Vi amin C as e ec i e as combina ions o an i-oxidan
nu ien s in educing symp oms o uppe espi a o y ac
in ec ion in ul ama a hon unne s.
Pe e s, EM* M.Sc.(Med)
Goe zsche, JM* B. PhysJJd
Joseph, LE* M.Ed.
Noakes, TD**(MBBCh, MD, FACSM)
Abs ac
The e ec o an i-oxidan supplemen a ion on he inci
dence o symp oms o uppe - espi a o y- ac in ec ion
(URTI) was de e mined du ing he o nigh ollowing
he 1993 Com ades Ma a hon (90km). Runne s
(n=178) and seden a y ma ched con ols (n=162) we e
andomly di ided in o g oups ecei ing 500mg Vi C (C;
n=86), 500mg Vi C and 4001U Vi E (CE; n=90) o
300IU Vi E, 300mg Vi C and 18mg Be a Ca o ene
(CEB; n=73) o placebo (P; n=93) daily o 21 days p io
o pa icipa ion in he ul ama a hon. To al p e- ace
die a y i amin and mine al in akes and pos - ace sel -
epo ed URTI symp oms we e eco ded in all subjec s
(n=340). The incidence o he URTI symp oms in P un
ne s (40.4%) was signi ican ly highe (p<0.05) han ha
in C (15,9%) and CEB (20,0%) unne s, and also g ea e
han ha in ma ched, non- unning con ols ecei ing
placebo (24,4%). The g oup o unne s epo ing he
lowes incidence o URTI symp oms du ing he pos
ace pe iod, had he lowes mean age and he highes
(i) o al mean daily Vi C in ake (1004 mg); (ii) p e- ace
aining s a us and (iii) pe cen age o black unne s.
This s udy sugges s ha Vi amin C alone is as e ec
i e as combina ions o Be a Ca o ene, Vi amin E and
Vi amin C in educing he incidence o pos - ace URTI
symp oms and ha age, aining s a us and gene ic
make-up also may in luence he suscep ibili y o he
de elopmen o URTI symp oms in ul ama a hon
unne s.
Key Wo ds: An i-oxidan Vi amins, Uppe Respi a o y
T ac In ec ions, Ul ama a hon Runne s.
* Di ision o Physical Educa ion, Uni e si y o he
Wi wa e s and, Johannesbu g, Sou h A ica.
* * MRC Bioene ge ics o Exe cise Resea ch Uni
in he Spo Science Ins i u e o Sou h A ica,
Medical School, Uni e si y o Cape Town,
Sou h A ica.
Co espondence:
Edi h Pe e s
Di ision o Physical Educa ion,
Uni e si y o he Wi wa e s and,
Johannesbu s,
2001,
Sou h A ica.
Tel: (011) 716-5718
In oduc ion
Two sepa a e epidemiological su eys pe o med on
ul adis ance unne s1 ~ ha e epo ed an inc eased inci
dence o symp oms o uppe espi a o }' ac (URTI)
ollowing pa icipa ion in ul aina a hon e en s. A sub
sequen s udy5 ound ha daily adminis a ion o
600mg Vi amin C o h ee weeks p io o he 90km
Com ades Ma a hon, esul ed in a signi ican ly lowe
(p<0.05) incidence o symp oms o in ec ion in unne s
du ing he o nigh a e he ace, compa ed o unne s
inges ing placebo. This was a ibu ed o he an i-oxi
dan p ope ies o Vi amin C, which sugges s ha a h
le es pa icipa ing in p olonged exe cise ha e an
inc eased daily Vi amin C equi emen . '
. E idence om mo e ecen s udies45 is ha he an i
oxidan nu ien s may be mo e e ec i e when used in
combina ion. The aim o his s udy was he e o e o
compa e he e icacy o supplemen a ion wi h combina
ions o Vi amin E, Vi amin C and Be a Ca o ene and
Vi amin C alone in educing he incidence o pos ace
URTI in ul a ma a hon unne s.
Me hod
The p o ocol was app o ed by he Commi ee o
Resea ch on Human Subjec s o he Uni e si y o he
Wi wa e s and. Two hund ed and wen y en an s o
he 1993 Com ades Ma a hon olun ee ed o pa ici
pa e in he s udy. Each unne was ma ched (n=220)
wi h a con ol o simila age who esided wi h he un
ne , bu did no pa icipa e in unning egula ly. A dou
ble-blind, placebo-con olled s udy design was used in
which he unne s, in addi ion o hei ma ched, non-
unning con ols, we e andomly di ided in o ou
g oups. Each g oup ecei ed ei he an i-oxidan supple
men s o placebos o h ee weeks p io o he ace. The
p e- ace aining s a us, s a e o heal h and die a y i
amin and mine al in ake o a hle es and hei age-
ma ched con ols was eco ded by means o a ques ion
nai e which each unne and con ol subjec comple ed
p io o he ace. Demog aphic da a including unning
dis ance pe week, a e age unning speed, numbe o
weeks spen aining and he numbe o o he ul ama
a hons in which he a hle e had ecen ly pa icipa ed
we e also eco ded, hi addi ion, he p e- ace incidence
o sel - epo ed symp oms o URTI was documen ed.
Runne s wi h a his o y7- o sinusi is, hay- e e o bo h
we e excluded.
Each unne and ma ched con ol (n=55) was equi ed
o ake h ee able s o simila appea ance daily. These
con ained ei he 500mg Vi C (C), 500mg Vi C & 400IU
Vi E (CE), 300mg Vi C & 300IU Vi E, 18 mg Be a
SPORTS MEDICINE MARCH 1996 23
Rep oduced by Sabine Ga eway unde licence g an ed by he Publishe (da ed 2012.)
Ca o ene (CEB) o lac ose as placebo (P).
The o al daily i amin A, C and E in akes including
ha de i ed om any addi ional i amin and mine al
used by he a hle e o all subjec s was de e mined by
using he Die a y Manage compu e p og amme
(P og am Managemen , Randbu g, Sou h A ica). Fo
he pu pose o his s udy, he o al i amin A, C & E
in ake o each subjec was hus calcula ed om he sum
o he (i) daily die a y in ake, (ii) addi ional supple
men s used and (iii) he an i-oxidan supplemen s gi en
o he subjec s.
Two weeks a e he ace all unne s and con ols
who had o iginally olun ee ed o pa icipa e in he
s udy we e elephonically in e iewed and ques ioned
ega ding: (i) whe he he p esc ip ion o supplemen s
had been adhe ed o o no ; (ii) he ace dis ance co
e ed and he ime aken by each a hle e o comple e
his dis ance; (iii) he incidence and du a ion o symp
oms o URTI. The numbe and du a ion o sel - epo
ed symp oms including sneezing, unning nose, so e-
h oa , cough and e e we e documen ed. All epo s o
i ial symp oms we e excluded by including in he inal
analysis only epo s o single URTI symp oms which
las ed >1 (lay o a combina ion o a leas 2 URTI symp
oms each o which las ed < I day.
The aining s a us a io o each unne was calcula
ed om he ollowing o mula:
Weekly aining dis ance (km) • no o) weeks spen in
aining
a e age speed a which hose kilome es we e co e ed
As in ou p e ious s udy®, unne s who epo ed a a io
o > 450 ell in o he high- aining s a us ca ego y,
whe eas hose wi h a a io < 300 we e classi ied in he
low aining s a us ca ego y.
S a is ics
A chi-squa e s a is ic was used o es ablish whe he he
incidence o symp oms o URTI was signi ican ly di e
en be ween he ou g oups o unne s and con ols.
Mul i a ia e analysis o a iance and se e al one-way
analyses o a iance we e used o analyze he signi i
cance o he di e ence be ween he ou g oups in
e ms o age, Vi amin C, E and Be a Ca o ene in ake
and aining s a us a io. Fo all s a is ical analyses he
S a g aphics and Excel compu e so wa e p og ams
we e used and he le el o signi icance we e se a 0.05.
Resul s
O he ini ial 220 unne s and ma ched con ols, 178
unne s (23 emale; 155 male) and 162 (116 emale ; 46
male) con ols compiled ully wi h he equi emen s o
he s udy. Reasons o exclusion om he s udy includ
ed a p e ious his o y o alle gic hini is, ailu e o ake
he p esc ibed medica ions, ailu e o comple e a leas
60 km o he ace and inabili y o es ablish con ac wi h
he subjec s a e he ace.
The size, gende dis ibu ion and mean age o he 4
g oups o unne s and hei ma ched con ols is gi en in
Table 1. Among he unne s who anged in age om 19
o 65 yea s, 46 we e < 30 y old, 119 we e aged be ween
31 and 50 y and 13 we e > 50 y in age. Al hough he wo
g oups wi h he highes incidence o epo s o URTI
possessed he highes mean age, his was no signi i
can ly di e en om he mean age o he g oups wi h
lowe incidence o in ec ion (p>0.05).
Table 1: The size, gende dis ibu ion and
age (+/- SD) o he 4 s udy g oups (n=340) mean
EXPERIMENTAL RUNNERS CONTROLS
GROUP (n 178) (n = 162)
NAge NAge
MF(Yea s) M F (Yea s)
G oup C 44 34,3 41 33,1
36 8(5,2) 11 30 (9,5)
G oup CE 47 37,6 43 33,7
41 6(8,4) 11 32 (9,2)
G oup CEB 40 35,1 33 29,7
36 4• (10,0) 825 (11,9)
G oup P 47 39,2 45 32,8
42 5(9,5) 16 29 (11,8)
The o al mean Vi amin A, E and C in akes o he un
ne s in each o he ou g oups is shown in Table 2. The
highes o al mean in ake o Vi amin C was epo ed in
g oup C, whe eas he P g oup epo ed a mean in ake o
585mg o Vi amin C. G oups CE & CEB also epo ed
high mean in akes o his Vi amin. G oup CEB was he
only g oup wi h a Vi amin A in ake which exceeded he
RDA o seden a y indi iduals'', whe eas g oup CEB
was he only g oup which exceeded he RDA0 o
Vi amin E o seden a y7 indi iduals. The g oup wi h he
lowes incidence o in ec ion (C) epo ed a o al mean
Vi amin C in ake o 1004mg.
Table 2: The mean Vi amin A, C and E in akes o he
unne s (n=l 78) in he 4 g oups.
GROUP
CGROUP
CE GROUP
CEB GROUP
P
Food Vi A (IU) 3170 4405 3915 3110
Sou ces Vi C (mg) 72 93 95 80
Vi E (IU) 25 22 26 18
Addi ional Vi A (IU) 1446 1737 2348 2992
Supplemen s Vi C (mg) 432 305 271 505
Vi E (IU) 12 22 843
An i-oxidan Vi A (IU) -.30 000 -
Supplemen s Vi C (mg) 500 500 300 -
p o ided Vi E (IU) -400 300 -
To al Vi A (IU) 4616 6142 36 263 6102
Vi C (mg) 1004 893 665 585
Vi E (IU) 37 444 334 61
24 SPORTS MEDICINE MARCH 1996
Rep oduced by Sabine Ga eway unde licence g an ed by he Publishe (da ed 2012.)
The incidence o symp oms o URTI in he unne s and
con ols a e gi en in Figu e 1. The di e ence be ween
he incidence o symp oms o in ec ion in die unne s
inges ing placebo (40.4%) and hei seden a y, ma ched
con ols (24.4%) was no signi ican ly di e en
(X2=1.99; p = 0.16). The lowes incidence o in ec ion
amongs he unne s (15.9%) was epo ed in g oup C.
This was signi ican ly di e en (X2=5.54; p < 0.05) om
he incidence o URTI symp oms in g oup P A 20% inci
dence o in ec ion was epo ed hi g oup CEB. The inci
dence o symp oms o URTI in g oup CE was also sig
ni ican ly lowe han in g oup P (X2 = 6.24; p > 0.05).
The incidence o symp oms o in ec ion in g oup CE
(25.6%>) was no signi ican ly di e en (p > 0.05) han
he incidence in g oup P (40.4%).
The incidence, na u e and mean du a ion o he
symp oms o URTI among nmne s and con ol subjec s
is p esen ed in Table 3. The mos common URTI symp
oms epo ed by unne s in he 4 g oups we e nasal (n
= 35). Included in his ca ego y we e epo s o unning
noses and sneezing. Symp oms las ing mo e han 7 days
occu ed in 20 cases (nasal), 13 cases (so e h oa ) and
12 cases (coughing). Twel e o he unne s epo ed
e e in conjunc ion wi h hei URTI symp oms. Only
24,2% o he epo ed unne s symp oms las ing 1-3
days. The mean du a ion o symp oms in die unne s
was no signi ican ly di e en om he mean du a ion
o symp oms in he con ol subjec s (p > 0.05). Al hough
he mean du a ion o symp oms was highe in unne s
on placebo han in unne s who ecei ed he di e en
combina ions o an i-oxidan s, his di e ence was no
s a is ically signi ican (p > 0.05).
Table 3: Incidence, na u e and du a ion o pos
ace symp oms o URTI among unne s
and con ol subjec s.
EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP 0/o MEAN (± SD)
N SYMPTOMATIC TRA NING STATUS
RATIO
G oup C
G oup CE
G oup CEB
G oup P
42 20,2* 311 (±150)**
47 25.8 274 (±127)
40 16,7* 328 (±166)**
47 40,4 236 (±111)
* P < 0.05 s G oup P
** P <0.01 s G oup P
The incidence o in ec ion in he low, medium and high
aining s a us g oups is shown in Figu e 2. Those nm
ne s who epo ed a low p e- ace aining s a us (<250)
g oup epo ed he highes incidence o in ec ion symp
oms. This inding was con i med when he incidence o
pos - ace URTI symp oms was ela ed o he mean
aining s a us o die 4 g oups o nmne s (Table 4). The
wo g oups wi h an incidence o URTI symp oms o
mo e han 25%, epo ed he lowes mean aining s a
us. The di e ence be ween he aining s a us o
g oups C and CEB (possessing he lowes incidence o
in ec ion) and g oups CE and P (possessing he highes
Figu e 1: Incidence o Symp oms o URTI in unne s (n = 178) and con ols (n
pos ace pe iod. 162) du ing he 14 day
RUNNERS (n = 178)
(x* = 8,20; p < 0,05)
60
50
(0
o
■<D.
5 * 40
cn
o 30
o20-
10
60
50-
40
30
20
10
15.9%* I 25.5% 1 20.0% 40.4%
CONTROLS (n = 162)
(xz =3,01; p > 0,05)
12.2% I 23.3% I 15.1% 24.4%
G oup C G oup CE G oup CEB G oup P G oup C G oup CE G oup CEB G oup P
Symp oma ic
Asymp oma ic
* Signi ican ly di e en om G oup P (p<0,05)
SPORTS MEDICINE MARCH 1996 25
Rep oduced by Sabine Ga eway unde licence g an ed by he Publishe (da ed 2012.)
Figu e 2: The incidence o pos - ace URTI
symp oms in low, medium and high
aining s a us g oups (n=176)
Numbe 50 —
o
Subjec s 25 —
31,1%
24,6%
| ] Symp oma ic
□ Non-symp oma lc
X2 = 2,21
p > 0,05
17,2%.
<300 300-450 >450
LOW MED HIGH
TRAINING STATUS RATIO
incidence o in ec ion) was highly signi ican (p > 0.01).
When he incidence o URTI symp oms we e ela ed o
weekly aining dis ance comple ed in p epa a ion o
he ace, his end was con i med. Once again, he un
ne s who had done he leas p e- ace aining, epo ed
he highes incidence o URTI symp oms.
A o al o 16 black unne s pa icipa ed in he s udy.
None o hese a hle es epo ed symp oms o URTI.
When excluding he black unne s om hei espec i e
g oups, he pe cen age incidence o in ec ion symp oms
in he espec i e g oups was 25,7(C); 41,3(F); 26,7(CE)
and 23 (CEB). The di e ence be ween he h ee g oups
ecei ing addi ional an i-oxidan supplemen a ion was
no signi ican (p > 0.05). Despi e a subs an ial di e
ence in pe cen age incidence in he placebo g oup and
he g oups ecei ing an i-oxidan supplemen a ion, his
di e ence was no longe signi ican ( p > 0.05).
No ela ionship be ween unning ime and incidence
o URTI symp oms in he ou g oups was ound in his
s udy. Al hough he incidence was highes (35,5%) in
hose unne s who ook >10h s o comple e he ace,
his incidence was no signi ican ly g ea e han he
incidence in g oups aking 7-8 h s (23.5%) and 8-9 h s
(27,8%) o inish he ace.
Discussion
The da a ob ained in his s udy con i ms ou p e ious
indings12 8,7 o a g ea e incidence o pos - ace symp
oms o in ec ion in ul ama a hon unne s compa ed o
seden a y con ols (Figu e 2). The compa a i ely lowe
gene al incidence o symp oms in his s udy han in ou
p e ious s udy1 mus be seen in he ligh o he ac ha
(i) in his s udy, epo s o symp oms las ing one day o
only pa he eo we e no included in he inal calcula
ion and (ii) p e ailing i ological o bac e iological
coun s may ha e a ied g ea ly a he ime ha hese
wo sepa a e s udies we e unde aken.
This s udy con i ms p e ious indings3 ha daily
in ake o an excess o lg o Vi C is e ec i e in lowe ing
he incidence o symp oms o URTI du ing he pos
ace pe iod. Al hough he incidence o symp oms o
URTI was subs an ially lowe in all h ee g oups o un
ne s ecei ing an i-oxidan supplemen a ion han in he
g oup o unne s ecei ing placebos, no co ela ion was
ob ained be ween he o al amoun o an i-oxidan
nu ien s inges ed and he incidence o symp oms o
URTI. Ra he , i was he g oup wi h he highes o al
daily in ake o Vi C which had he lowes incidence o
URTI symp oms. Se e al ac o s could accoun o his.
Table 4: The mean aining s a us a io and incidence o pos ace URTI symp oms in he 4 g oups o
unne s (n=176)
__________
_______
_
___________
EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP
Pos Race Symp oms
Nasal Symp oms
So e Th oa
Cough
Fe e and URT
Symp oms
To al Symp oma ic * *
Mean Du a ion o
Symp oms
A : RUNNERS
G oup C G oup CE G oup CEB G oup P
(n=44) (n=47) (n=40) (n=47)
11 du a ion n du a ion n du a ion n du a ion
5,3 10 5,8
5,8
9,0 9 4,7
2
3,0 2 .
12
7,0
1,8
7
5
4
4
8
7,6 14
5,8 12 4,5
4,:
4,3
8
5
19
6
I
7,8
6,4
5,8 5,6
B : CONTROLS
G oup C G oup CE G oup CEB G oup P
(n=41) (n=43) (n=33) (n=45)
n du a ion 11 du a ion 11 du a ion n du a ion
7,0
7,8
9.6
14.6
8 22,8
8 9,3
8 11,1
2
11
9,4
17,5
15,2
0
3
1
6
5
3.2 11 7,8
1.3 8 8,1
7
7,0
0,0 4
11
2,3
10,3
2,0
6,9
Nasal symp oms include unny nose and sneezing.
** No. o pe sons in he g oup who p esen ed wi h 1 o mo e symp oms las mg_ 1 day
o 2 mo e symp oms las ing < 1 day
Du a ion = mean no. o days
26 SPORTS MEDICINE MARCH 1996
Rep oduced by Sabine Ga eway unde licence g an ed by he Publishe (da ed 2012.)
Vi amin C is ega ded as a i s line an i-oxidan in
he de ence agains phagocy e- de i ed eac i e oxi
dan s8010. These immunosupp essi e ee adicals a e
known o be au o oxic, causing inhibi ion o chemo-
axis, phagocy osis, he p oli e a ion o T-lymphocy es
and B -lymphocy es as well as he cy o oxic ac i i y o
na u al kille cells 111213. E idence is moun ing in a ou
o Vi amin C- media ed neu aliza ion o hese eac i e
oxidan s8910.
The ela i ely smalle p o ec i e e ec o i amin E
and Be a Ca o ene supplemen a ion may, be pa ially
a ibu able o he slow ele a ion in plasma Vi amin E
and Be a Ca o ene le els15 and he ac ha a 21 day
supplemen a ion pe iod is oo sho o ele a e plasma
le els o each p o ec i e le els. Secondly, a iance in
age14, aining s a us15, en i onmen al aining condi
ions'", and gene ic make-up be ween he g oups s ud
ied, may ha e obscu ed he e ec o he o he an i-oxi
dan nu ien s.
As in ou p e ious s udy3, age does no appea o
ha e played a signi ican ole in he isk o in ec ion.
T aining s a us, howe e , appea ed o be an impo an
ac o . The highes incidence o symp oms o URTI was
ound in hose unne s who ell in o he low aining
s a us ca ego y (Figu e 2). Fu he con i ma ion o a
possible bene icial e ec o aining is ound when
examining he mean aining s a us o he ou g oups.
I was ound ha he wo g oups possessing he high
es aining s a us had he lowes incidences o in ec
ion symp oms (Table 4). These indings we e u he
suppo ed when he incidence o URTI symp oms was
analysed as a unc ion o weekly aining dis ance.
Two ac o s migh suppo , his inding. Fi s ,
endu ance aining esul s in a lowe ca echolamine
le els a a gi en exe cise wo kload. This is po en ially
impo an as ca echolamines a ec ee adical p oduc
ion16. Second, endu ance aining inc eases concen a
ions o endogenous an ioxidan enzymes in skele al
muscle15. Tha endu ance aining exe s a p o ec i e
e ec on oxida i e s ess hus wa an s u he in es i
ga ion in humans.
The inding ha Black unne s who pa icipa ed in
his s udy did no de elop in ec ion symp oms, also
equi es u he in es iga ion. This di e ence migh be
explained by chance; socio-economic o he edi a y ac
o s may also ha e played a ole.
To conclude, he indings o his s udy appea o
indica e ha la ge in akes o Vi amin C alone
OlOOOmg) a e mo e e ec i e han combina ions o
Vi amin E, Vi amin C and Be a Ca o ene in lowe ing he
incidence o URTI in ul adis ance unne s. This s udy,
howe e , also indica es ha besides Vi amin C inges
ion, aining load and e hnic backg ound, a e impo
an a iables which may in luence he suscep ibili y o
in ec ion in ul ama a hon unne s.
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Spo s. Med. 1990;5:4-8.
2. Pe e s EM, Ba eman ED. Ul ama a hon unning and
uppe espi a o y ac in ec ions. S. A . Med. J. 1983;64:582-
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3. Pe e s EM, Goe zske JM, G obbelaa B, Noakes TD :
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symp oms o uppe espi a o y ac in ec ions in ul adis ance
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SPORTS MEDICINE MARCH 1996 27
Rep oduced by Sabine Ga eway unde licence g an ed by he Publishe (da ed 2012.)
m i: so m a k ax .kh xa , o
SPORTS MEDICINE
VOLUME 3
__________
NUMBER 1
_______
MARCH 1996
Edi o
P o TD Noakes
D MP Schwellnus
Edi o ial Boa d
D M E Maolla
D P de Jage
D J Skowno
D P Schwa z
P o R S e ch
D C de Ridde
P o B C And ews
D E V De mun
M R H Fa man
P o M Ma s
D C A Noble
In e na ional Ad iso y Boa <
Lyle J Micheli
Associa e Clinical P o esso i
Oi hopaedic Su ge y
Bos on, USA
Ches e R Kyle
Resea ch Di ec o , Spo s
Equipmen Resea ch Associi
Cali o nia, USA
P o IIC Wildo Hollmann
P esiden des Deu schen
Spo ii z ebimdes
Koln, Wes Gcnnany
Howa d J G een
P o esso , Depa men o
Kinesiology
On a io, Canada
Geo ge A B ooks
P o esso , Depa men o
Physical Educa ion
Cali o nia, USA
Neil F Go don
Di ec o , Exe cise Physiology
Texas, USA
Edmund R Bu ke
Associa e P o esso , Biology
Depa men , Uni e si y o
Colo ado
Colo ado. USA
G aham N Smi h
Physiologis
Glasgow, Sco land
The iews exp essed in indi idual a icles a e he pe sonal iew's o he
Au ho s and a e no necessa ily sha ed by he Edi o s, he Ad e ise s
o he Publishe s. No a icles may be ep oduced wi hou he w i en
consen o he Publishe s.
1
[>
i cs
CONTENTS
Edi o ial
L Weigh
Exe cise and he immune
sys em: A e iew
L Weigh
Exe cise and uppe espi a o y
ac in ec ions: A e iew
EM Pe e s
IIIV in ec ion in spo :
A e iew o cu en issues
MP Schwellnus
Vi C as e ec i e as combina ions o
an i-oxidan nu ien s in educing
symp oms o uppe espi a o y ac in ec ion
in ul ama a hon unne s
EM Pe e s e al
A social cogni i e pe spec i e on p omo i e
and p e en i e heal h beha iou in pos -
apa heid Sou h A ica
I Mille
9
16
23
29
THE EDITOR
THE SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE
PO Box 115, Newlands 7725
PRODUCTION
And ew Thomas
PUBLISHING
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Tel: (Oil) 442-9759
Fax: (Oil) 880-7898
ADVERTISING
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REPRODUCTION
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PRINTING
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Co e sponso ed by Ciba-Geig
SPORTS MEDICINE MARCH 1996 3
Rep oduced by Sabine Ga eway unde licence g an ed by he Publishe (da ed 2012.)
