Co esponding au ho : Ind aji Bane jee
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Cooking, Cul u e, and Ca e: A C i ical Re iew o he Decline o Home Cooking and I s
Implica ions o Heal h, Family and Socie y
Ind aji Bane jee *
Jada pu Uni e si y, 188, Raja S.C. Mallick Road, Jada pu , Kolka a – 700032, Wes Bengal, India.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 2013-2022
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 20 July 2025; e ised on 27 Augus 2025; accep ed on 29 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.3050
Abs ac
This e iew c i ically examines he global decline o home cooking and i s a - eaching consequences o nu i ion,
amily cohesion, cul u al iden i y, men al heal h, and social equi y. D awing upon quan i a i e, quali a i e, and mixed-
me hod esea ch, he pape si ua es cooking a he in e sec ion o heal h, cul u al ansmission, emo ional labou , and
psychological well-being. E idence shows ha egula home cooking is associa ed wi h imp o ed die quali y, educed
obesi y isk, g ea e amily bonding, and enhanced happiness, wi h many pa icipan s desc ibing i as a sou ce o
mind ulness and s ess elie . A he same ime, eminis and sociological c i iques cau ion agains oman icising
oodwo k, highligh ing how he bu dens o cooking emain une enly dis ibu ed by gende , class, and ime po e y.
Syn hesising cu en schola ship, his e iew a gues ha cooking mus be e amed as a socially embedded p ac ice
shaped by s uc u al inequali ies a he han as an indi idual mo al esponsibili y. Policy di ec ions include subsidising
esh p oduce, expanding culina y educa ion, p omo ing gende equi y in domes ic labou , and in eg a ing cooking in o
public heal h in e en ions. Ul ima ely, he decline o home cooking is no only a nu i ional issue bu also a cul u al,
psychological, and ela ional challenge. Re i ing i equi es sys emic suppo s, heo e ical sensi i i y, and cul u al
inclusi i y a he han nos algic appeals.
Keywo ds: Home Cooking; Family Sys ems; Feminis Food S udies; Nu i ion; Cul u al Con inui y; Domes ic Labou
1. In oduc ion
The decline o home cooking in he pas ou decades ep esen s one o he mos p o ound ans o ma ions in ood
cul u e ac oss he globe. His o ically, cooking wi hin he household se ed as a co ne s one o daily li e—an ac ha
nou ished he body, cemen ed amily bonds, and ansmi ed cul u al memo y. Schola s ac oss an h opology, sociology,
nu i ion, and psychology ha e highligh ed ha meals p epa ed and sha ed wi hin amilies unc ioned as mo e han a
p ac ical necessi y: hey embodied i uals o ca e, in e gene a ional eaching, and exp essions o cul u al belonging
(Mills e al., 2015; Teoh, 2023).
Ye since he la e wen ie h cen u y, apid indus ialisa ion o he ood sys em, changing gende oles, and he ise o
p ocessed and con enience oods ha e eshaped domes ic ki chens. Households inc easingly ely on eady- o-ea meals,
es au an dining, and ood deli e y pla o ms. Da a om high-income coun ies indica e ha ewe han 60% o meals
consumed a home a e cooked om sc a ch (La elle e al., 2016). Middle-income coun ies such as India and B azil
display hyb id p ac ices, blending adi ional meals wi h con enience oods as u ban li es yles accele a e (Ra hi e al.,
2025).
The shi away om cooking has p o oked di e gen in e p e a ions. Nu i ionis s o en ame cooking as a p e en i e
s a egy agains obesi y and ch onic disease, highligh ing i s ole in p omo ing die a y quali y and educing
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consump ion o ul a-p ocessed oods (Chen e al., 2025; Mon ei o e al., 2018). Family heo is s and psychologis s
s ess i s signi icance o cohesion, iden i y, and in e gene a ional ansmission o alues (Teoh, 2023). Feminis
schola s, howe e , cau ion agains he oman icisa ion o domes ic cooking, eminding us ha oodwo k has his o ically
been gende ed labou disp opo iona ely bo ne by women (Bowen, B en on, & Ellio , 2014; Fielding-Singh, 2023).
Thus, home cooking is nei he a simple ac o p epa ing ood no a uni e sally posi i e p ac ice. I is a complex and
con es ed si e whe e issues o heal h, iden i y, ca e, and inequali y con e ge. This pape aims o p o ide a c i ical e iew
o esea ch on he decline o home cooking, in eg a ing quan i a i e, quali a i e, and policy-o ien ed s udies. The
objec i es a e h ee old:
• To examine he heal h and nu i ional e idence linking home cooking wi h die a y ou comes.
• To explo e sociocul u al and emo ional dimensions o cooking, including i s ole in amily sys ems and cul u al
ansmission.
• To e alua e s uc u al cons ain s and policy esponses ha shape who cooks, how o en, and unde wha
condi ions.
By syn hesising hese s ands, his e iew a gues ha cooking mus be unde s ood as a socially embedded p ac ice
shaped by s uc u al inequali ies a he han as an indi idual li es yle choice. Re i ing domes ic cooking, he e o e,
equi es s uc u al suppo s—a o dable ood access, ime equi y, gende edis ibu ion o labou , and cul u al
sensi i i y— a he han nos algic appeals o a “ e u n” o adi ional amily ki chens.
2. Li e a u e Re iew and C i ical Analysis
2.1. Quan i a i e E idence: Heal h and Nu i ional Dimensions
One o he s onges lines o esea ch on home cooking conce ns i s measu able associa ion wi h die a y quali y and
physical heal h. Epidemiological s udies consis en ly show ha equen home cooking co ela es wi h g ea e
consump ion o ui s, ege ables, and whole oods, alongside lowe in ake o ul a-p ocessed i ems.
Mills e al. (2017), in a la ge UK coho s udy o mo e han 11,000 adul s, epo ed ha hose who a e home-cooked
meals mo e han i e imes pe week consumed on a e age 62 g mo e ui and 98 g mo e ege ables daily han hose
cooking ewe han h ee imes a week. These pa icipan s we e also 28% less likely o ha e an o e weigh body mass
index and 24% less likely o p esen excess body a . Impo an ly, hese associa ions held e en a e adjus ing o
socioeconomic s a us, educa ion, and li es yle ac o s, sugges ing ha cooking exe s an independen p o ec i e e ec
on die quali y.
Chen e al. (2025), examining amily cooking in Taipei, expanded his nu i ional a gumen by showing ha sha ed
cooking ou ines enhanced psychological lou ishing, which i sel is a media o o heal hie ea ing pa e ns. In o he
wo ds, he ac o cooking oge he gene a es no only immedia e nu i ional bene i s bu also longe - e m beha iou al
esilience ha suppo s be e die s.
Ne e heless, quan i a i e e idence also e eals limi s. Mills e al. (2017) ound no signi ican associa ions be ween
equency o home cooking and bioma ke s such as blood p essu e, choles e ol, o HbA1c once adjus men s we e
applied. Simila ly, Polak e al. (2023) demons a ed ha he expec ed heal h gains om cooking in e en ions depend
s ongly on pa icipan s’ psychological eadiness o change. These indings highligh ha cooking alone is no a panacea
o die - ela ed non-communicable diseases; a he , i is one elemen in a wide ecology o heal h beha iou s.
O e all, quan i a i e e idence obus ly links cooking wi h imp o ed die a y quali y and modes educ ions in adiposi y,
bu causal pa hways o b oade me abolic heal h emain less clea .
2.2. Quali a i e Insigh s: Sociocul u al and Emo ional Dimensions
While numbe s es ablish co ela ion, quali a i e esea ch cap u es he meanings o cooking as li ed expe ience. He e,
schola s a gue ha cooking is no educible o nu ien op imisa ion bu is embedded in emo ion, memo y, and iden i y.
Mills, B own, W ieden, and Whi e (2020), analysing in e iews and ocus g oups in he UK and US, ound ha
pa icipan s a ely de ined cooking in nu i ional e ms. Ins ead, hey spoke o cooking as “ca e,” “lo e,” and “pe sonal
e o ,” wi h heal h ou comes ea ed as seconda y o inciden al. Fo many, a “home-cooked meal” was no de ined by
calo ic composi ion bu by whe he i was p epa ed om sc a ch wi h a en ion and a ec ion.
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Teoh (2023) deepens his pe spec i e by showing how amily cooking i uals ope a e as a o m o cul u al
communica ion. In his e hnog aphy o in e gene a ional households, ecipes we e ea ed as “s o ies,” wi h he ki chen
se ing as a si e whe e alues, adi ions, and his o ies we e ep oduced. This aligns wi h Bowen’s amily sys ems
heo y, which posi ions sha ed i uals as c ucial o cohesion and esilience.
Mazzone o e al. (2020), h ough a me a-analysis o quali a i e s udies, iden i ied h ee ecu ing hemes: cooking as
connec ion (s eng hening bonds), as cul u al exp ession (p ese ing iden i y), and as au onomy (exe ing con ol o e
one’s ood en i onmen ). These dimensions illus a e how cooking unc ions simul aneously as ma e ial p ac ice and
symbolic ac .
Howe e , quali a i e e idence also unde sco es ambi alence. Neuman e al. (2021) documen ed childhood ood
memo ies among low-income amilies, no ing ha while cooking some imes e oked wa m h and oge he ness, i was
also associa ed wi h s ess, sca ci y, and s igma. The ki chen could be bo h a si e o in imacy and a eminde o
inequali y.
Such s udies emind us ha cooking is no uni e sally empowe ing; i s meanings shi acco ding o con ex , esou ces,
and his o ies.
2.3. Cooking as a Pa hway o Happiness and Men al Well-Being
The ela ionship be ween cooking, happiness, and men al heal h is a ela i ely unde explo ed ye p o oundly signi ican
dimension o ood s udies. While nu i ionis s emphasise he physiological bene i s o home-cooked meals and
sociologis s o eg ound hei cul u al esonance, psychologis s and men al heal h schola s a e inc easingly a en i e o
how cooking can unc ion as an emo ional esou ce. The ac o p epa ing ood is no only an exe cise in sus enance o
adi ion bu also a o m o a ec i e labou ha can gene a e joy, es o e calm, and s eng hen esilience agains s ess.
In many con ex s, especially o women, cooking is desc ibed as a “s ess bus e ” ha helps o emo e nega i i y and
c ea e a sense o pu pose and ul ilmen in daily li e.
Resea ch on e e yday c ea i i y unde sco es his he apeu ic po en ial. Conne e al. (2016), o ins ance, demons a e
ha small-scale c ea i e ac s—including cooking—a e posi i ely associa ed wi h daily lou ishing, ele a ed mood, and
psychological esilience. The senso y imme sion o selec ing ing edien s, chopping ege ables, s i ing sauces, o
ga nishing a dish can be likened o p ac ices o mind ulness, in which indi iduals engage deeply wi h he p esen
momen . This embodied ocus helps o di e a en ion om sou ces o anxie y, he eby p oducing a calming e ec ha
psychologis s o en iden i y as low o abso p ion. Cooking hus ope a es as bo h a u ili a ian and medi a i e ac ,
in eg a ing body and mind in ways ha p omo e emo ional balance.
Fo many women, he ki chen is desc ibed no simply as a si e o labou bu as a space o emo ional elease. Women
equen ly epo ha cooking con ibu es o hei happiness, o en desc ibing i as a “s ess bus e ” ha helps hem o
dispel nega i i y accumula ed om daily ou ines. P epa ing a meal o lo ed ones b ings a sense o ul ilmen and
nu u ance, ein o cing social bonds and a i ming sel -wo h. Such dynamics esona e wi h heo ies o social bonding
and ecip oci y in posi i e psychology, whe e ac s o gi ing and nu u ing a e closely ied o enhanced well-being. Chen
e al. (2025) illus a e his connec ion in hei s udy o amily cooking ou ines in Taipei, inding ha sha ed ood
p epa a ion gene a ed no only heal hie die a y pa e ns bu also g ea e psychological lou ishing. These indings
highligh ha he bene i s o cooking ex end beyond nu ien in ake o include he cul i a ion o emo ional esilience
and in e pe sonal closeness.
Impo an ly, he capaci y o cooking o educe s ess is no me ely anecdo al bu suppo ed by eme ging he apeu ic
models. In occupa ional he apy, o example, cooking ac i i ies a e inc easingly inco po a ed as in e en ions o
indi iduals dealing wi h dep ession, anxie y, o auma. Known as “culina y he apy,” hese p og ammes u ilise ood
p epa a ion o build ou ine, p o ide senso y s imula ion, and os e a sense o accomplishmen . P epa ing a meal om
s a o inish o en gi es pa icipan s angible e idence o hei agency, coun e ac ing eelings o helplessness ha
accompany many men al heal h challenges. Simila ly, culina y medicine ini ia i es, which blend nu i ion educa ion
wi h hands-on cooking, sugges ha he ki chen can be e amed as a si e o bo h p e en i e heal h and men al
es o a ion.
Ne e heless, his celeb a o y aming equi es nuance. As eminis schola s emind us, cooking has his o ically been
an une enly dis ibu ed esponsibili y, disp opo iona ely alling upon women. While some women ind happiness in
cooking, o he s expe ience i as an obliga ion ha compounds exis ing s ess, pa icula ly in dual-ea ne o low-income
households. Bowen, B en on, and Ellio (2014) a gue ha exho a ions o “cook mo e” can in ensi y p essu e a he
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han alle ia e i , ans o ming wha migh o he wise be a pleasu able p ac ice in o a sou ce o guil and a igue. Thus,
cooking’s ole in p omo ing happiness canno be de ached om he s uc u al con ex s— ime a ailabili y, social
expec a ions, economic esou ces— ha condi ion whe he i is expe ienced as leisu e o bu den.
A balanced iew, hen, ecognises he ambi alence o cooking o men al heal h. On one hand, i unc ions as an
exp essi e ou le ha os e s mind ulness, c ea i i y, and posi i e mood; on he o he , i isks becoming an en o ced
du y ha ep oduces inequali y. Women’s oices a e especially elling he e: many es i y ha cooking helps hem “ eel
happy” and “ emo e nega i i y,” ye o he s acknowledge momen s when he same ac becomes d aining. Bo h accoun s
a e alid and coexis in ension, eminding schola s and policymake s o a oid simplis ic oman icisa ion.
In conclusion, cooking ep esen s a i al si e whe e happiness, s ess, and men al heal h in e sec . By acknowledging i s
dual po en ial—as a sou ce o joy and as a locus o labou —schola ship can mo e owa d a mo e comp ehensi e
unde s anding o i s psychological implica ions. Fo u u e esea ch, i is necessa y o in es iga e no only how cooking
con ibu es o indi idual happiness bu also unde wha condi ions i ceases o be es o a i e. Policies and in e en ions
ha seek o e i e home cooking mus he e o e in eg a e men al heal h pe spec i es, ensu ing ha he ki chen is
en isioned no as a space o compulsion bu as one o choice, c ea i i y, and wellbeing.
2.4. Feminis and Sociological C i iques: Cooking as Labou
Pe haps he sha pes c i iques come om eminis ood s udies. Bowen, B en on, and Ellio (2014), in hei in luen ial
book P essu e Cooke , a gue ha oman icising home cooking obscu es he bu dens i imposes, especially on women.
Thei e hnog aphic esea ch wi h Ame ican amilies e ealed ha he expec a ion o “cook mo e” o en in ensi ied
s ess a he han alle ia ing i , as mo he s s uggled o balance wo k, childca e, and domes ic labou .
Fielding-Singh (2023) ex ends his c i ique, si ua ing eeding wi hin b oade ans o ma ions o gende oles, class
s a i ica ion, and cul u al expec a ions. She iden i ies dis inc ypologies—“low-p io i y cooks,” “e e yday cooks,” and
“hobby che s”— ha map on o inequali ies o ime, esou ces, and social capi al. Fo low-income mo he s, cooking was
amed as a mo al obliga ion despi e esou ce cons ain s, highligh ing he gende ed and classed dimensions o
oodwo k.
Feminis schola s hus cau ion agains ea ing cooking as a mo al impe a i e o uni e sal good. They emind us ha
domes ic labou has his o ically been in isible, eminised, and unde alued. Calls o e i e cooking, wi hou s uc u al
suppo o gende edis ibu ion, isk einsc ibing hese inequi ies.
2.5. Mixed-Me hod and In e en ion S udies
Mixed-me hod s udies b idge he gap be ween s a is ical e idence and li ed expe ience. Polak e al. (2023) examined
pa icipan s p epa ing o a cooking in e en ion ial and ound ha pe cep ions a ied acco ding o hei “s age o
change.” Those in he ac ion s age amed cooking as sel -e icacy and au onomy, while hose in con empla ion
an icipa ed s ess and di icul y.
Reicks e al. (2014), in a sys ema ic e iew o in e en ion p og ammes, concluded ha hands-on cooking educa ion
inc eased sel -e icacy and heal hy ood choices in bo h adul s and child en. Howe e , he long- e m sus ainabili y o
hese e ec s emains unce ain.
Such s udies unde line ha p omo ing cooking is no simply abou eaching skills; i also in ol es ecognising
psychological eadiness, social suppo , and en i onmen al cons ain s.
2.6. S uc u al and Policy Con ex s
Finally, esea ch si ua es cooking wi hin wide s uc u al ends. Mon ei o e al. (2018) link declining cooking o he
ise o ul a-p ocessed oods, a guing ha indus ial ood sys ems ac i ely displace culina y adi ions. Ra hi, Riddell,
and Wo sley (2025), s udying u ban Indian households, show how ca egi e s balance adi ion wi h mode ni y,
nego ia ing p essu es o ime and u ban li es yles.
La elle e al. (2016) highligh ba ie s such as a igue, cos , and ime po e y, pa icula ly among younge gene a ions.
These s uc u al ac o s emind us ha cooking is no me ely an indi idual choice bu one shaped by labou ma ke s,
gende no ms, and ood en i onmen s.
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2.7. Analy ical Syn hesis o he Li e a u e
F om his e iew, se e al insigh s eme ge:
• Nu i ional E idence: F equen cooking co ela es wi h imp o ed die quali y and modes educ ions in obesi y
isk.
• Cul u al Signi icance: Cooking is expe ienced as ca e, memo y, and iden i y a he han simply heal h
in e en ion.
• Inequali ies: Feminis c i iques highligh how bu dens o cooking all unequally, o en in ensi ying gende and
class di ides.
• In e en ions: Educa ion and suppo p og ammes help, bu e ec i eness depends on eadiness and
sus ainabili y.
• S uc u al Cons ain s: B oade economic and social sys ems—wo k hou s, p ocessed ood ma ke s, gende
no ms—shape cooking p ac ices mo e han indi idual willpowe .
Toge he , hese s ands demons a e ha cooking is a deeply embedded social p ac ice, no a neu al beha iou . I s
decline e lec s no jus li es yle choices bu ans o ma ions in labou , economy, and cul u e.
3. Policy Implica ions and Fu u e Di ec ions
3.1. Re aming Home Cooking Beyond Indi idual Responsibili y
One o he clea es messages om he li e a u e is ha home cooking should no be cas as an indi idual mo al
obliga ion. Al hough s udies consis en ly show ha cooking is associa ed wi h heal hie die s (Mills e al., 2017; Chen e
al., 2025), esea che s also cau ion agains o e simpli ying he issue in o a “jus cook mo e” di ec i e (Bowen e al.,
2014; Fielding-Singh, 2023). Such amings isk s igma ising amilies who canno easibly cook daily due o esou ce
cons ain s, long wo king hou s, o ca egi ing esponsibili ies.
Ins ead, policymake s should acknowledge cooking as a s uc u ally media ed p ac ice. Gende no ms, income
inequali y, and labou ma ke p essu es all shape whe he households can ealis ically p epa e meals. By shi ing
discou se away om indi idual blame and owa d sys emic condi ions, go e nmen s and ins i u ions can c ea e
en i onmen s whe e cooking becomes mo e accessible and less bu densome.
3.2. Economic Suppo s and Food Access
3.2.1. Subsidising F esh P oduce
A o dabili y is one o he mos consis en ba ie s o home cooking, pa icula ly o low-income households. S udies
demons a e ha he cos o esh ui s, ege ables, and unp ocessed s aples s ongly de e mines die quali y
(Mon ei o e al., 2018). Policies such as di ec subsidies, ouche s o esh p oduce, o ax educ ions on whole oods
could ip he balance away om ul a-p ocessed op ions, which a e o en cheape and mo e con enien .
3.2.2. Regula ing Ul a-P ocessed Food Ma ke ing
Ano he s uc u al ac o in luencing cooking decline is he pe asi e ma ke ing o eady- o-ea oods. Mon ei o e al.
(2018) a gue ha indus ial ood sys ems ac i ely displace adi ional cooking h ough agg essi e p omo ion o ul a-
p ocessed i ems. Res ic ing ad e isemen s—especially hose a ge ing child en—could educe no malisa ion o
con enience oods and es o e he isibili y o esh, whole ing edien s.
3.2.3. Local Food Sys ems and Communi y Ma ke s
Communi y-suppo ed ag icul u e (CSA), a me s’ ma ke s, and u ban ga dening ini ia i es can make aw ing edien s
mo e a ailable in unde se ed a eas. E idence sugges s ha p oximi y o esh p oduce ou le s co ela es wi h highe
cooking equency (La elle e al., 2016). By in es ing in local supply chains, municipali ies can s eng hen ood
so e eign y and educe dependence on indus ial con enience op ions.
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3.3. Time, Labou , and Gende Equi y
3.3.1. Redis ibu ing Domes ic Labou
Feminis c i iques emphasise ha cooking esponsibili ies a e une enly dis ibu ed, alling disp opo iona ely on
women (Bowen e al., 2014). Policy mus he e o e mo e beyond p omo ing cooking o edis ibu ing who cooks.
Educa ional campaigns can challenge s e eo ypes by encou aging men and child en o sha e culina y labou .
3.3.2. Wo kplace Policies o Wo k–Li e Balance
Cooking equi es ime as much as ing edien s. Long wo king hou s and p eca ious jobs e ode he possibili y o egula
meal p epa a ion. Flexible scheduling, amily- iendly wo king hou s, and pa en al lea e policies indi ec ly c ea e
condi ions o mo e equi able ood p ac ices.
3.3.3. Suppo o Ca egi e s
Special a en ion should be gi en o single pa en s and ca egi e s, who o en expe ience he sha pes ension be ween
ood labou and o he esponsibili ies. Ta ge ed suppo s—such as subsidised meal ki s wi h aw ing edien s,
communi y ki chens, o sha ed cooking coope a i es—could alle ia e his double bu den.
3.4. Culina y Educa ion and In e gene a ional Skill T ansmission
3.4.1. School-Based Cooking Cu icula
Resea ch shows ha cooking skills a e o en los be ween gene a ions as con enience oods become no malised (Teoh,
2023). In oducing cooking educa ion in o schools could e-es ablish basic compe encies. Beyond nu i ion, such
p og ammes os e con idence, c ea i i y, and esilience among child en (Reicks e al., 2014).
3.4.2. Communi y Ki chens and Skill-Sha ing
Publicly unded communi y ki chens can p o ide bo h access o acili ies and oppo uni ies o collec i e cooking. Such
spaces os e no only skill de elopmen bu also social cohesion, pa icula ly o mig an o low-income amilies.
3.4.3. Culina y Medicine
Heal hca e sys ems inc easingly ecognise cooking as pa o p e en i e ca e. Polak e al. (2023) highligh “culina y
medicine” ini ia i es, whe e physicians in eg a e cooking guidance in o pa ien consul a ions. Embedding p ac ical
cooking in o heal h se ices can ans o m die a y counselling in o ac ionable skills.
3.5. Cul u al Sensi i i y and Inclusi i y
Cooking is no a cul u ally uni o m p ac ice. Ra hi e al. (2025) show ha u ban Indian ca egi e s na iga e be ween
adi ional cooking and mode n cons ain s, p oducing hyb id p ac ices. Immig an communi ies o en ely on cooking
o p ese e cul u al iden i y (Mills e al., 2020). Policies mus espec his di e si y a he han imposing a homogenised
model o “heal hy cooking.”
Communi y-led app oaches, whe e cul u al g oups design hei own ood p og ammes, can s eng hen bo h heal h
ou comes and cul u al esilience. Fo Indigenous popula ions, o ins ance, cooking is ied o ecological s ewa dship and
spi i ual p ac ices. P og ammes ha in eg a e such pe spec i es a oid e asing cul u al knowledge unde he guise o
public heal h.
3.6. Le e aging Technology and Media
Digi al echnologies, o en blamed o he decline o cooking, can also se e as allies. Meal-ki se ices, ecipe pla o ms,
and cooking apps can lowe ba ie s o en y by educing planning and p epa a ion ime. I designed wi h cul u al
di e si y and a o dabili y in mind, such inno a ions could acili a e—no hinde —cooking p ac ices.
Beha iou al economics o e s u he oppo uni ies: supe ma ke s can place esh p oduce in isible, accessible
loca ions; apps can nudge use s owa d home cooking wi h eminde s o ewa ds. E en modes adjus men s, such as
p o iding p e-chopped ege ables a a o dable p ices, ha e been shown o inc ease cooking equency (Reicks e al.,
2014).
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3.7. Heal h Sys ems and P e en i e In e en ions
Gi en he s ong link be ween die and ch onic disease, heal h sys ems ha e a es ed in e es in p omo ing cooking.
Culina y educa ion o medical s uden s equips hem o p o ide p ac ical die a y ad ice (Polak e al., 2023). Insu ance
incen i es—such as educed p emiums o pa icipa ion in e i ied cooking p og ammes—could align economic
mo i a ions wi h p e en i e heal h.
Such ini ia i es emain con o e sial, bu hey ep esen an impo an ecogni ion: cooking is no only a cul u al
p ac ice bu also a public heal h in e en ion.
3.8. Add essing S uc u al Inequali ies
Cooking assumes access o sa e ki chens, unc ioning appliances, and adequa e u ili ies—condi ions no uni e sally
a ailable. Neuman e al. (2021) emphasise ha in e en ions which igno e hese ma e ial cons ain s isk ein o cing
s igma. U ban planning should he e o e ensu e ha housing includes well-equipped ki chens, while po e y alle ia ion
p og ammes mus conside subsidies o u ili ies and cooking in as uc u e.
Food banks and social se ices could in eg a e ecipe guidance and cooking wo kshops alongside ood dis ibu ion,
ensu ing ha aw ing edien s a e no only p o ided bu also usable. Such measu es empowe households a he han
bu dening hem wi h un amilia oods.
3.9. Di ec ions o Fu u e Resea ch
Se e al gaps emain in he schola ship:
• Longi udinal E idence – Mos s udies a e c oss-sec ional. Fu u e esea ch should es ablish causal pa hways
be ween cooking equency and long- e m heal h ou comes.
• C oss-Cul u al Compa isons – Cooking decline un olds di e en ly ac oss socie ies. Compa a i e s udies could
e eal al e na i e models o adap a ion.
• Gende ed Labou – Mo e esea ch is needed on how cooking esponsibili ies shi in dual-ea ne households,
single-pa en amilies, and quee kinship s uc u es.
• Policy E alua ions – Few s udies sys ema ically assess he impac o subsidies, cooking cu icula, o communi y
ki chens. Rigo ous e alua ions would cla i y which in e en ions a e mos e ec i e.
• Technology and Beha iou al Nudges – Li le is known abou how digi al ools in luence cooking habi s. Mixed-
me hod s udies could illumina e hei po en ial as suppo i e aids.
3.10. Summa y o Policy Implica ions
The e iewed e idence poin s owa d a mul i-laye ed pa adigm:
• Heal h P omo ion: Cooking imp o es die quali y bu mus be suppo ed by sys emic change.
• Equi y and Inclusion: S uc u al suppo s— ime, income, cul u al espec —a e essen ial.
• Redis ibu ion: Cooking should be e amed as sha ed labou , no eminised du y.
• Educa ion: Skills mus be augh ac oss schools, communi ies, and heal h sys ems.
• Cul u al Recogni ion: Culina y di e si y and in e gene a ional con inui y mus be celeb a ed.
• S uc u al Suppo s: Sa e ki chens, a o dable p oduce, and labou p o ec ions a e p e equisi es.
4. Discussion
4.1. Re isi ing he Mul i ace ed Role o Home Cooking
The e idence e iewed ac oss quan i a i e, quali a i e, and eminis esea ch unde sco es ha home cooking canno
be educed o a single dimension o heal h beha iou . Ra he , i is a mul i ace ed p ac ice si ua ed a he nexus o
nu i ion, cul u al iden i y, amily cohesion, and labou dynamics.
F om a nu i ional pe spec i e, s udies consis en ly associa e equen cooking wi h imp o ed die quali y, g ea e ui
and ege able consump ion, and lowe le els o obesi y isk (Mills e al., 2017; Chen e al., 2025). Howe e , causal
ela ionships wi h b oade ca diome abolic ou comes emain unde explo ed, sugges ing ha cooking con ibu es
modes ly o physical heal h bu equi es in eg a ion wi h wide li es yle and en i onmen al suppo s.
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F om a cul u al and ela ional s andpoin , cooking eme ges as a p ac ice ich wi h symbolic and emo ional signi icance.
As Teoh (2023) and Mazzone o e al. (2020) demons a e, cooking unc ions as a o m o ca e, memo y, and cul u al
ansmission. Meals p epa ed a home embody lo e, iden i y, and belonging, esona ing a beyond hei nu i ional
alue. This dimension aligns closely wi h amily sys ems heo y, which s esses ha i uals s eng hen cohesion,
ansmi alues, and c ea e esilience ac oss gene a ions.
Ye cooking is also a si e o inequali y. Feminis schola ship eminds us ha oman icising domes ic oodwo k isks
obscu ing i s bu dens, pa icula ly o women who al eady balance employmen , childca e, and ca egi ing (Bowen e
al., 2014; Fielding-Singh, 2023). Fo low-income households, cooking can be simul aneously a sou ce o com o and a
eminde o sca ci y (Neuman e al., 2021). These ensions e eal ha cooking is no an unalloyed good; i can empowe
o cons ain depending on s uc u al con ex s.
Thus, home cooking should be e amed no as a mo al impe a i e bu as a socially embedded p ac ice: an ac i i y
shaped by cul u al na a i es, gende no ms, labou ma ke s, and ood sys ems.
4.2. The Double Bu den: Ca e and Cons ain
A ecu ing heme ac oss he li e a u e is he double bu den o cooking: i embodies ca e and oge he ness, ye i can
also ep oduce s ess and inequali y. Families o en desc ibe home meals as momen s o in imacy and con inui y, ye
he esponsibili y o p oducing hose meals disp opo iona ely alls on women. As PBS-inspi ed s udies and Bowen e
al. (2014) a gue, exho a ions o “cook mo e” may in ensi y a he han elie e domes ic p essu e.
This ambi alence calls o nuanced app oaches. Policies mus a oid oman icisa ion while s ill ecognising he
ela ional wa m h and heal h bene i s o cooking. In e en ions should no simply demand mo e cooking bu ins ead
edis ibu e labou , educe ba ie s, and e ame cooking as sha ed, suppo ed, and alued wo k.
4.3. In e gene a ional T ansmission and Cul u al Con inui y
Cooking plays a pi o al ole in sus aining cul u al he i age. Recipes, echniques, and ood i uals ac as ehicles o
in e gene a ional ansmission, embedding cul u al alues in e e yday p ac ice (Teoh, 2023). In u ban Indian
households, Ra hi e al. (2025) show how ca egi e s adap adi ional p ac ices o mode n cons ain s, p oducing
hyb id cuisines ha bo h p ese e and ans o m cul u al iden i y.
The e osion o cooking he e o e h ea ens mo e han heal h—i isks he loss o cul u al memo y. I ki chens become
me e si es o ehea ing indus ially p oduced oods, oppo uni ies o s o y elling, adi ion, and iden i y-making
diminish. Re i ing cooking mus hus be unde s ood as a p ojec o cul u al p ese a ion as much as nu i ional
in e en ion.
This pe spec i e aligns wi h an h opological heo ies o oodways, which ea ood p ac ices as ca ie s o symbolic
meaning and social o de . Suppo ing cooking is, in e ec , suppo ing he endu ance o cul u al he i age.
4.4. Social Inequali ies and Access o Cooking Resou ces
Cooking p esupposes ce ain in as uc u al condi ions: access o esh ing edien s, unc ional ki chens, ime, and
ene gy. These canno be aken o g an ed. Fo amilies li ing in po e y, he absence o eliable u ili ies, a o dable
g oce ies, o adequa e housing makes cooking a challenge (Neuman e al., 2021).
Wi hou a en ion o hese inequali ies, campaigns p omo ing cooking isk s igma izing he e y g oups mos
cons ained om pa icipa ing. A low-income single mo he wo king mul iple jobs may expe ience “cook mo e”
messaging no as empowe men bu as guil -inducing.
To add ess hese inequi ies, policies mus embed cooking wi hin b oade amewo ks o social jus ice: housing policies
ha ensu e unc ional ki chens, po e y alle ia ion measu es ha subsidise u ili ies and appliances, and u ban planning
ha p o ides a o dable g oce y access. Cooking mus be amed no as an isola ed beha iou bu as an ac i i y
con ingen on s uc u al suppo s.
4.5. Global Pe spec i es: Con e gence and Di e gence
Al hough much schola ship comes om Wes e n con ex s, global s udies e eal bo h con e gence and di e gence in
cooking decline. In high-income coun ies, ime sca ci y, dual-ea ne households, and digi al con enience accele a e
eliance on indus ial oods (La elle e al., 2016). By con as , middle-income con ex s such as India exhibi hyb id
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p ac ices, whe e cul u al adi ions emain s ong bu u banisa ion p essu es eshape cooking habi s (Ra hi e al.,
2025).
Indigenous communi ies u he complica e his na a i e, whe e cooking is ied o ecological s ewa dship and spi i ual
p ac ices. He e, ood p epa a ion canno be disen angled om land, en i onmen , and cosmology. Policies p omo ing
“heal hy cooking” in such con ex s mus ecognise hese deepe en anglemen s o a oid cul u al e asu e.
The di e si y o p ac ices highligh s he isk o uni e salising na a i es. Calls o e i ing he “ amily meal” may
esona e in some socie ies bu aliena e o he s. A plu alis ic app oach, a en i e o local con ex s, o e s a mo e equi able
pa h o wa d.
4.6. Technology: Th ea o Ally?
Digi al echnologies a e o en po ayed as culp i s in cooking decline, enabling ood deli e y pla o ms and p e-
p epa ed meal ma ke s. Ye hey also hold po en ial as allies. Apps, ecipe pla o ms, and meal-ki se ices can lowe
ba ie s by educing planning e o and p o iding s ep-by-s ep suppo .
I o ien ed owa d inclusi i y and a o dabili y, digi al ools could democ a ise cooking knowledge, connec ing use s
wi h cul u ally di e se ecipes and a o dable ing edien ki s. Beha iou al nudges, such as supe ma ke layou changes
o app-based ewa ds o cooking, may u he encou age home meal p epa a ion (Reicks e al., 2014).
Thus, echnology ep esen s no an inhe en h ea bu a con es ed space: i s impac depends on design, accessibili y,
and alignmen wi h cul u al needs.
4.7. Towa d a Balanced Pa adigm
• Taken oge he , he e idence calls o a balanced pa adigm ha ecognises bo h he bene i s and bu dens o
cooking.
• As Heal h P ac ice: Cooking suppo s be e die s bu is insu icien alone o p e en ing ch onic disease.
• As Cul u al P ac ice: Cooking ansmi s adi ions, iden i y, and ela ional wa m h.
• As Labou : Cooking is gende ed and classed, o en in ensi ying inequali y.
• As Socially Embedded: Cooking depends on sys emic condi ions— ime, money, ki chens, ma ke s.
• A balanced pa adigm he e o e equi es mul i-le el in e en ions:
• Heal h P omo ion – F ame cooking as pa o holis ic wellbeing, no jus calo ie con ol.
• Policy Re o m – Subsidise esh p oduce, egula e ul a-p ocessed ood ma ke s, and suppo local supply
chains.
• Gende Redis ibu ion – No malise sha ed esponsibili y o cooking ac oss households.
• Educa ion – Teach cooking skills in schools, heal hca e, and communi y se ings.
• Cul u al Sensi i i y – Celeb a e di e si y o oodways and espec cul u al adi ions.
• S uc u al Suppo – Ensu e ki chens, ime, and a o dable esou ces a e a ailable o all.
• Technological In eg a ion – Ha ness digi al ools o educe ba ie s wi hou displacing cul u al knowledge.
• This mul i-laye ed app oach shi s cooking om an indi idualised mo al demand o a collec i e social good,
embedded in heal h, cul u e, and equi y.
5. Re lec i e Conclusion: Rekindling he Hea h
When cooking s ops a home, some hing la ge han nu i ion is los . The decline o domes ic meal p epa a ion e odes
no only die a y quali y bu also oppo uni ies o ela ional wa m h, in e gene a ional eaching, and cul u al con inui y.
Cooking has long been a si e whe e ca e, iden i y, and communi y con e ge.
Ye oman icising he ki chen isks o e looking i s inequali ies. Cooking can be empowe ing, bu i can also be
exhaus ing, gende ed, and exclusiona y. The key is o imagine ki chens no as nos algic elics bu as inclusi e, equi able,
and suppo ed spaces—si es o nou ishmen , c ea i i y, and esilience ha belong o e e yone.
This e iew has shown ha he decline o cooking is nei he ine i able no uni o m. I e lec s s uc u al
ans o ma ions—indus ial ood sys ems, ime po e y, gende inequi ies— ha can be add essed h ough hough ul
policy and cul u al change. Re i ing cooking is he e o e less abou e u ning o a my hical pas and mo e abou
eimagining he u u e o oodwo k: a u u e whe e ki chens a e suppo ed by s uc u al equi y, en iched by cul u al
di e si y, and sus ained as spaces o heal h and ca e.
