Jou nal o Physics:
Con e ence Se ies
PAPER • OPEN ACCESS
Enabling an AUTOnomous and FLEXible
hin e land anspo ecosys em: Main modal shi
issues and po en ial anspo solu ions
To ci e his a icle: K is o e Kloch
e al
2025
J. Phys.: Con . Se .
3123 012045
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Jou nal o Physics: Con e ence Se ies 3123 (2025) 012045
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1742-6596/3123/1/012045
1
Enabling an AUTOnomous and FLEXible hin e land
anspo ecosys em: Main modal shi issues and
po en ial anspo solu ions
K is o e Kloch 1,2*, Cy il Alias 3,4, Hå a d No dahl 5, S e an K ause 6,
Thomas Ke kmann 3, Ma in Budde 3
1 Depa men o Inno a ion & Pa ne ships, DFDS, Copenhagen, Denma k
2 Depa men o Sus ainabili y and Planning, Uni e si y o Aalbo g, Aalbo g, Denma k
3 De elopmen Cen e o Ship Technology and T anspo Sys ems, Duisbu g, Ge many
4 Cen e o Logis ics and T a ic, Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen, Duisbu g, Ge many
5 Depa men o Ene gy and T anspo , SINTEF Ocean, T ondheim, No way
6 Ins i u u S uk u leich bau und Ene giee izienz, Chemni z, Ge many
*E-mail: k [email protected]
Abs ac . While au onomous ships a e said o be an enable o modal shi in Eu ope, hey
equi e a b oade ans o ma ion o he anspo and business ecosys ems o be e ec i e.
Tha is, cu en logis ics pa adigms and apid ad ancemen s in ze o-emission oad
anspo may inad e en ly incen i ise a shi away om wa e bo ne anspo . This s udy
explo es his conund um, by looking a he ole o po s as in eg a ed logis ics and ene gy
hubs, he e i aliza ion o abandoned anshipmen si es, and he educ ion o anspo
was e as po en ial solu ions. Concep ualiza ions o no el anspo componen s a e
p oposed, aimed a enhancing he lexibili y, sus ainabili y, and e iciency o in e modal
anspo ecosys ems using IWT and hus po en ially unlocking p og ess owa d Eu ope’s
modal shi goals.
1. In oduc ion
Despi e decades o Eu opean policies aiming a shi ing eigh anspo om oad o he mo e
sus ainable modes ail and wa e bo ne anspo [1], [2], no subs an ial p og ess has been
obse ed [3]. Policy objec i es p o ide high-le el commi men s bu o en ail o ansla e in o
en o ceable modal shi manda es due o signi ican di e ences be ween EU ambi ions and
na ional s a egies [4], [5]. Also, modal shi is inconsis en ly amed in policy s a egies, which
makes he me ics o m easu ing modal shi misaligned and he accoun abili y o he in ol ed
pa ies inadequa e [6]. In addi ion, modal shi objec i es ha e a ely ansla ed in o en o ceable
obliga ions [7], wi h p i cing -based incen i isa ion mechanisms such as ca bon axes [8] and oad
olls [9] ei he insu icien o s imula ing an ac ual modal shi . Wi h socie al cos s om Eu opean
oad a ic es ima ed a € 820 billion annually [10], and a pe sis en g ow h in Eu opean anspo
demand [11], Eu opean policymake s a e in di e need o u n he ides on modal shi ou comes.
The e is a signi ican po en ial o modal shi om oad o inland wa e way anspo (IWT)
[12], wi h alue p oposi ions cen ed a ound lowe anspo cos s, CO 2 emissions and oad
conges ion [13]. Howe e , IWT also has challenges ela ed o un eliable wa e le els [14], [15], [16]
and agmen ed hin e land e minal se ices [17], [18], [19]. While anspo cos o IWT ela i e
o oad educes wi h i nc easing shipmen size and dis ance, anspo ime inc eases, and
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equency educes [20]. Fu he mo e, geog aphical loca ion mi gh imply oad anspo o i s
and/o las mile, which nega i ely a ec he compe i i eness o IWT [21]. Fo sho e dis ances,
he esul is o en ha once a con aine is on a uck, i s ays on he uck.
A possible solu ion migh be o ex end he each o IWT owa ds o igins a nd des ina ions o
ca go h ough small ships ha can ope a e on la ge pa s o he wa e ways, hus educing he
need o las -mile uck haulage [22]. Howe e , his could also esul in highe anspo cos ,
which may explain he a i y o small ships in he cu en IWT lee [23]. The ques ion is hen i
smalle ships could be designed in a way ha educes cos and inc eases e enue. A po en ial
solu ion o his challen ge can be ound in au oma ion as i can enable unc ewed ships, which a e
cu en ly unde de elop men [2 2], [24], [25], [26] . Unc ewed ships a e p ojec ed o signi ican ly
educe cos s [27], [28], [29], and enable inc eased space o ca go [23], [30].
Howe e , small au onomous ships alone will no ushe a enaissance o IWT. As smalle
wa e ways in Eu ope a e a ely used o ca go anspo , he associa ed anspo in as uc u e
and business ecosys em would need adap a ions o allow o bo h modal shi in gene al and
au onomous shipping in pa icula [31]. This includes he de elopmen o inno a i e ene gy,
anshipmen and ca go consolida ion solu ions ha can e i alise some o he he e ogeneously
a ailable in as uc u e on he Eu opean inland wa e ways [32]. The con ibu ion o his pape is
hus o iden i y he main challenges and p opose consequen inno a i e solu ions ha will
accele a e he modal shi h ough an expansion o IWT by using a bandoned, unde u ilised o
en i ely new anspo loca ions on he inland wa e ways o Eu ope.
2. Me hodology
2.1 Resea ch Design
The s udy applies a esea ch design inspi ed by he Double-Diamond amewo k. Figu e 1
illus a e his design, consis ing bo h o di e ging (i.e. “b oadening”) and con e ging (i.e.
“na owing”) phases ha aims o di sco e and de ine he “issues”, as men ioned, in he P oblem
Space and subsequen ly p o ide concep ual solu ions o hese “issues” in he Solu ion Space. The
amewo k has been used o iden i y issues and p opose concep ual solu ions pe aining o a
sus ainable wa e bo ne logis ics ecosys em h ough he ollowing phases: Fi s , he Disco e
phase in ol ed an expansi e desk esea ch, including e iew o academic li e a u e, public da a
and indus y epo s, o Disco e he sys emic ba ie s acing bo h shipping and logis ics in a
Figu e 1. Resea ch Design o his s udy (inspi ed by he Double Diamond amewo k)
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b oade sense, and IWT in a na owe sense. Second, he De ine phase in ol ed syn hesising hese
sca e ed insigh s in o speci ic p oblem s a emen s. The ou comes o he i s and second phases
a e documen ed in sec ion 3. Thi d, he De elop phase di ed in o he p oblem s a emen s o
de elop, o iden i y, qu ey equi emen s o po en ial solu ions, d awing on bes p ac ices,
s akeholde co-c ea ion and scena io-based hinking in concu en wo kshops. Fou h, he Deli e
phased in ol ed na owing down possible solu ions, based on he equi emen s, in o concep ual
ideas ha could be implemen ed. The ou comes o he hi d and ou h phases a e documen ed in
sec ion 4.
2.2 Resea ch Me hods
A mul i - me hod app oach has been applied in his s udy, combining desk esea ch and wo kshops
while g ounding he me hods in a speci ic us e case in es iga ion. These me hods play di e en
oles ac oss he ph ases o he double diamond amewo k.
Desk esea ch is he sys ema ic collec ing and syn hesizing o exis ing in o ma ion, including
bu no limi ed o academic li e a u e, indus y epo s, and ma ke da a, o gene a e insigh s
wi hou coll ec ing new p ima y da a. Thus, desk esea ch has been used o unde s and exis ing
issues pe aining o sus ainable logis ics, which has subsequen ly been used o ame he
wo kshops: o ask he igh ques ions, challenge assump ions and de ine meaning ul design goals.
Wo kshops F om Janua y 2025 - June 2 025, he s udy has employed a dual wo kshop o ma
o explo e challenges and po en ial solu ions. An online weekly wo kshop se ies wi h a ocused
g oup o pa icipan s ( he au ho s) acili a ed agile and c ea i e b ains o ms ha enable he
gene a ion, and i e a i e e inemen o ideas c oss he iden i ied p oblema ic hemes.
Complemen ing hese sessions, h ee physical wo kshops whe e held, b inging oge he he
en i e y o he AUTOFLEX p ojec conso ium [33], including logis ics companies, esea ch
ins i u es, ene gy p o ide s, echnology de elope s and po au ho i ies, o engage in s uc u ed
discussion. These physical wo kshops ollowed a clea ly de ined agenda in which he iden i ied
hemes in he p oblem and solu ion spaces om he online wo kshops we e p esen ed,
sc u inised, deba ed and u he de eloped.
3. The P oblem Space
The widely used “5-le e deca bonisa ion amewo k” ou line i e key le e s o deca bonising
shipping [34] and logis ics [35]: eigh demands; anspo modes; asse u ilisa ion; ene gy
e iciency and ze o-emission ene gy. This s udy ocusses on p omo ing he choice o anspo
modes, i.e. modal shi , and y o incen i ise ha choice h ough he emaining le e s. While
ene gy e iciency is s udied in pa allel [39], [40], [41], his s udy speci ically examines eigh
demands (o a he eigh concen a ion), ze o-emission ene gy and asse u ilisa ion.
3.1 Economies o scale, ca go cen alisa ion and modal shi owa ds oad anspo
The pu sui o lowe anspo cos s pe uni has d i en ca ie s o in es in inc easing la ge
“mega ships” pai ed wi h edis ibu ion ia hub-and-spoke eede ne wo ks [39]. While hese
mega ships a e mo e cos -e icien pe anspo ed uni om bo h in es men [40] and
ope a ional [41] pe spec i es, hei iabili y is highly sensi i e o u ilisa ion a es as ope a ions
below ull capaci y quickly leads o diseconomies o scale and a consequen un easibili y o he
concep [42], [43]. Al hough economies o scale do exis , hey end o pla eau o e en e e se wi h
oo la ge ship sizes due o po ine iciencies and ope a ional igidi y [44], [45]. Mo eo e ,
en i onmen al and logis ical challenges u he unde mine he long- e m cos -e ec i eness o
mega-ships o global supply chains mo e b oadly [42], [46].
The economic p essu e o ill hese mega ships has subsequen ly d i en ca ie s o o m
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s a egic alliances which oughly accoun o a ound 90% o global TEU [47], [48]. These alliances
allow ca ie s o sha e ship space, coo dina e schedules, and educe duplica ion o ou es,
e ec i ely u ning i als in o collabo a o s o maximize ship u ilisa ion and main ain se ice
equency [49]. Tha is, wi hou hese alliances, no single ca ie could simul aneously ill hei
mega ships and mee cus ome demand o se ice equency [42]. Howe e , his endency also
educes ma ke di e si y and compe i i eness, as smalle ca ie s a e inc easingly pushed o he
ma gins o in o subo dina e oles wi hin global shipping ne wo ks [50]. The esul ing
oligopolis ic ma ke s uc u es obscu e ac ual compe i ion, aise conce ns o e po en ial p ice
manipula ion and challenge egula o y amewo ks aimed a p ese ing a le el playing ield [40].
The ise o mega-ships has also concen a ed anspo lows in o a limi ed numbe o global
mega-po s, as only po s wi h su icien capi al and space o in es in he equi ed d edging,
in as uc u e, machine y e c., ha e been able o keep up [42], [51]. While mode n po s con inue
o upg ade o mee he demands o con aine isa ion and inc easingly la ge ships, hese capi al-
in ensi e adap a ions a e no uni e sally accessible and deepen inequali y be ween po s and
ac oss he global shipping ne wo k, wi h only he weal hies po s su i ing [42]. Also, due o he
high ixed ope a ional cos s o mega ships and he need o keep se ice schedules, mega ships limi
hei po calls and hus u he ma ginalise seconda y po s and egions ha ha e been omi ed
al hough po en ially ha ing made he necessa y upg ades o accommoda e he ships [52]. All his
leads o inc easingly concen a ed ca go olumes and shipping ou es, c ea ing sys emic
dependence o a ew mega-sized s a egic po s [53], [54].
Small- o-medium-sized po s (SMPs), pa icula ly inland and egional e minals, o en lack
he inancial muscle-powe o emain iable in he hub-and-spoke ne wo ks manda ed by mega-
ships [55], [56], [57]. Consequen ly, shipping’s con ibu ion o global ade and de elopmen ,
e lec ed in he UNCTAD connec i i y index, con inues o decline [42], [58]. This ma ginalisa ion
also unde mines modal shi owa ds wa e bo ne modali ies by sidelining egional o inland po s
and inc easing eliance on oad eigh o b idge he dis ance o dis an mega-hubs [59], [60], [61].
Tha is, as he he e ogenous pool o wa e bo ne ac o s slowly disappea s, ewe iable
wa e bo ne anspo al e na i es exis , which in u n leads o a modal shi away om
wa e bo ne anspo [62], [63]. SMPs hus ace a widening gap be ween co e and pe iphe al
in as uc u e as he upg ades needed o s ay compe i i e emain ou o each [64], [65]. In he
con ex o IWT, in as uc u e condi ions is a key ac o shaping bo h he oppo uni ies and
challenges o sus ainable IWT [66], and hence, he poo in as uc u e condi ions cu en ly
a ailable in mos inland e minals hinde hei de elopmen in o h i ing logis ics hubs, he eby
a leas pa ly impeding p og ess on Eu opean modal shi ambi ions [62], [67], [68].
In summa y, he dominance o mega-ships, s a egic alliances, and capi al-in ensi e
in as uc u e equi emen s has led o a highly cen alised wa e bo ne anspo ecosys em
whe ein SMPs, especially hose on inland wa e ways, a e becoming inc easingly ma ginalised due
o concen a ed ca go lows, limi ed se ice di e si y, and ein o ced geog aphic and economic
dispa i ies. This in u n unde mines Eu opean modal shi ambi ions. As hese ends ha den in o
s uc u al ba ie s, he e is an u gen need o solu ions ha can ein eg a e SMPs, especially
hose on he inland wa e ways, in o he global anspo ecosys em. Consequen ly, inno a i e
e minal concep s mus be explo ed ha o e scalable and adap able solu ions capable o
e i alising he ole o SMPs, especially along unde u ilised inland co ido s.
3.2 F om Single o Dual Roles: Po s as anshipmen and ene gy hubs enabling enewable modal
shi
As ga eways o in e na ional ade, po s ha e he capaci y o in luence he adop ion o enewable
uels and play a pi o al ole in aligning egional ac o s and ope a ions wi h b oade clima e a ge s
[69]. Fo ins ance, ini ia i es like g een shipping co ido s equi e he ac i e in ol emen o po s
o p o ide he physical, ope a ional and egula o y condi ions necessa y o sus ainable shipping
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p ac ices [70]. Wi hou p oac i e po in ol emen , shipowne s ace ba ie s in accessing new
uels, he eby slowing p og ess ac oss he en i e supply chain [71]. The e o e, po s a e no
passi e obse e s bu c ucial enable s in shaping he u u e o sus ainable logis ics.
Po s ha e slowly e ol ed om being iewed as p ima ily public en i ies ha p omo e
egional de elopmen ia accessible in as uc u e o quasi-p i a e ac o s p o iding comme cial
se ices in a compe i i e en i onmen [72]. This equi es po s o s a egically adap hei
ope a ions, se ices and ac i i ies o di e en ia e hemsel es and enhance how hey c ea e and
cap u e alue [72]. Po s a e no longe no jus enable o ade, bu ac i e pa icipan s in he
c ea ion and managemen o logis ics, including p o ision o enewable ene gy, anshipmen
wi h ze o-emission machine y and in eg a ion in o logis ics co ido s, and ac i ely in luencing
how shipping ne wo ks a e o med [73], [74], [75]. Thus, po s a e ans o ming in o
he e ogeneous business hubs ha o e a di e se se o se ices a independen , bila e al and
ecosys em le els o suppo he de elopmen o he po i sel and he economic ac i i y in i s
icini y [76]. The concep ualisa ion o po s as ene gy hubs ha inc easingly impo , p oduce,
s o e and dis ibu e enewable ene gy has gained ac ion [77]. Many po s a e posi ioning
hemsel es as enewable ene gy ga eways ha enable ze o-emissions supply chains in an e o
o ge a compe i i e ad an age [78]. This includes o ging s a egic alliances wi h ac o s ac oss
exis ing and u u e enewable ene gy alue chains o ensu e hei own and hei egion’s
compe i i eness long- e m [79]. Po s a e also aking an ac i e ole as expe imen al hubs o new
ene gy and logis ics inno a ions, c ea ing es beds o companies o es sus ainable echnologies
and ope a ions [80].
As enewable uels di e si y (hyd ogen, ammonia, me hanol e c.), po s mus choose be ween
specialising in a single uel ype and hus limi ing comme cial ela ionships wi h some ship
ope a o s, o capi alising on se e al op ions and hus inc easing capi al expendi u es and possible
po ine iciencies (see e.g. [81], [82], [83], [84], [85]). The dilemma is exace ba ed by mu ual
dependence be ween po s and shipowne s as each elies on he o he o ealise he alue o he
new uel(s) [81], [83]. Fu he mo e, po s mus adap o mi iga e he ins abili y in ene gy demands
combined wi h he in e mi en na u e o enewable ene gies [86], ideally h ough mul i-ene gy
sys ems combining sola , wind, ba e ies and e.g. hyd ogen o enable bo h immedia e use, s o age
and o e all ene gy elas ici y [87]. Key in as uc u e sec o s, such as ene gy p o ide s, a e o en
iewed as na u al monopolies due o hei c i ical ole and sys emic signi icance o he economy
and socie y, and a e hus subjec o economic egula ion [88]. As po s ake on g ea e ene gy-
ocused oles, new legal, inancial and comme cial amewo ks a e needed [89]. Eme ging
go e nance s a egies highligh he impo ance o c oss-sec o al in eg a ion o ene gy, logis ics
and digi alisa ion o enabling mul imodal deca bonisa ion [90]. Ye , despi e hei g owing
impo ance in he ene gy ma ke , mos po s lack comp ehensi e ene gy managemen s a egies,
al hough such s a egies help po s bene i om imp o ed e iciency, new e enue s eams and
s eng hen compe i i eness in an inc easingly sus ainabili y- ocused ma ke place [91].
SMPs, howe e , ace unique and compounding challenges in he ansi ion o logis ics and
ene gy hubs. Due o hei lowe ade olumes and consequen ange o ope a ional, inancial and
en i onmen al disad an ages compa ed o he mega po s [92], SMPs o en lack he echnical
capaci y, inancial esou ces and ins i u ional suppo o implemen deca bonisa ion measu es
and in es in enewable ene gy o own e minal ope a ions o o supply o ships, ucks o ains
[93], [94], [95]. Consequen ly, SMPs adop only limi ed sus ainabili y measu es o emain inac i e
en i ely [56], [96]. Fu he mo e, SMPs ypically sha e in as uc u e such as powe g ids and
bunke ing s a ions wi h adjacen indus ial acili ies, making hei ansi ion highly dependen on
sha ed asse s, in e -sec o al linkages and loca ion-speci ic ac o s such as local opog aphy,
esou ce a ailabili y e c. [97]. To o e come (some o ) hese ba ie s, SMPs inc easingly
collabo a e wi h la ge po s nea by and seek o le e age unique ad an ages such as su plus land,
specialised in as uc u e o s ong egional indus y links [55], [77], [98]. Regional indus ies
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may simul aneously bene i om he spillo e e ec s om wa e bo ne anspo de elopmen ,
especially on he inland wa e ways [99].
In summa y, he ans o ma ion o po s in o ene gy-in eg a ed logis ics hubs, a c ucial
componen in deca bonising global supply chains and logis ics ecosys ems, is eshaping he
sec o . Howe e , SMPs emain sidelined, which unde mines no only egional economic equi y,
bu also b oade clima e and modal shi goals such as he e i alisa ion o Eu opean IWT. To
add ess his, he e is a p essing need o inno a i e e minal concep s ha combine ene gy
p oduc ion, s o age and deli e y wi h ca go handling in modula and scalable o ma s. Such
e minal concep s should enable SMPs o e-in eg a e in o sus ainable anspo chains and
e i alise inland wa e ways as iable anspo al e na i e wi hin he Eu ope’s logis ics
ecosys em.
3.3 Sys emic anspo was e om subop imal u ilisa ion o ca go uni s
In Eu ope, 21.8% o o al oad eigh ehicle kilome es ca y no hing, wi h a signi ican
disc epancy be ween emp y kilome es in na ional anspo (25.9) compa ed o in e na ional
anspo (13.1%) [100]. When compa ing non-emp y ip a e age loads wi h he a e age
capaci y o uck weigh s classi ica ions (ex apola ed In Eu ope, 21.8% o o al oad eigh
ehicle kilome es ca y no hing, wi h a signi ican disc epancy be ween emp y kilome es in
na ional anspo (25.9) compa ed o in e na ional anspo (13.1%) [100]. When compa ing
non-emp y ip a e age loads wi h he a e age capaci y o uck weigh s classi ica ions
(ex apola ed om [100] & [101]), load u ilisa ion pe loaded ip is a ound 75.0%, meaning ha
25% o aile space emains unused. Thus, when ac o ing in bo h emp y ips and unused spaced
in non-emp y ips, sys em-wide u ilisa ion d ops o a ound 59%, highligh ing majo
ine iciencies in Eu opean eigh anspo . Howe e , do no e ha he da a in [100] & [101] is
gi en in weigh s and no in olumes. Gi en ha some commodi ies may use 100% o he olume
capaci y o a uck anspo , bu no i s weigh capaci y, he abo e in e ences on aile u ilisa ion
should be used wi h cau ion.
This unde u ilisa ion ex ends beyond oad anspo , as wa e bo ne anspo also su e s
om emp y o pa ially loaded con aine s, al hough p ecise u ilisa ion pe cen ages a e di icul o
measu e due o limi ed da a a ailabili y [34]. Fo emp y shipping con aine s, eposi ioning is in
i sel an a ea o esea ch wi h nume ous me hods, models, and applica ions [102]. The cos s o
eposi ioning emp y con aine s in he global shipping ne wo k a e es ima ed a 15-20 billion USD
pe yea on a e age, ep esen ing 5-8% o o al ope a ing cos s o mos ca ie s [103]. These
ine iciencies mainly s em om imbalances in a ic lows on mos ade ou es. Fo example, on
Asia-Eu ope ade ou es, 16.1 million TEU a e mo ed wes wa ds whe eas “only” 6.9 million TEU
mo ed eas wa ds (a 2.33 : 1.00 a io) in 2024 [104]. Wi hin Eu ope, simila imbalances a e
obse ed be ween low a ios (impo : expo ) and ill a es (loaded : emp y) [105]. In addi ion
o emp y con aine eposi ioning, wa e bo ne anspo also expe iences issues wi h pa ly- illed
anspo uni s. Fo ins ance, o US-impo s in 2018, only 64.4% o con aine s decla ed as “Full-
Con aine -Load” (FCL) we e ac ually ull, meaning ha 35.6% o he decla ed con aine s we e in
ac “Less-Than-a-Con aine -Load (LCL)” [106].
Imp o ed ca go consolida ion o bo h anspo asse s (ships) and anspo uni s
( aile s/con aine s) is key o imp o e he u ilisa ion o logis ics esou ces and hus he
en i onmen al impac o supply chains [107]. Howe e , he compe i i eness o wa e bo ne
anspo depends hea ily on high and balanced u ilisa ion, as oad anspo can mo e easily
ou compe e and op imise on e u n ou es wi h ma ginal cos s [108]. Consequen ly, no all modes
can consolida e wi h he same ease. While consolida ion in IWT can educe anspo
ine iciencies, i is dependen on a s a egic hin e land placemen on he con e gence o la ge
ca go lows [109]. E en hen, he app oach is only easible i he majo i y o he eligible con aine s
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a e LCLs and i anshipmen cos s a e kep o an absolu e minimum (ibid.). The eloca ion o
c oss-docking ope a ions o po a eas can enhance e iciency, educe emissions and imp o e
hin e land con aine u ilisa ion, bu he pe o mance o consolida ion s a egies mus be ailo ed
o he shipmen dis ance, ca go ype, load ac o , u gency and he p opo ion o LCLs [110].
Howe e , he poo ope a ional and comme cial coo dina ion ha exis be ween ba ge ope a o s
and deep-sea e minal ope a o s oday may keep hin e land consolida ion e o s u ile i
s uc u al changes a e no made [111]. In u ban logis ics, consolida ion cen es a e seen as i al
o sus ainable ci y dis ibu ion [112], [113], ye hey emain poo ly implemen ed in eali y [114],
[115]. Municipali ies a e inc easingly deploying inancial and egula o y measu es such as
subsidies and manda o y use o consolida ion cen es o incen i ize g eene u ban logis ics [116].
Howe e , consolida ed anspo also has d awbacks. Fi s , i equi es ime o ga he ca go
asynch onously, complica ing consolida ed jus -in- ime (JIT) deli e ies [117]. Second, deli e y
speed and eliabili y o en depend on se ice ype (e.g. same day s. de e ed deli e ies), wi h
as e op ions no mally no pe mi ing consolida ion delays (ibid.). Thi d, gi en ha alue and
ime-c i icali y di e be ween commodi y classi ica ions [118], consolida ion may be mo e
easible o homogenous goods, making i di icul o consolida e he e ogeneous lows o goods in
gene al.
In summa y, low u ilisa ion o anspo asse s and uni s ac oss modali ies e eals majo
ine iciencies in he Eu opean logis ics ecosys em, inc easing emissions and in la ing cos s. While
ca go consolida ion is c ucial, especially o sus ainable modes like wa e bo ne anspo wi h
limi ed backhaul op ions, i o en ails due o in as uc u al, empo al, and comme cial
challenges. Consequen ly, he e is a need o explo e new o ms o consolida ion concep s ha go
beyond adi ional c oss-docking models, po en ially enabling mul iple anspo cus ome s o
sha e segmen ed con aine space a he poin o loading and unloading.
4. The Solu ion Space
Sec ion 3 discussed he ba ie s o sus ainable logis ics in he b oad sense and modal shi in
pa icula , and iden i ied h ee main p oblem a eas; he cen alisa ion o ca go lows a ound la ge
seapo s ha accommoda es inc easingly la ge ocean-going ships and has led o modal shi
owa ds oad; he u gen need o sea and inland po s o adop a pi o al ole in enabling shipping
sec o deca bonisa ion and he isk o ene gy cen alisa ion unless solu ions suppo ing SMPs
a e ound; and widesp ead ine iciencies due o unde u ilised anspo capaci y o IWT
inc easing emissions and cos . To o e come hese p oblems, his sec ion i s de i es
equi emen s ha solu ions mus mee , and hen, p oposes a se o inno a i e, modula
concep ualiza ions o e i alise abandoned o unde u ilised SMPs, suppo he ansi ion owa d
ze o-emission IWT, and imp o e load ac o pe o mance o wa e bo ne con aine anspo .
Toge he , hese concep ualiza ions ep esen an in e wined solu ion space aimed a making he
logis ics ecosys ems o he u u e an “e en playing ield”.
4.1 How o e i alise and ein eg a e unused e minal in as uc u e and SMPs in o he anspo
ecosys em?
The consequence o a highly cen alised wa e bo ne anspo is ha he e is no o ex emely
limi ed use o old anshipmen in as uc u e. In many Eu opean ci ies, o me anshipmen
loca ions in he ci y cen e ha e been abandoned and eplaced wi h new and la ge e minals a
he ou ski s o he agglome a ion, so ha he e is (nea ly) no anshipmen ac i i y le in he ci y
cen es (see e.g. he cases o Go henbu g [119], Sou hamp on [119], Ro e dam [119][120],
Caglia i [121], Ca ania [121] and T ies e [121]). Consequen ly, wa e bo ne anspo is mo ing o
he la ge e minal loca ions ou side o he ci ies, wi h he side e ec ha ca go is being deli e ed
by uck in o he ci y cen es and o he consignees close o wa e . This subsequen ly causes
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conges ion e ec s on he oad ne wo k and signi ican ex e nal cos s o ci ies and socie ies [10].
While nume ous s uc u ally sound bu unused quays and in as uc u es emains [32], ca go
owne s ha e inc easingly limi ed wa e bo ne se ices, as no ou es a e going o hese abandoned
e minals, lea ing he ca go owne o u ilise oadbo ne anspo as he only exis ing op ion.
While small au onomous ships o e a signi ican po en ial o e e hese endencies (see
Sec ion 1), hey will only be able o capi alise on hei po en ial i anshipmen loca ions a e also
ac i a ed as well. This is o majo signi icance as only hen smalle wa e ways can be se ed, and
a su icien ly la ge ne wo k co e age wi h by new anspo se ices can be o e ed. Re-
es ablishing anshipmen a such unused quays along he inland wa e ways can be achie ed
h ough di e se measu es, ei he on he sho eside o aboa d au onomous ships. One could
imagine ha a solu ion would be ships wi h hei own onboa d ca go handling equipmen .
Howe e , he e a e se e al issues ha p e en ha as an op ion, especially o small ships. Fi s ly,
onboa d c anes would equi e space and hus educe ca go capaci y, secondly, s abili y would be
di icul o achie e o small ships since he h andling o high weigh ca go uni s, like a con aine ,
will cause huge momen s ha will lead o he capsize o he ship. Finally, e en i s abili y issues
could be sol ed, some h andling equipmen on he quay would be needed anyway as con aine s a e
ypically des ined o somewhe e else hen on he quay. In summa y, ca ying onboa d c anes on
small ships would hampe hei compe i i eness, and mos likely some quay sid e equipmen
would s ill be needed.
The o he op ion is hen o de elop e minal in as uc u e o enable he anshipmen o
ca go a hese o me ly used in as uc u al si es. Howe e , he challenge is ha es ablishing a
adi ional e minal is expensi e and ypically implies in es men in pe manen in as uc u e.
Which implies a need o signi ican ca go olumes o a longe pe iod. O he w ise, he in es men
isk would be oo high. To educe he in es men isk, wha is needed is in as uc u e ha has
minimal in es men equi emen s and which, ideally, can be eloca ed a a ela i ely low cos .
Wha is needed is a “ e minal-as-a-se ice” concep whe e he e minal is mobile in he sense ha
i is semi-pe manen bu eloca able such ha i can be es ablished somewhe e else.
This need spawned he idea o he Tempo a y Po Te minals (TPTs) concep . The TPTs
should be lexible and modula logis ics nodes designed o enable ca go handling in unde u ilised,
cons ained, o non-pe m anen loca ions. Unlike adi ional e minals, TPTs needs o be able o
apidly deploy, ailo ed o speci ic ope a ional con ex s, and pa icula ly sui ed o en i onmen s
whe e building pe manen e minals is no o in e es . The TPTs would need o p o ide h ee co e
unc ions: ca go ha ndling, ca go s o age, and e minal access and secu i y. Each co e unc ion is
discussed in he ollowing wi h se e al possible ealisa ions ha can be combined in any shape o
o m o ensu e ha he cons uc ed TPT conce p is adap ed speci ically o he con ex and
logis ical needs o he use case.
Ca go Handling Equipmen (CHE). Re e s o he anshipmen o ca go o wha ou possible
ealisa ions ha e been iden i ied: 1) Fixed asho e CHE includes c anes on quay-side in as uc u e.
These solu ions p o ide high li ing capaci y and s able ope a ion bu a e only easible when basic
in as uc u e is a ailable. While o e ing high handling e iciency, ixed asho e CHE o en i n ol es
signi ican capi al expendi u e (CAPEX) and is less sui ed o empo al se ups wi hou p io
in es men . 2) Fixed a loa CHE includes c anes ha a e mo un ed on ei he inland ships o ba ges.
This combin a ion allows eposi ioning o he CHE along he wa e way wi hou eliance on sho e-
side in as uc u e, o e ing inc eased lexibili y a abandoned o minimally equipp ed e minals.
3) Mobile asho e CHE includes each s acke s o ug mas e s ( o LoLo o RoRo) empo a ily
s a ioned quayside, wi h po en ial eloca ion oppo uni ies o o he e minals o TPTs. Thei ee
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egional deca bonisa ion and modal shi goals [77], [89], [99]. Howe e , CETs a e no a uni e sal
ix. Thei success depends on egula o y suppo , inancing, and egional coo dina ion. Sha ed
in as uc u e and in e -sec o al dependencies emain ulne abili ies, especially whe e indus ial
and ene gy asse s misalign wi h po goals [97]. While CETs educe eliance on uel-speci ic
in as uc u e, hey do no elimina e he complexi ies o in eg a ing di e se ene gy sou ces o
managing luc ua ing supply and demand. Thei iabili y also hinges on gene a ing su icien
h oughpu and su plus ene gy - condi ions no gua an eed o all SMPs [89], [91].
3) Enabling pa -load consolida ion concep s o educe logis ical ine iciencies and anspo
was e by he implemen a ion o Mobile Dis ibu ion Cen e (MDCs). The MDC concep add esses
he ine iciency challenges h ough a lexible, decen alised model ha enhances asse u ilisa ion.
By enabling sha ed con aine space among shippe s and suppo ing bo h consolida ion and
dis ibu ion, MDCs imp o e ill a es ac oss anspo modes [109], [110], [111]. Thei adap able
deploymen o e come spa ial and empo al misma ches ha hinde adi ional consolida ion
[111], [114], [115], [117]. MDCs also suppo dual-cycling, allowing e u n logis ics like eusable
packaging and was e collec ion, hus p omo ing ci cula logis ics and sus ainabili y [108]. Thei
modula design in eg a es wi h exis ing po and in e modal in as uc u e, educing c oss-
docking needs and enabling apid deploymen [109], [110], [111]. Howe e , MDC e ec i eness
depends on comme cial coope a ion, digi al coo dina ion, and ha monised schedules - a eas ha
ha e his o ically limi ed consolida ion [111]. Asynch onous ca go a ailabili y and ime-sensi i e
deli e ies may also es ic MDC use in high-speed o high- alue supply chains [86][87].
Mo eo e , ansi ioning o decen alised logis ics equi es cul u al and ope a ional shi s, which
may ace esis ance wi hou clea incen i es o egula o y suppo [116].
While he s udy maps ou o e a ching p oblems and po en ial solu ions, i s indings has i s
limi a ions, which calls o u he in es iga ion. Fi s , he p oposed concep ualisa ions we e no
de eloped in de ail, no sc u inized in e ms o wha echnical solu ions would be op imal in
di e en se ings. Fu he mo e, hei applica ion in an ac ual anspo sys em should be
e alua ed o be e unde s and he impac , in mo e quan i a i e e ms, o deploying hem. These
aspec s, along wi h o he s, a e expec ed o be add essed wi hin he AUTOFLEX p ojec [33].
Acknowledgemen s
The esea ch leading o he esul s p esen ed in his esea ch a icle has ecei ed unding om
he Eu opean Union’s Resea ch and Inno a ion P o g amme, Ho izon Eu ope, unde G an
Ag eemen No. 101136257 (AUTOFLEX) and om he EFRE.NRW (2014-2020) Join Resea ch
Funding P og amme unde g an ag eemen EFRE-0801222 (ML-2-1-010A, DeConT ans).
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