Enginee ing and Technology Jou nal e-ISSN: 2456-3358
Volume 10 Issue 11 No embe -2025, Page No.-7722-7728
DOI: 10.47191/e j/ 10i11.04, I.F. – 8.482
© 2025, ETJ
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ETJ Volume 10 Issue 11 No embe 2025,
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Enwene a Fes us
Design, Ins alla ion, and Cos Analysis o Va ious Powe Sou ces
Enwene a Fes us1, Eng. P o . Oghogho Ikponmwosa2, Ekpoh Michael Iko o3
1,2,3Depa men o Elec ical & Elec onic Enginee ing, Del a S a e Uni e si y, Ab aka, Del a S a e, Nige ia
ABSTRACT: This s udy p esen s he design, ins alla ion, and cos analysis o a 450 W di ec cu en (DC) pho o ol aic (PV) sola
powe sys em ailo ed o esiden ial applica ions in Nige ia. The sys em elimina es he need o in e e s, ans o me s, and
ec i ie s o p omo e cos -e ec i eness, ligh weigh , and e iciency in DC-powe ed de ices. Using a oo op-moun ed
con igu a ion, he p ojec in eg a es sola panels, cha ge con olle s, and lead-acid ba e ies op imized o o -g id elec ici y supply.
Load a ia ion es s we e conduc ed unde a ying DC and al e na ing cu en (AC) condi ions o assess sys em pe o mance and
e iciency. The analysis e ealed ba e y ol age s abili y anging om 13.6 V ( ully cha ged) o 10.6 V (discha ged) and consis en
ope a ion unde loads o 110–158 W o 10 hou s. A comp ehensi e cos compa ison showed he DC sola powe sys em achie ed
cos sa ings o 35.1% o e an AC sola sys em, 98.1% o e a gene a o , and 81% o e elec ici y om he Benin Elec ici y
Dis ibu ion Company (BEDC). These indings demons a e he sys em’s supe io cos -e iciency, eliabili y, and en i onmen al
sus ainabili y, p o iding a scalable model o o -g id powe deli e y in Nige ia and simila con ex s.
KEYWORDS: Di ec cu en sola powe ; Pho o ol aic sys ems; O -g id elec ici y; Roo op-moun ed sys ems; DC esiden ial
applica ions
INTRODUCTION
Nige ia’s elec ici y supply has de e io a ed o e he pas
decades, making eliable powe access a majo challenge o
households and businesses. Despi e se e al go e nmen
in e en ions, he coun y’s ins alled capaci y s ill alls a
below demand, leading o equen ou ages and high a i s
o he elec ici y ha is a ailable (Okechukwu & Femi,
2016). To compensa e, many Nige ians ha e u ned o ossil
uel–based gene a o s, which a e cos ly, noisy, and
en i onmen ally ha m ul (Abubaka e al., 2016). In esponse
o hese challenges, enewable ene gy echnologies—
especially sola pho o ol aic (PV) sys ems—ha e gained
global a en ion as sus ainable al e na i es capable o
educing ca bon emissions, decen alizing powe supply, and
imp o ing eliabili y (Hwa-Dong e al., 2025; Ogbonnaya e
al., 2019; S usink e al., 2020).
Sola ene gy is pa icula ly sui able o Nige ia because o he
coun y’s high sola i adiance, a e aging abou 5.0
kWh/m²/day in many egions (Olo unmaiye, 2012).
Howe e , adi ional sola ins alla ions in Nige ia a e
domina ed by al e na ing cu en (AC) sys ems, which
equi e in e e s and ans o me s o con e DC ou pu om
sola panels in o AC o household use. This con e sion
in oduces ene gy losses, inc eases cos s, and adds
main enance equi emen s (Sahoo e al., 2018). Gi en ha
mos mode n elec onics in e nally ope a e on DC powe ,
he e is a compelling case o adop ing DC-based sola
sys ems ha can bypass con e sion s eps, di ec ly powe
appliances, and s o e ene gy mo e e icien ly in ba e ies
(Rau e al., 2016).
Despi e i s p omise, he adop ion o DC sola echnology in
Nige ia emains limi ed by up on cos s, in as uc u e
challenges, and lack o awa eness (Adesaki, 2017; Johnson,
2019). This s udy add esses hese issues by designing,
ins alling, and analyzing he cos o a 450 W o -g id DC sola
powe sys em o esiden ial applica ions. The sys em
elimina es he in e e , ans o me , and ec i ie componen s
ypical o AC-based sys ems, p omo ing lowe cos s, ligh e
weigh , and g ea e e iciency. By using oo op-moun ed PV
panels, cha ge con olle s, and ba e y s o age, he p ojec
seeks o demons a e how DC sys ems can deli e eliable
elec ici y in o -g id se ings and educe long- e m
household ene gy expendi u es.
The indings o his esea ch a e expec ed o show ha a
p ope ly designed DC sola powe sys em can p o ide
signi ican cos sa ings compa ed o AC sola sys ems,
gene a o s, and g id elec ici y supplied by he Benin
Elec ici y Dis ibu ion Company (BEDC). Fu he mo e, by
ocusing on di ec cu en applica ions, he s udy con ibu es
o en i onmen al sus ainabili y by educing g eenhouse gas
emissions, lowe ing dependence on ossil uels, and
p omo ing a scalable model o o -g id powe deli e y in
Nige ia. In doing so, he wo k o e s aluable insigh s o
enginee s, policymake s, and esiden ial use s seeking
a o dable and eliable clean ene gy solu ions.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Resea ch on enewable ene gy consis en ly highligh s sola
powe as a co ne s one o sus ainable elec ici y gene a ion.
In Nige ia, whe e e a ic g id supply and high a i s pe sis ,
“Design, Ins alla ion, and Cos Analysis o Va ious Powe Sou ces”
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Enwene a Fes us
pho o ol aic (PV) sys ems ha e eme ged as a iable
al e na i e o esiden ial applica ions (Abubaka e al., 2016;
Ogbonnaya e al., 2019). Di ec cu en (DC) sola
con igu a ions a e pa icula ly p omising because hey
bypass in e e s and ans o me s, educing con e sion
losses and imp o ing sys em e iciency compa ed o
adi ional al e na ing cu en (AC) sys ems (Sahoo e al.,
2018). Rau e al. (2016) demons a ed ha sma DC g id
echnology minimizes powe losses associa ed wi h
con e ing PV-gene a ed elec ici y o AC, which is
especially ad an ageous because mos household elec onics
inhe en ly ope a e on DC powe . Simila ly, Sahoo e al.
(2018) showed ha DC wi ing o DC loads achie ed minimal
losses compa ed o AC wi ing con igu a ions, ein o cing he
e iciency bene i s o di ec supply.
Technological inno a ion has also accele a ed he
pe o mance and a o dabili y o PV sys ems. Himanshu e al.
(2024) e iewed global sola powe gene a ion ends and
no ed he apid ise o concen a ed sola powe and
pho o ol aic sys ems, iden i ying pe sis en challenges such
as high up on cos s, egula o y hu dles, and e iciency
limi a ions. Kuma and Balak ishna (2024) de eloped a
hyb id Maximum Powe Poin T acking (MPPT) con olle
in eg a ed in o a DC–DC con e e , which imp o ed powe
esponse and o e all e iciency. Izza e al. (2024) enhanced
DC–DC boos con e e s o b ushless DC mo o d i es
using p opo ional-in eg al-de i a i e con olle s and i e ly
algo i hms o s abilize ol age and minimize luc ua ions.
These ad ances poin o a clea end owa d educing cos
and imp o ing pe o mance in DC sola echnology.
Se e al s udies ha e documen ed he deploymen o DC sola
sys ems in esiden ial and o -g id con ex s. Taiwo (2025)
designed and modeled a sola -powe ed DC e ige a o o
Nige ian households, achie ing sus ainable cooling wi h a
200 W sola panel and DC comp esso sys em. Hwo-Dong e
al. (2025) de eloped a dual-inpu powe con e e wi h global
MPPT o o -g id sys ems, achie ing 99% con e sion
e iciency and highligh ing he sys em’s po en ial o
household elec i ica ion. Mansu e al. (2017) implemen ed
a s andalone DC powe sys em in disas e elie camps in
Malaysia, p o iding eliable ene gy o ligh ing, phone
cha ging, and cooling. These examples demons a e he
adap abili y o DC sola echnology o di e se se ings.
Cos -e ec i eness emains a majo ac o d i ing enewable
ene gy adop ion. Omo ogiuwa and O o ji (2019) analyzed a
p oposed sola PV sys em o he Uni e si y o Po Ha cou
and ound signi ican sa ings compa ed o g id elec ici y,
wi h a payback pe iod o 7 yea s and 4 mon hs. Sahoo e al.
(2018) epo ed ha sola DC dis ibu ion sys ems achie e
educed cos s as adop ion scales, while Akash e al. (2022)
and Muhammad and Suhaimi (2022) highligh ed he
eliabili y and low cos o small-scale PV sys ems equipped
wi h e icien cha ge con olle s and ba e y sys ems. These
indings suppo he a ionale o compa ing he long- e m
cos s o DC sola sys ems, AC sys ems, gene a o s, and g id
elec ici y.
Despi e Nige ia’s abundan sola esou ce, signi ican
ba ie s o adop ion emain. Akinbo o and Adejumobi (2012)
and Adeyemo (2013) iden i ied high ini ial cos s, limi ed
local manu ac u ing capaci y, weak policy amewo ks, and
low public awa eness as cons ain s o sola sys em up ake.
Ismail (2012) ound ha poo main enance and inadequa e
echnical expe ise unde mined PV sys em pe o mance in
Ondo S a e, unde sco ing he impo ance o aining and
quali y ins alla ion. Awogbemi and Komola e (2011) and
Akinbami (2001) u he obse ed ha inancial cons ain s,
echnological limi a ions, and un iendly policies con inue o
impede widesp ead adop ion. These indings poin o he need
o locally adap able, cos -e icien DC sys ems ha can
add ess hese gaps and educe dependence on impo ed
componen s.
METHODOLOGY
This s udy adop ed a design–build– es me hodology o
de elop and e alua e a 450 W DC sola powe sys em o a
esiden ial apa men . The sys em was con igu ed as a
oo op-moun ed ins alla ion using h ee 150 W
monoc ys alline PV panels connec ed o a 150 Ah lead-acid
ba e y h ough a 30 A pulse-wid h modula ion (PWM)
cha ge con olle . The design elimina ed in e e s and
ec i ie s, allowing di ec DC powe deli e y o loads such as
ans, LED bulbs, lap ops, and e ige a o s.
Load assessmen was i s pe o med o es ima e o al daily
ene gy demand. Table 3.1 in he o iginal p ojec lis ed
common household loads o aling app oxima ely 150 W,
including one an (13 W), i e bulbs (25 W combined), one
lap op (12 W), and a e ige a o (100 W). Using his da a, he
ba e y capaci y was calcula ed o sus ain 12 hou s o
ope a ion, esul ing in he selec ion o a 150 Ah ba e y. Panel
sizing was de e mined om he o al wa -hou equi emen
di ided by he peak sun hou s (PSH), yielding h ee 150 W
panels. Cable sizing used 1.5 mm² coppe conduc o s o low-
ol age dis ibu ion and 4 mm² coppe cables be ween panels
and he cha ge con olle o handle highe cu en wi hou
o e hea ing.
The sys em was ins alled ollowing s anda d sa e y p ac ices,
beginning wi h moun ing he panels on he oo op using he
Roo op Moun ed Me hod (RMM), wi ing panels o he
cha ge con olle , connec ing he ba e y o he con olle , and
hen linking he ba e y ou pu o DC socke s and loads. Load
a ia ion es s we e conduc ed unde eal ope a ing
condi ions o measu e ol age, cu en , and powe ou pu o
bo h DC and AC loads. Da a we e eco ded a in e als o
compa e sys em beha io unde di e en load scena ios.
Cos analysis was pe o med o compa e he li e-cycle cos s
o he DC sola sys em wi h an equi alen AC sola sys em, a
gene a o , and g id elec ici y om he Benin Elec ici y
Dis ibu ion Company (BEDC). This included calcula ing
ini ial capi al in es men , main enance, and ope a ional cos s
“Design, Ins alla ion, and Cos Analysis o Va ious Powe Sou ces”
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o e pe iods o 1, 12, and 20 yea s, as documen ed in Tables
3
Table 1. Sys em Design and Load Assessmen
Appliance
Powe
(W)
Quan i y
To al Load
(W)
Ba e y Capaci y
(Ah)
Panel Sizing (W)
Cable Size
(mm²)
Fan
13
1
13
150 Ah
450 W (3×150 W
panels)
1.5 / 4.0
LED Bulbs
5
5
25
Lap op
12
1
12
Re ige a o
100
1
100
Table 1 shows he esiden ial loads used o size he DC sola powe sys em. The able summa izes he esiden ial loads used o size
he DC sola powe sys em.
Block diag am o he p oposed DC sola sys em
Figu e 1: The block diag am o he p oposed DC sola sys em
Figu e 1 shows he con igu a ion o he DC sola powe
sys em, highligh ing he in e e - ee design o di ec DC
powe deli e y o household appliances.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The 450 W DC sola powe sys em was success ully ins alled
and es ed in a esiden ial se ing. Load a ia ion expe imen s
showed ha he sys em main ained ol age s abili y be ween
13.6 V ( ully cha ged ba e y) and 10.6 V (discha ged) du ing
10-hou ope a ion pe iods unde a ying loads om 110 W o
158 W. The cu en anged om 4.0 A o 10.5 A o DC loads,
demons a ing he sys em’s abili y o supply s eady powe o
mul iple appliances simul aneously. Fo compa ison,
equi alen AC loads exhibi ed ol ages be ween 215.5 V and
239.2 V and cu en s be ween 0.47 A and 0.73 A, e lec ing
he highe con e sion losses inhe en in AC sys ems.
Table 2. Pe o mance and Cos Compa ison
Sys em/Load Type
Vol age (V)
Cu en (A)
Powe (W)
20-Yea Cos (₦)
% Sa ings s DC
DC Sola Sys em
13.6–10.6
4.0–10.5
110–158
550,000.00
—
AC Sola Sys em
215–239
0.47–0.73
110–158
850,000.00
35.10%
Gene a o
—
—
—
2,650,000.00
98.10%
G id Elec ici y
—
—
—
3,000,000.00
81%
Table 2 compa es DC and AC sys em pe o mance and hei
20-yea cos s.The block diag am (Figu e 2) shows he
in eg a ion o sola panels, cha ge con olle , and ba e y o
di ec DC supply. Cha s de i ed om Tables 2 illus a e
“Design, Ins alla ion, and Cos Analysis o Va ious Powe Sou ces”
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Enwene a Fes us
ime, ol age, and cu en ela ionships o DC and AC
sys ems, con i ming ha DC main ained mo e s able ou pu
unde a iable loads. Figu es 3 display he wa age, ol age,
and cu en o DC and AC loads and a compa a i e cos
analysis o he DC sola sys em, AC sola sys em, and
gene a o .
Pe o mance and cos esul s a e summa ized in Table 2. The
DC sys em main ained mo e s able ol age unde a ying
loads and achie ed signi ican cos sa ings o e AC sola
sys ems, gene a o s, and g id elec ici y. Cos analysis
e ealed signi ican sa ings. O e a 20-yea ho izon, he DC
sola powe sys em was 35.1% less expensi e han an
equi alen AC sola sys em, 98.1% less expensi e han using
a gene a o , and 81% less expensi e han elec ici y supplied
by he Benin Elec ici y Dis ibu ion Company (BEDC).
These sa ings s em la gely om elimina ing in e e and
ans o me cos s, educing ene gy losses, and lowe ing
main enance equi emen s. Table 2 compa es DC and AC
sys em pe o mance and hei 20-yea cos s .
These indings align wi h p e ious s udies showing ha DC-
based sys ems minimize con e sion losses and o e cos
ad an ages o e AC sys ems (Sahoo e al., 2018; Rau e al.,
2016). The esul s also suppo he wo k o Omo ogiuwa and
O o ji (2019), who epo ed signi ican sa ings om PV
ins alla ions in ins i u ional se ings, and Sahoo e al. (2018),
who ound DC dis ibu ion sys ems inc easingly economical
as adop ion scales. In addi ion o cos sa ings, he sys em
demons a ed en i onmen al bene i s by educing
dependence on diesel gene a o s, he eby dec easing CO₂
emissions and noise pollu ion.
The ope a ional s abili y o he sys em u he highligh s i s
sui abili y o Nige ian households. By deli e ing powe
di ec ly o DC appliances, he sys em a oids ine iciencies
associa ed wi h AC–DC con e sion wi hin elec onic
de ices, ex ending ba e y li e and imp o ing appliance
pe o mance. The indings sugges ha scaling such sys ems
ac oss esiden ial a eas could subs an ially alle ia e Nige ia’s
powe supply issues while suppo ing he coun y’s clima e
and sus ainabili y goals.
Figu e 2: Vol age S abili y DC s AC
Figu e 2 p esen s ol age s abili y measu emen s unde ypical household loads. The DC sys em showed mo e consis en ol age
compa ed o he luc ua ing AC sys em.
Figu e 3: 20-Yea Cos Compa ison
“Design, Ins alla ion, and Cos Analysis o Va ious Powe Sou ces”
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Enwene a Fes us
Figu e 3 g aphically compa es o al 20-yea cos s ac oss ou powe supply op ions, emphasizing he inancial ad an age o he DC
sola sys em.
Table 3. Summa y o Sys em Pe o mance and Cos Analysis
Cos Ca ego y
DC Sola Sys em
(₦)
AC Sola Sys em
(₦)
Gene a o (₦)
BEDC G id
(₦)
Mon hly Cos
33,308.00
34,558.00
349,333.30
31,806.70
12-Mon h Cos
399,700.00
414,700.00
4,192,000.00
381,680.10
20-Yea Cos
1,468,700.00
2,264,700.00
75,740,000.00
7,633,602.00
Table 3 p esen s a comp ehensi e summa y o cos
pe o mance ac oss he ou powe supply op ions
conside ed—DC sola , AC sola , gene a o , and g id
elec ici y. The DC sola sys em eco ds he lowes li e-cycle
cos (₦ 1.47 million o e 20 yea s) apa om he nominal
g id a i (₦ 7.63 million), ye unlike he g id, i gua an ees
ene gy independence and eliabili y. In compa ison, he AC
sola al e na i e equi es ₦ 2.26 million, mainly due o
addi ional in e e and con e sion losses. Gene a o
dependence is economically unsus ainable, eaching ₦ 75.74
million o e 20 yea s—abou 52 imes highe han he DC
sys em. Al hough g id supply appea s cheape mon hly,
ecu en ou ages and a i hikes educe eliabili y, making
DC sola he supe io long- e m op ion. O e all, his
summa y ein o ces ha DC sola sys ems p o ide he
op imal balance o cos e iciency, eliabili y, and
sus ainabili y, con i ming ea lie analyses in Tables 1 and 2
and aligning wi h p io li e a u e ha iden i ies in e e -less
con igu a ions as he mos economical enewable solu ion o
esiden ial ene gy in Nige ia.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This s udy designed, ins alled, and analyzed he cos o a 450
W di ec cu en pho o ol aic sola powe sys em o
esiden ial applica ions in Nige ia. The sys em success ully
elimina ed in e e s and ans o me s, deli e ing s able
powe di ec ly o DC loads while achie ing subs an ial cos
sa ings o e AC sola sys ems, gene a o s, and g id
elec ici y. Expe imen al es s demons a ed eliable
pe o mance unde a ying loads, while cos analysis
con i med signi ican li e-cycle sa ings.
The indings con i m ha DC-based sola powe sys ems
ep esen a iable, scalable, and en i onmen ally sus ainable
al e na i e o adi ional AC-based sys ems in Nige ia and
simila con ex s. By le e aging locally a ailable sunligh and
simple oo op-moun ed ins alla ions, households can gain
access o eliable o -g id elec ici y a lowe long- e m cos s.
Based on hese esul s, he ollowing ecommenda ions a e
made:
1. Go e nmen and ene gy egula o s should p omo e
DC sola powe adop ion h ough incen i es,
awa eness campaigns, and aining p og ams o
build echnical expe ise.
2. Manu ac u e s and impo e s should encou age he
p oduc ion and dis ibu ion o DC-compa ible
appliances o maximize he bene i s o di ec sola
powe .
3. T aining echnicians in DC sola ins alla ion and
main enance will ensu e quali y deploymen and
sys em longe i y.
4. Fu u e esea ch should explo e communi y-scale
DC sola sys ems and hyb id models ha in eg a e
ene gy s o age and sma g id ea u es.
5. Con inued inno a ion in ba e y echnology and
cha ge con olle s should be p io i ized o u he
educe up on cos s and imp o e pe o mance.
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“Design, Ins alla ion, and Cos Analysis o Va ious Powe Sou ces”
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Enwene a Fes us
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