esis ance and ensu ing long- e m
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sus ainabili y (Dono an e al., 2018; Dumon e al.,
2019, Ba lagne e al. 2023).
Policy and esea ch p io i ies o sus ainable
ag o o es y in woody-enc oached sa annas
To achie e he ull po en ial o ag o o es y in woody-
enc oached sub-Saha an sa annas, a ge ed policy
in e en ions and s a egic esea ch ini ia i es a e
equi ed. A coo dina ed app oach ha in eg a es
echnical, economic and ins i u ional conside a ions
is essen ial in o de o suppo sus ainable land
managemen , enhance ecosys em se ices and os e
u al de elopmen and esilience.
Policy p io i ies
One o he mos c i ical policy in e en ions equi ed is
cla i ying and secu ing land and ee enu e igh s.
Unce ain enu e signi ican ly de e s a me s om
making long- e m in es men s in ag o o es y,
pa icula ly in communal land sys ems whe e igh s o
ees and land use a e o en unclea o dispu ed.
The e o e, s eng hening legal amewo ks o explici ly
de ine and p o ec enu e and ee owne ship igh s is
c ucial in o de o incen i ise long- e m commi men o
ag o o es y p ac ices (Kgosikoma and Mogo si, 2013;
Sanou e al., 2017; Zabala e al., 2025).
Financial incen i es and suppo mechanisms a e
equally i al o o e coming he ini ial ba ie s o
in es men . Subsidies o ee seedlings, accessible
mic oc edi o implemen ing ag o o es y, and
paymen s o ecosys em se ices can signi ican ly
encou age a me s o pa icipa e and acili a e he
ansi ion o sus ainable ag o o es y sys ems.
Fu he mo e, he es ablishmen o o ganised
ma ke s o ag o o es y p oduc s, including
uelwood, odde , ui , medicinal plan s and ca bon
c edi s, can imp o e economic iabili y and
encou age wide adop ion (Cu en e al., 1998;
Binam e al., 2015b; Ma s on e al., 2017; Asseldonk
e al., 2023; Do e al., 2025).
Fu he mo e, i is essen ial o explici ly in eg a e
ag o o es y in o na ional ag icul u al, en i onmen al
and clima e adap a ion policies. Many exis ing
policies a ou monocul u e c opping and ex ensi e
g azing sys ems, inadequa ely ecognising he
mul i unc ional bene i s p o ided by ag o o es y.
Inco po a ing ag o o es y in o na ional de elopmen
s a egies ensu es a ge ed esou ce alloca ion,
ins i u ional suppo and e ec i e scaling up h ough
s eng hened ex ension se ices and comp ehensi e
aining p og ammes (Place, 2012; FAO, 2013; Wilcox
e al., 2022).
Resea ch di ec ions
F om a esea ch pe spec i e, i is undamen al o
add ess key knowledge gaps and gene a e obus
scien i ic e idence in o de o op imise ag o o es y
p ac ices in sub-Saha an sa annas. Unde s anding
he ecological oles, p oduc i i y ade-o s and
economic po en ial o indi idual woody species ac oss
di e se ag oecological zones equi es species-speci ic
s udies. Resea ch should ocus on iden i ying species
ha enhance soil e ili y, imp o e c op yields and
o e signi ican economic oppo uni ies while
minimising compe i ion wi h ag icul u al c ops
(Kuyah e al., 2019; Lu uno e al., 2022).
Ano he c i ical esea ch a ea is unde s anding he
hyd ological impac s o WPE and ag o o es y
sys ems. Resea che s should quan i y he in luence
o ees and sh ubs on local wa e cycles,
g oundwa e echa ge, soil mois u e e en ion and
d ough esilience, pa icula ly in he con ex o
inc easingly a iable clima ic condi ions (Osbo ne
e al., 2018; IPCC, 2021). Deep- oo ed woody
species such as Faidhe bia albida and Acacia
senegal (L.) Willd. (Fabaceae) a e o pa icula
in e es as hey ha e he po en ial o access deepe
soil mois u e ese es, main aining p oduc i i y
du ing d ough pe iods and enhancing landscape
esilience (Poulio e al., 2012; Sileshi, 2016;
Kuyah e al., 2019).
Social-science esea ch ocusing on a me
pe cep ions, indigenous knowledge, and socio-
economic ou comes is equally c i ical o success ul
ag o o es y adop ion. Pa icipa o y esea ch
me hods, engaging local communi ies di ec ly, can
p o ide insigh s in o a me decision-making
p ocesses, pe cei ed bene i s and ba ie s, and
p e e ed ag o o es y con igu a ions. Such
communi y-d i en app oaches signi ican ly
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enhance he likelihood o long- e m success and
sus ainabili y o ag o o es y in e en ions
(Dono an e al., 2018; Dumon e al., 2019,
Ba lagne e al., 2023).
P io i y is also gi en o esea ch on clima e esilience,
speci ically he quan i ica ion o he con ibu ions o
ag o o es y o ca bon seques a ion, d ough
mi iga ion and adap a ion o clima e ex emes. I is
c ucial o e alua e how ag o o es y sys ems in luence
ecosys em s abili y and p oduc i i y in he con ex o
changing ain all pa e ns and inc eased
e apo anspi a ion, in o de o de elop esilien
ag icul u al sys ems in sub-Saha an A ica (Wes on e
al., 2015; IPCC, 2021).
In ligh o hese p io i ies, ou u u e esea ch will
ocus speci ically on he Guinean sa annah egions
o Cô e d'I oi e, wi h a pa icula ocus on he u al
landscapes su ounding he Lam o Rese e and
Mon Sangbé Na ional Pa k. These egions a e
aluable case s udies due o ongoing p ocesses o
woody plan enc oachmen and he p esence o
well-es ablished ecological esea ch amewo ks.
Fu he mo e, hei p oximi y o p o ec ed a eas
p o ides a unique oppo uni y o e alua e he
e ec i eness o ag o o es y as a solu ion o
ag icul u al sus ainabili y and u al li elihood
imp o emen , as well as i s po en ial as a
complemen a y biodi e si y conse a ion s a egy
in mul i unc ional landscapes. Ou in eg a ed
esea ch app oach aims o imp o e he ecological,
economic and social ou comes o ag o o es y,
he eby helping o achie e b oade sus ainable
de elopmen , ood secu i y and clima e esilience
objec i es in sub-Saha an A ica.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This a icle was concep ualised du ing a wo kshop
o ganised by he Ag o o es y Depa men o Jean
Lo ougnon Guédé Uni e si y as pa o he
p epa a ion o a TWAS p ojec . Use ul ideas o an
ea lie e sion o his a icle we e ecei ed om
Jacques Gignoux (Ins i u e o Ecology and
En i onmen al Sciences- IEES Pa is).
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