RESEARCH ARTICLE
Analyses o his o ical documen s e eal pas ends o
exploi a ion o mana ees (T ichechus inunguis) in he Amazon
Basin (16 h-19 h cen u ies)
[ e sion 1; pee e iew: 2 app o ed]
C is ina B i o 1, Ana Ca a ina Ga cia2, John Nicholls 3, Jaime Sil a 2,
Nina Viei a 1
1CHAM and Depa amen o de His ó ia, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, FCSH, Uni e sidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, 1069-
061, Po ugal
2CHAM, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, FCSH, Uni e sidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1069-061 Lisboa, Uni e sidade NOVA de
Lisboa, Lisboa, 1069-061, Po ugal
3T ini y Cen e o En i onmen al Humani ies, A6.003, T ini y College Dublin, 2 College G een, Dublin 2, D02 PN40, I eland
Fi s published: 18 Aug 2025, 5:245
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20811.1
La es published: 18 Aug 2025, 5:245
h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20811.1
1
Abs ac
The Wes Indian mana ee (T ichechus mana us) and he Amazonian
mana ee (T ichechus inunguis) ha e been exploi ed by di e en
socie ies om ancien imes o he p esen . Deploying he ma ix o
Indigenous knowledge and uses, he hun ing o mana ees was a he
co e o Eu opean colonisa ion s a egies o he Ame icas wi hin a
amewo k o app op ia ion, use, and consump ion o aqua ic
mammals spanning he (pos )colonial pe iod. Today, bo h species a e
lis ed by he In e na ional Union o he Conse a ion o Na u e and
Na u al Resou ces (IUCN) as Vulne able, and popula ion ends a e
expec ed o dec ease in he u u e. While he exploi a ion o mana ees
(in pa icula , T. inungis) is well desc ibed in he 20 h cen u y, no
o e all quan i a i e assessmen s o such exploi a ion in he p eceding
cen u ies ha e been made. He e, we add ess his gap o knowledge
h ough a sys ema ic e iew o he li e a u e, iden i ica ion and e iew
o documen a y sou ces, selec ion and ex ac ion o quan i a i e da a,
and con ex ual analysis h ough c oss-analysis o his o ical
documen s o se e al ypes. Ou quan i a i e es ima es esul ed in a
o al o 14.030 indi iduals cap u ed, which a e mos p obably la gely
unde es ima ed. I co esponds o a biomass emo al o 6.248,9
onnes in a pe iod o non-con inuous 52 yea s be ween he 16 h and
he 19 h cen u ies. Speci ically, an a e age o c. 14.000 mana ees we e
hun ed be ween 1843 and 1898, comp ising 91% o all cap u es p io
Open Pee Re iew
App o al S a us
1 2
e sion 1
18 Aug 2025 iew iew
Yann Hénau , El Colegio de la F on e a
Su (ECOSUR), Quin ana Roo, Mexico
1.
Felipe Vande Velden, Fede al Uni e si y o
São Ca los, São Ca los, B azil
2.
Any epo s and esponses o commen s on he
a icle can be ound a he end o he a icle.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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o he wen ie h cen u y when ano he poin o accele a ed ex ac ion
occu ed. We de e mined a end o inc easing cap u es om he 17 h
o he 20 h cen u ies, o B azil, bu an impo an lacuna o da a o
he 16 h cen u y, and p e-Eu opean con ac , pe sis s. Howe e , he
esul s in o m cu en and u u e conse a ion measu es o he
species, while also including his o ical, cul u al, adi ional, and
indigenous pe spec i es abou he use o aqua ic esou ces.
El mana í an illano (T ichechus mana us) y el mana í amazónico (
T ichechus inunguis) han sido explo ados po dis in as sociedadesThe
Wes Indian mana ee (T ichechus mana us) and he Amazonian
mana ee (T ichechus inunguis) ha e been exploi ed by di e en
socie ies om ancien imes o he p esen . Deploying he ma ix o
Indigenous knowledge and uses, he hun ing o mana ees was a he
co e o Eu opean colonisa ion s a egies o he Ame icas wi hin a
amewo k o app op ia ion, use, and consump ion o aqua ic
mammals spanning he (pos )colonial pe iod. Today, bo h species a e
lis ed by he In e na ional Union o he Conse a ion o Na u e and
Na u al Resou ces (IUCN) as Vulne able, and popula ion ends a e
expec ed o dec ease in he u u e. While he exploi a ion o mana ees
(in pa icula , T. inungis) is well desc ibed in he 20 h cen u y, no
o e all quan i a i e assessmen s o such exploi a ion in he p eceding
cen u ies ha e been made. He e, we add ess his gap o knowledge
h ough a sys ema ic e iew o he li e a u e, iden i ica ion and e iew
o documen a y sou ces, selec ion and ex ac ion o quan i a i e da a,
and con ex ual analysis h ough c oss-analysis o his o ical
documen s o se e al ypes. Ou quan i a i e es ima es esul ed in a
o al o 14.030 indi iduals cap u ed, which a e mos p obably la gely
unde es ima ed. I co esponds o a biomass emo al o 6.248,9
onnes in a pe iod o non-con inuous 52 yea s be ween he 16 h and
he 19 h cen u ies. Speci ically, an a e age o c. 14.000 mana ees we e
hun ed be ween 1843 and 1898, comp ising 91% o all cap u es p io
o he wen ie h cen u y when ano he poin o accele a ed ex ac ion
occu ed. We de e mined a end o inc easing cap u es om he 17 h
o he 20 h cen u ies, o B azil, bu an impo an lacuna o da a o
he 16 h cen u y, and p e-Eu opean con ac , pe sis s. Howe e , he
esul s in o m cu en and u u e conse a ion measu es o he
species, while also including his o ical, cul u al, adi ional, and
indigenous pe spec i es abou he use o aqua ic esou ces.
Keywo ds
Accele a ed ex ac ions; Aqua ic mega auna; B azil; Colonisa ion and
ex i pa ions; Ma ine en i onmen al his o y; Ma ine exploi a ion and
use o esou ces.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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Co esponding au ho : C is ina B i o ([email p o ec ed])
Au ho oles: B i o C: Concep ualiza ion, Fo mal Analysis, Funding Acquisi ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, W i ing – O iginal D a
P epa a ion, W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing; Ga cia AC: Da a Cu a ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, W i ing – O iginal D a P epa a ion,
W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing; Nicholls J: Da a Cu a ion, Fo mal Analysis, In es iga ion, Me hodology, W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing; Sil a J:
Da a Cu a ion, Fo mal Analysis, Me hodology, W i ing – O iginal D a P epa a ion; Viei a N: Da a Cu a ion, Fo mal Analysis,
In es iga ion, Me hodology, W i ing – O iginal D a P epa a ion, W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing
Compe ing in e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
G an in o ma ion: This p ojec has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Resea ch Council (ERC) unde he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon
2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og amme (g an ag eemen No. 951649).
The unde s had no ole in s udy design, da a collec ion and analysis, decision o publish, o p epa a ion o he manusc ip .
Copy igh : © 2025 B i o C e al. This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License,
which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
How o ci e his a icle: B i o C, Ga cia AC, Nicholls J e al. Analyses o his o ical documen s e eal pas ends o exploi a ion o
mana ees ( T ichechus inunguis) in he Amazon Basin (16 h-19 h cen u ies) [ e sion 1; pee e iew: 2 app o ed] Open Resea ch
Eu ope 2025, 5:245 h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20811.1
Fi s published: 18 Aug 2025, 5:245 h ps://doi.o g/10.12688/open eseu ope.20811.1
This a icle is included in he Ho izon 2020
ga eway.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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In oduc ion
The e is a ce ain ish, which we call ma ine ox, he
Indians call i igua aguá, equen in he Cap aincy o
Espí i o San o [B azil] (…); i eeds on he bs as indi-
ca ed by he chewed g asses caugh in he ocks ba hed
by mang o es. Exceeds he ox in co pulence; i is co -
e ed wi h ha d skin, esembling he colo o an elephan ;
i has wo a ms close o he b eas s wi h which no h-
ing; and unde hem ea s wi h which hei own child en
suck; i has a mou h en i ely simila o ha o an ox. I is
excellen o ea ing, you would no know how o dis-
ce n whe he i should be conside ed as mea o a he
as ish; om i s a , which is inhe en in he skin and
especially a ound he ail aken o he i e, a sauce is
made, which can be compa ed o bu e and I do no
know i i will exceed i ; i s oil is used o spice up all
oods: you whole body is ull o solid and e y ha d
bones, such ha hey can ac as i o y1.1
The e is an es ablished his o y o he hun ing o mana ees
(T ichechus spp.), o sea cows, which a e known as ‘peixe-boi’
o ‘peixe-mulhe ’ in Po uguese, as ‘mana i’ in Spanish, o as
‘goa agoa’ in old Tupi2,3. I has occu ed in geog aphic anges
o di e en species’ his o ical p esence and in di e en human
socie ies ha li e wi h and exploi hem.
Mana ee his o ical cap u e and use a e epo ed in se e al
egions o Sou h Ame ica and he Ca ibbean basin whe e
exploi a ion occu ed long be o e he pos -Columbian e a4,5. In
he Amazon basin, wi h i s ibu a ies and adjacen ma ine
egion, mana ees ha e been impo an esou ces o he subsis -
ence o indigenous peoples and colonial se lemen s. A i s ,
hey we e used o ood, aw ma e ial o objec s, and cul u al
elemen s in an in e connec ed way o li ing in he wo ld2,6.
His o ically, hey ha e been local ood, s aples, and medicinal
p oduc s. Long- e m cap u e, consump ion, and use o mana-
ees is e iden om animal bones ound in shell mounds, an
ongoing esea ch p ojec on Amazonian sambaquis ha has
e ealed he p esence o mana ee bones, and a e ac s, since a
leas he middle and la e Holocene7–10. Be o e Eu opean coloni-
sa ion, mana ee habi a s we e densely popula ed by many di -
e en indigenous socie ies, and he wo sides o he Amazon
we e occupied, ans o med by ag icul u e and he wa e s
exploi ed bo h locally and egionally. The popula ion densi y
desc ibed by Eu opean ch onicle s, such as he Jesui a he
Alonso de Rojas, Diogo Nunes o C is óbal de Acuña, abou
he i s con ac s indica es an ad anced abili y o he indig-
enous peoples o ca ch, p oduce and s o e ood11,12. Among he
s o age echniques we e small maize g ana ies, manioc lou
and sal , he la e o sal ing ish, which indica ed a ce ain
deg ee o p ese a ion capaci y. The p esence o u le nu se ies,
many hun ing and ishing me hods, and well-known ishing
g ounds was abundan ly desc ibed upon he a i al o Eu opeans
in he Ame ican e i o ies11–14. In pa icula , he en i e a ea
be ween he O inoco and Amazon Ri e s, which he Spania ds
called Isla Guayana, was a as landscape domina ed by he
Amazon ibu a ies, a as dense o es , and a ious auna.
In he case o mana ees, hey we e cap u ed and used by p e-
Eu opean con ac Indigenous socie ies and con inued o be
exploi ed h oughou he cen u ies o come (Figu e 1).
Fo he conques and colonisa ion p ocess, access o na u-
al esou ces was essen ial o Eu opean su i al15. The
Eu opean conques o he Amazon om he 15 h cen u y, i s
along he sho es o he i e mou h by he Po uguese, apidly
mo ed in o he hin e land ollowing he complex wa e cou ses
o he Amazon and i s mul i ude o ibu a ies14,16. This p oc-
ess was ma ked by he cons uc ion o con ol pos s and o s
du ing he colonial pe iod. A he beginning o he 17 h cen u y,
se e al Eu opean powe s ough o con ol o he Amazon.
Some o he i s o i ica ions along he Amazon we e buil
by he Du ch and he English, who, like he Po uguese, ied o
con ol he egion.
Due o he di icul y o anspo ing and main aining Eu o-
pean domes ic animals in he Amazon hin e land, he i s
se le s had o look o local al e na i es and nego ia e wi h local
communi ies o ob ain access o esou ces17,18. The consump-
ion o ce ain aqua ic species by Eu opeans, such as mana-
ees, u les, and se e al i e ish, ea en d y o sal ed, sol ed he
p oblem o animal p o ein needs, which in he Eu opean con ex
was supplied by ca le. Tha mean , along wi h o he supplies,
access o he i e ’s esou ces such as ish, u les, and ma ine
mammals. In his con ex , con ac wi h and obse a ion o he
p ac ices o indigenous peoples, hei daily uses o esou ces,
and consump ion we e c ucial o he su i al o he i s
Eu opean se lemen s in he egion. To gain access o he
amoun s needed o suppo newly es ablished colonial socie ies,
local ishing communi ies we e subjuga ed h ough a p ocess
o app op ia ion o adi ional knowledge and echniques and
labou o hun ing and ishing19,20. As he cen u ies passed, man-
a ees became symbolic elemen s o he es ablishmen o human
in e ac ions wi h he na u al wo ld om a posi i e pe spec i e;
mana ees a e es ablished in local my hs and legends and a e
pa o Amazonian and B azilian olklo e. Bu he e was also a
nega i e con ex ; mana ees a e now designa ed Vulne able o
ex inc ion in he nea u u e due o bo h he in ensi e exploi a-
ion in he ecen pas , as well as habi a deg ada ion and human
in usion om con inuing indus ial de elopmen in he p esen .2
Mana ees, among coun less o he aqua ic mega auna species,
ypi y he ecu en his o ical na a i e o exploi a ion and
unse ling o he local na u e2.
I is inc easingly ecognised ha impe ialism and coloniza-
ion ha e ans o med na u al en i onmen s, on di e ing scales
and in ensi ies a a global le el, and he e a e s ill signi i-
can gaps in knowledge abou he pa e ns, causes, and conse-
quences o hese p ocesses o app op ia ion, ans o ma ion, and
exploi a ion21. This is pa icula ly e iden in he case o he
1 This is a 16 h-cen u y desc ip ion o coas al mana ees in B azil by he Jesui
p ies Joseph de Anchie a (1560)1.
2 Amazonian Mana ee (IUCN Red Lis ): h ps://www.iucn edlis .o g/spe-
cies/22102/43793736.
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Po uguese impe ial con ex , which emains li le s udied and
a ely included in specialised wo ks. Compa ed o o he impe-
ial na ions, such as he B i ish Empi e, which has been gene -
ously documen ed by academics22, his a icle seeks o popula e
he lacuna o Po uguese Impe ial and Colonial knowledge. Ou
p ima y goals a e o use his o ical and geog aphical in o ma-
ion o es ablish a ajec o y o pas exploi a ion o mana ees
(T ichechus spp.) in Sou h Ame ica o he 16 h, 17 h, 18 h, and
19 h cen u ies, and o add ess na a i es o change in he exploi-
a ion and use o aqua ic esou ces. This a icle also aims o
iden i y and quan i y mana ee ex ac ions, mainly o he
Amazonian mana ee (T ichechus inunguis), his o ically based
on e iew o he scien i ic li e a u e, epo s, logbooks, ea ises,
and o he documen s.
Me hods
We conduc ed a ou -s ep app oach ha included a li e a u e
e iew, iden i ica ion, and e iew o documen a y sou ces,
he mining o exis ing da a (i.e. selec ion and ex ac ion o
quan i a i e da a, and iden i ica ion o geog aphic loca ion
ca og aphic sou ces). All his o ical sou ces and da a collec ed
and used in his s udy o es ima e mana ee ex ac ion in he
Amazon basin a e a ailable in online, open-access o ma ha
summa ises he da a se s and p o ides s a is ical in o ma ion in
he Supplemen a y Ma e ial23 (see also Table 1).
Li e a u e e iew
A li e a u e e iew o published s udies abou he O de
Si enia and he his o y o hei cap u es was conduc ed,
ollowing he gene al app oach desc ibed by Falca o and
Ca alho24. We accessed and u ilised majo online da abases
(gene ic and mul idisciplina y) such as JSTOR, SCOPUS, Web
o Science, and in di e en sea ch engines, such as Google
Schola , P oQues , and B-On. The sea ches we e based on
speci ic keywo ds. The in en ion was o gene a e a global
iew o he s a e-o - he-a on he opic and o ind and e iew
s udies wi h ele an da a. The sea ch was ca ied ou h ough
he Ti le and Keywo d sec ions, and he pa ame e s used we e he
same o many es ablished da abases and sea ch engines; hese
a e as ollows: (mana ee OR seacow OR dugong) AND (his-
o y OR “ea ly mode n”) AND (ca ch* OR Cap u * OR ha -
es * OR ish*); (mana im OR “peixe-boi” OR “ aca-ma inha”
OR dugongo) AND (his o ia OR “época mode na”) AND (caça
OR cap u * OR pesc*); (mana í O “ aca ma ina” O dugongo)
And (his o y O “epoca mode na“) AND (caza OR cap u *
O pesc*)u *). A edundancy p ocess was deployed when publi-
ca ions, sc eened i les, keywo ds, and abs ac s we e pe used
o ensu e ha each elemen was accessed a leas wice o mini-
mise o e sigh s o in oduced bias, hus maximising he accu-
acy o iden i ied elemen s o inclusion and exclusion in he
s udy. Publica ions w i en in English, Spanish, Po uguese,
and F ench we e included, bo h indexed pee - e iewed publi-
ca ions and g ey li e a u e. We ocused on his o ical da a and,
consequen ly, publica ions o speci ic hema ic c i e ia such as
s ic ly ecological, beha iou al, physiological, and gene ic s ud-
ies we e excluded. Also, his o ical pe iod-based exclusions
we e implemen ed o emphasize a ocus on he e a p eceding
he Indus ial Re olu ion (c. p e-1860). A c oss-check in bib-
liog aphic lis s o some iden i ied publica ions was also ca -
ied ou . F om he o al o publica ions included in ou e e ence
p og am on he O de Si enia wo ldwide, we iden i ied a o al
o 292 s udies ha could be used o quali a i e and quan i a i e
analysis and his o ical con ex ualiza ion. F om hese da a e e -
ing o he B azil con ex and o he pe iod beginning wi h he
colonial p esence (16 h cen u y) we e used. Raw da a was ob ained
om h ee es ablished s udies – An unes e al.25, Hulsman26,
and Domning27.
Documen a y sou ces analysis
We build on in ensi e esea ch ha has been ca ied ou in
ecen yea s and on se e al his o ical sou ces al eady iden i-
ied, namely hose made a ailable in he online Sea Ci a ion
Da abase28, which includes Po uguese and Spanish documen a y
sou ces o he ea ly mode n pe iod, anging om he 16 h o
he 19 h cen u y, and comp ises epo s, logbooks, desc ip ions,
ea ies, bes ia ies, na u al and gene al his o ies, le e s, and ax
Figu e 1. Le : A scene o a colonial se ing in a Cen al o Sou h Ame ican egion (18 h cen u y) showing he bu che ing o a
mana ee and possibly he boiling o i s a . Iconog aphic sou ces add in o ma ion o documen a y sou ces and indica e he ele ance o
an animal and aqua ic esou ce o a gi en his o ical and cul u al con ex . Open Access © The John Ca e B own Lib a y a B own Uni e si y
(Pe malink: h ps://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/se le /s/4io7aw). Righ : Pho og aphy o mana ee hun ing in Lake Ayapua, he Pu us Ri e
(Amazonia) o unknown da e. Images and pho og aphs a e isual sou ces ha indica e he ele ance o aqua ic and animal esou ces o a
gi en his o ical and cul u al con ex . Pe mission ob ained om Samuel Iglesias om h ps://www.delcampe.ne / /collec ions/.
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Table 1. Numbe o ex ac ed indi idual mana ees and biomass. See, o de ailed da a
and sou ces: Viei a, N., B i o, C., & Nicholls, J. (2024). Ex ac ion Amazonian Mana ee (T ichechus
inunguis), 1533–1898 [Da a se ]. Zenodo. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.15739198.
Yea A e_indi idualCoun MAX Numbe o
mana ees MIN Numbe o
mana ees o ganismQuan i y
[biomass in on]
1533 2 2,0 2,0 1,1
1606 3 3,9 1,7 1,5
1608 3 3,9 1,7 1,5
1614 250 250,0 250,0 137,5
1670 21 28,6 12,3 10,5
1724 4 5,3 2,3 1,8
1780 1 1,2 0,5 0,45
1785 927 1295,0 559,2 417,15
1793 1 1,3 0,6 0,45
1843 51 70,7 30,5 22,95
1846 74 103,9 44,9 33,3
1853 2250 3141,6 1356,6 1012,462455
1855 308 429,3 185,4 138,6
1856 411 573,6 247,7 184,95
1857 239 332,1 143,4 107,55
1858 230 321,5 138,8 103,6029456
1859 169 236,4 102,1 76,07106011
1860 1564 2183,9 943,1 703,6793586
1861 151 210,9 91,1 67,92893989
1862 227 316,4 136,6 101,9463965
1863 188 262,8 113,5 84,67273475
1864 46 63,8 27,6 20,55883672
1865 133 185,2 80,0 59,85
1867 178,7 249,0 107,5 80,40883672
1869 110 153,6 66,3 49,5
1870 170 237,3 102,5 76,5
1871 455 635,9 274,6 204,7944752
1872 359 495,1 213,8 161,6889447
1873 76 106,3 45,9 34,2
1876 14,0 14,0 13,4 4,35
1877 208 291,2 125,8 93,6
1878 133 185,6 80,1 59,85
1879 148 204,7 88,4 66,6
1880 205 286,3 123,6 92,25
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3 Digi al lib a y o he p ojec and ela ed da a accessible h ough h ps://
esga e.bn.b .
Yea A e_indi idualCoun MAX Numbe o
mana ees MIN Numbe o
mana ees o ganismQuan i y
[biomass in on]
1881 1271 1770,9 764,7 571,884532
1882 607 760,7 328,5 193,6628
1883 78 107,4 46,4 23,96546053
1884 461 644,4 278,3 207,5891447
1885 225 313,8 135,5 101,25
1886 323 451,9 195,1 145,35
1887 234 326,4 141,0 105,3
1888 411 573,9 247,8 184,95
1889 180 250,7 108,3 81
1890 76 106,2 45,9 34,2
1891 136 189,2 81,7 61,2
1892 185 258,9 111,8 83,25
1893 184 256,5 110,8 82,8
1894 133 186,0 80,3 59,85
1895 146 203,5 87,9 65,7
1896 90 126,1 54,4 40,5
1897 111 155,4 67,1 49,95
1898 33 46,6 20,1 14,85
documen s. A b ie e iew o Du ch sou ces was also ca ied
ou , since he Du ch occupied e i o ies in no h-eas e n B azil
be ween 1630 and 165429 and aded mana ee p oduc s in he
Sou h A lan ic30. In o al, a ound 100 his o ical documen a y
sou ces o di e en ypologies we e consul ed, om which
six een his o ical sou ces we e analysed which included le -
e s and desc ip ions o na u e and economic and scien i ic
epo s1,26,31–43. Se e al addi ional documen s om he digi al
lib a y P oje o RESGATE3 we e also analysed and included,
namely om he collec ions ‘Rio Neg o’, ‘Pa á’ and ‘Ge al B asil’.
Sou ces e e o ex ac ions in he Amazon basin, om i s
mou h and adjacen wa e s o he hin e land, leading o ou
in o ma ion ha e e s o he Amazonian mana ee (T. inunguis)
e en hough ex ac ions o Wes Indian mana ees (T. mana-
us) (n = 4) we e also eco ded in coas al a eas o B azil and
Su iname.
His o ical documen a ion can p o ide in o ma ion on he ha -
es ing o li ing ma ine esou ces, e en o pe iods when
he e was no sys ema ic eco ding o ex ac ions o s a is ical
epo s. In many cases, he in o ma ion is o a quali a i e
cha ac e , which allows us o in e cul u al con ex s in which
he ex ac ions ook place, he echniques used, and he people
in ol ed, as well as o unde s and he impo ance o he animals
and he use o hei p oduc s. In o he cases, i is possible o ex ac
quan i a i e da a on he numbe o animals hun ed, e en i
his in o ma ion is some imes sca e ed. Da a a e a ied in
e ms o hei le els o desc ip ion and o uni s used o quan-
i y amoun s and p oduc s. Mea (d y, sal ed, o esh) was
gene ally gi en in kilog ams o equi alen ; a and bu e ( he
so-called ‘mixi a’) we e packaged in ba els, ja s, and cans (all
equi alen o each o he in e ms o con en ). On occasion, hides
we e also included, since hey we e a p oduc o be expo ed.
When a ailable, da a wi h in o ma ion on he geog aphic
loca ion o cap u es was conside ed.
Mining da a and quan i ica ion o ex ac ions
To con e he gi en amoun s o mana ee p oduc s in o he
numbe s o hun ed indi iduals, we ollowed he me hodol-
ogy used by Domning27 and c oss-checked i wi h o he s udies,
e.g. Whi ehead44 and he his o ical sou ces a ailable, pa icu-
la ly wi h Fe ei a34. An ‘a oba’ (an old Po uguese measu e o
weigh ) o mea is equi alen o 15 kg; based on he e e ences
men ioned abo e, one ja (‘po e’) co esponds o c. 20–30 kg,
and we use he medium alue o 25 kg; one can (‘la a’) is
equi alen o 22 kg. We used a con e sion a e o 76 kg–176 kg
o ans o med p oduc co esponding o one hun ed mana ee.
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Fe ei a34 s a es ha o he yea s 1785–1786 a o al o 1500
mana ees we e hun ed and p o ides he numbe o p oduc s
ob ained om hem. Domning27 s a es minimum and maximum
alues o he mass (in kg) co esponding o one animal,
which we also use o indica e a con idence in e al (o e o ).
We use a con e sion ac o o 20,34 kg as he a e age hide
weigh o comme cially hun ed mana ees, acco ding o An unes
e al.25. Based on hese con e sion a es, we ob ained minimum
and maximum alues o ex ac ed mana ees o he egion
and o he pe iod in ques ion. We ob ained a o al o 131 da a
en ies in ou da abase4 ha we e classi ied unde a a ic ligh
code sys em o he le el o ce ain y o he da a ob ained. The
ed en ies co esponding o un eliable o un e i iable quan-
i a i e in o ma ion we e excluded and only he o ange and
g een da a we e included, esul ing in 52 sepa a e annual
eco ds du ing he pe iod be ween 1533 and 1898.
Iden i ica ion o geog aphic loca ions
F om he s udies and his o ical sou ces e iewed, i was pos-
sible o de e mine app oxima e geog aphical loca ions ei he
o he places o cap u e o he places o ading. When names
o illages o b oad a eas a e gi en, mapping hese places
o e s a spa ial isualisa ion o he ex ac ion p ac ice ha
can also be combined wi h o he ishing p ac ices o geopo-
li ical se lemen in o ma ion o colonial B azil. In he 16 h cen-
u y Po uguese and Cas ilians in es ed in he se lemen o he
Amazon, i s building mission illages, wo king as indoc ina-
ion cen e s o he na i es, unde Capuchin, Me ceda ian Mis-
siona y Sis e s, F anciscan, Ca meli e, and Jesui eligious
o de s. In many cases, hese mission illages, loca ed p ecisely
in he same places as indigenous socie ies, se led a he mou hs
o he Amazon ibu a ies, whe e indigenous ishing g ounds
we e loca ed45. Subsequen ly, hese loca ions we e conside ed
s a egic o se lemen unde he Po uguese c own, leading o
he cons uc ion o o s and illages unde he Po uguese colo-
nial adminis a ion15,46,47. Fo s a egic easons, he mos impo -
an Po uguese se lemen s we e loca ed a he con luences o
he wa e cou ses, which was also whe e many o he oyal ish-
ing g ounds we e es ablished47. In ac , iden i ying possible
loca ions o he i s Po uguese se lemen s and o i ica ions
could indica e possible cap u e a eas, as well as indica e how
colonis s mig a ed inland, gaining g ound in he Amazon
e i o y46,48. The need o p o ide p o ein, a and uel o people
who we e pa o hese newly o med colonial communi ies -
c own o icials, a my, o ice s engaged in public and ci il wo ks,
eligious missions, membe s o he expedi ions and hose de e -
mining e i o ial bounda ies - jus i ied he es ablishmen o oyal
ishing g ounds, mos on p io indigenous ishing g ounds17,19.
Wi h se lemen s, people, and esou ces unde Po uguese con-
ol, o me indigenous ishe men wo ked o he Po uguese
c own and unde he auspices o oyal o icials15,49. Al hough he
dis ibu ion o he ishing g ounds managed by he Po uguese
c own, he so-called oyal ishing g ounds o he Amazon,
a e no accu a ely loca ed, unde s anding o he cap u e a eas
enables insigh s in o he dis ibu ion o he cap u e zones. To
econs i u e his geog aphical dis ibu ion, in o ma ion ela ed
o he loca ion o o s and se lemen s was compiled, conside -
ing he ch onology o edi ica ion. These loca ion da a o he
oyal ishing g ounds o he colonial pe iod we e ga he ed by
ecognising ha many had been app op ia e indigenous ish-
ing g ounds p io o he a i al o he Po uguese, and some o
hem a e s ill in use oday17,19,50,51. Loca ion-ex ac ion da ase s
we e conside ed and included in he geo e e encing elemen s
o he da abase. Ex ac ion eco ds o unde ined a eas, such as
he Amazon p o ince, we e mapped wi hin an ex ended a ea
co esponding o he egion.
Resul s
He e we ocus on p eindus ial cap u es and he long- e m e ec
o con inued ex ac ions o mana ees by colonial Eu opeans
in opical egions, up o end o he 19 h cen u y.
(…) a eigh o’clock we a i ed a he ha bou o he
said own [ illage and o ess o Obidos, B azil], which
is hi y- wo leagues away om he uppe mou h o he
Su ubiú Ri e , om whe e we se sail on he 21s : soon
a e wa ds, H.E. disemba ked, ha ing he pleasu e o
seeing on he beach h ee mana ees, which had been
caugh ha mo ning (...) om he e he wen o exam-
ine he po e y and wa ehouses o he same illage [o
San a ém], hen o see i s beaches, and a he house o
he adminis a o o he oyal ishing g ounds o obse e
a li e mana ee ha was kep he e, as well as wo dead
ones ha he ishe men om he own had b ough
ha nigh (...)52.5
Ex ac ions and biomass emo al
Ou quan i a i e es ima e esul ed in a o al o 14.030 (min.
8.301 – max. 19.220) mana ees ex ac ed in a o al o 52 yea s
du ing he 16 h (n=1), 17 h (n = 4), 18 h (n = 4), and 19 h (n=43)
cen u ies; ‘n’ is he numbe o yea s o which quan i a i e
da a is a ailable. These alues ep esen he pe iod be ween
1533 and 1793, and almos con inuously om 1843 o 1898
(Figu e 2 and Table 1). A o al o 12.818 hun ed mana ees a e
indica ed o he pe iod be ween 1843 and 1898, comp ising
91% o he cap u es. The oscilla ions obse ed o e he cen-
u ies can be assumed as a global end ha is consis en wi h
Domning27 and An unes e al.25, jus i ied by he inconsis ency
o his o ical da a, and ha is also he case o o he species o
ma ine mammals, such as ce aceans53. In addi ion, we es ima ed
he emo al o mana ee biomass (T ichechus spp.) o he s udy
pe iod (1533–1898) as a i s a emp o de elop epea able and
4 Viei a N, B i o C, Nicholls J. Ex ac ion Amazonian Mana ee (T ichechus
inunguis), 1533-1898 [Da a se ]. 2024. Zenodo. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/
zenodo.15739198.
In his open access Suppo ing Documen a ion and Da abase, we included
all his o ical sou ces and da a collec ed and used in his s udy o es ima e
mana ee ex ac ion in he Amazon basin. I summa ises he da a se s, p o ides
s a is ical in o ma ion and he suppo ing documen a ion; a ailable ollow-
ing he Da win Co e schema, ensu ing he inclusion o ele an da a ields.
Da a may be openly sha ed, dis ibu ed, o used unde C ea i e Commons
licensing p o isions CC- BY 4.0.
5 A desc ip ion o he obse a ion o mana ees, ali e and dead in 18 h-cen u y
B azil (1784)52.
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eliable me hods o es ima e li e weigh biomass om his o ical
da a. Based on ou es ima es o indi iduals cap u ed and de i ed
weigh o he species a 550 kg o T. mana us54 and a 450 kg
o T. inunguis54–57, we ob ained a o al o 6.248,9 ons (Figu e 3).
His o ical ends in abundance and geog aphic
dis ibu ion
Ou compa ison o mul i cen u ies ex ac ions shows a end
o inc easing cap u es om he 17 h o he 20 h cen u ies;
o he 16 h cen u y one single sou ce was ound.
To be e unde s and he in ensi y and geog aphical a eas
whe e mana ees we e aken, in o ma ion was p o ided on he
Eu opean colonisa ion o he Amazon egion. The geog aphical
ex en o he exploi ed mana ees anged om he B azilian
coas ( om Fo São Joaquim do Rio B anco in he no h and
he Royal Fo o P íncipe da Bei a in he sou h), bu mainly
a ound he Amazon basin and del a and he a ious ibu a ies
o he Amazon ups eam o Taba inga nea he Pe u ian bo -
de , a con lic zone wi h Cas ilian se lemen s. The wo spe-
cies occu in his geog aphical a ea, wi h a possible o e lap in
he nea sho e wa e s o he Amazon es ua y. In mapping ex ac-
ions o mana ee loca ions o he o al analysis pe iod, he
middle Amazon was ound o be he p ima y egion whe e
mana ee p oduc s we e aded (Figu e 4). This egion is whe e
he bulk o cap u es occu ed, and his is a good indica o ha
he dominan species o mana ee ha was hun ed is T. inunguis.
The conques mo emen also shows loca ions whe e na u al
esou ces, including mana ees, we e needed he mos . Th ough
ou mapping o he se lemen s, we ecognise ha mili a y
con ol pos s pene a ed u he inland, and he occupa ion
o he e i o y became mo e in ense h oughou he 18 h cen u y.
As p e iously iden i ied, he so-called oyal ishing g ounds,
unde Po uguese domain, we e in many cases o me indigenous
ishing g ounds. Many o he ac ual ishing g ounds con inued
o be used, and e en oday names such as Pesquei o dos
Mana ins (mana ee ishing g ounds) and Pesquei os das Ta a ugas
( u le ishing g ounds) a e s ill used. A e he Po uguese
adminis a ion ook o e , he ishing g ounds began o p o ide
hese communi ies wi h p o ein and enabled hem o gene a e
su pluses o expo h ough inc easingly in ensi e ishing.
The app oxima e geog aphical alloca ion o mana ee ca ching
o expo a eas along he Amazon co esponds in many
cases o impo an mili a y zones such as Belém do Pa á and
Manaus (Figu e 5). Obse a ion o he geog aphical loca ion
o he ishing g ounds in hei icini y indica es ha he e is a
co ela ion be ween he h ee elemen s o o i ica ions, ishing
g ounds, and mana ee ca ches. F om he geog aphical dis ibu-
ion, we can see ha cap u es ollow he p ocess o occupying
he hin e land alongside he es ablishmen o Po uguese mili a y
posi ions.
Discussion
P e-indus ializa ion ex ac ions o Amazonian
mana ees
Con inued exploi a ion o aqua ic animals led o con inued use
and demand o key species o in e es , s uc u ed a ound he
mindse and ideology o Eu opean p ope y and igh s o exploi-
a ion, e en i he sys em was buil upon local p ac ices and
knowledge abou he aqua ic esou ce and hei ecosys ems.
Mana ees we e his o ically used locally as ood, medicine,
and my hical- eligious objec s by he na i e peoples o he
Amazon egion. Colonisa ion ac oss he Sou h A lan ic led o he
de elopmen o egional and ansoceanic ne wo ks buil o
eed Eu opean se le s and hei mul iple demands wi hin
colonial sys ems and dynamics. Wi h he opening o o e -
seas e i o ies o Eu opean socie ies because o ea ly mode n
Figu e 2. Documen ed yea s (n=52) o mana ee ex ac ions (T ichechus spp.): 1533 o 1898. Da a a e o he Amazon basin and
adjacen wa e s, excep o 1533 (sou he n coas o B azil), 1608 and 1670 (Su iname) (see supplemen a y ma e ial online). The a e age
numbe o mana ees ex ac ed a e indica ed by he blue ba s, showing he a ia ion o maximum and minimum es ima es.
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Yes
Is he wo k clea ly and cogen ly p esen ed?
Yes
Is he a gumen pe suasi e and suppo ed by e idence?
Yes
I any, a e all he sou ce da a and ma e ials unde lying he esul s a ailable?
Yes
Does he esea ch a icle con ibu e o he cul u al, his o ical, social unde s anding o he
ield?
Yes
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
Re iewe Expe ise: Amazonian E hnology; An h opology o Human-Animal Rela ions
I con i m ha I ha e ead his submission and belie e ha I ha e an app op ia e le el o
expe ise o con i m ha i is o an accep able scien i ic s anda d.
Re iewe Repo 16 Sep embe 2025
h ps://doi.o g/10.21956/open eseu ope.22516. 58693
© 2025 Hénau Y. This is an open access pee e iew epo dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Yann Hénau
El Colegio de la F on e a Su (ECOSUR), Quin ana Roo, Mexico
This wo k p esen s highly o iginal da a on he his o y o Amazonian mana ee exploi a ion. I
p o ides new and e y in e es ing in o ma ion on his subjec , pa icula ly wi h ega d o pe iods
p io o he p esen day (be o e he nine een h cen u y) and how his his o ical exploi a ion has
impac ed on he cu en conse a ion s a us o he species.
O e all, he a icle seems well w i en, bu as I am no a na i e English speake , I canno judge he
de ails o he language.
The me hodology also seems comp ehensi e o me, al hough I am no a specialis in his ype o
s udy.
I belie e his wo k dese es o be indexed and will shed new ligh on ou his o y in ela ion o he
conse a ion o mana ees.
Is he wo k o iginal in e ms o ma e ial and a gumen ?
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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Yes
Does i su icien ly engage wi h ele an me hodologies and seconda y li e a u e on he
opic?
Yes
Is he wo k clea ly and cogen ly p esen ed?
Yes
Is he a gumen pe suasi e and suppo ed by e idence?
Yes
I any, a e all he sou ce da a and ma e ials unde lying he esul s a ailable?
Yes
Does he esea ch a icle con ibu e o he cul u al, his o ical, social unde s anding o he
ield?
Yes
Compe ing In e es s: No compe ing in e es s we e disclosed.
Re iewe Expe ise: Animal beha io
I con i m ha I ha e ead his submission and belie e ha I ha e an app op ia e le el o
expe ise o con i m ha i is o an accep able scien i ic s anda d.
Open Resea ch Eu ope
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