Co esponding au ho : Joy Fe dinand
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Gende ed e ec s o social suppo on housing s abili y pos -inca ce a ion
Joy Fe dinand *
Depa men o C iminal Jus ice, Uni e si y o A kansas a Li le Rock, Uni ed S a e o Ame ica (USA).
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 2077-2083
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 14 July 2025; e ised on 26 Augus 2025; accep ed on 28 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.3060
Abs ac
The Uni ed S a es has wi nessed a d ama ic ise in inca ce a ion a es o e he pas se e al decades, esul ing in an
inc easing numbe o indi iduals een e ing socie y each yea . This s udy uses Wa e 2 da a om he Se ious and Violen
O ende Reen y Ini ia i e (SVORI) o examine how di e en o ms o social suppo pee ins umen al, amilial
ins umen al, and amilial emo ional impac housing s abili y wi hin he i s h ee mon hs pos - elease, a c i ical pe iod
o ein eg a ion. A sample o 1,122 o me ly inca ce a ed indi iduals was analyzed using logis ic eg ession o explo e
hese ela ionships and whe he gende mode a es he e ec s. Findings e eal ha pee ins umen al suppo
signi ican ly p edic s housing s abili y, bu in a gende ed manne ha is i imp o es housing ou comes o men bu
wo sens hem o women. Nei he amilial ins umen al suppo no amilial emo ional suppo showed s a is ically
signi ican e ec s on housing s abili y, no we e hese ela ionships mode a ed by gende . The s udy highligh s he
impo ance o gende -sensi i e app oaches in een y p og amming, pa icula ly in le e aging social suppo ne wo ks
o imp o e housing ou comes o o me ly inca ce a ed indi iduals. Policy ecommenda ions include he de elopmen
o gende - esponsi e een y p og ams and he expansion o suppo se ices ailo ed o he unique needs o women.
Keywo ds: Inca ce a ion; Reen y; Social Suppo ; Housing S abili y; Pee Ins umen al Suppo ; Gende Di e ences
1. In oduc ion
The Uni ed S a es holds one o he highes inca ce a ion a es globally, wi h millions o indi iduals en e ing and exi ing
he c iminal jus ice sys em annually (Human Righ s Wa ch, 2012). Be ween 1975 and 2005, he a e o inca ce a ion
inc eased om 111 o 491 pe 100,000 people, a 342% inc ease (DeFina and Hannon, 2013). This end in
imp isonmen wi hin he Uni ed S a es con inued, wi h he a e by he end o he 2000s nea ly 450% highe han i was
in 1975. The s eady inc ease in he numbe o inca ce a ed indi iduals na u ally leads o a subs an ial inc ease in he
numbe o indi iduals being eleased back in o socie y annually. Nea ly 95% o inca ce a ed indi iduals e en ually
ein eg a e in o hei communi ies (Pe e silia, 2005); abou 700,000 men and women ac oss he coun y e u n o hei
communi ies each yea (Vishe & Bakken, 2014). This ise in he numbe o indi iduals ansi ioning om inca ce a ion
o eedom has p omp ed schola s and policymake s o examine he implica ions o hese eleases in he b oade
con ex o c iminal jus ice, including issues ela ed o een y, ecidi ism, and communi y ein eg a ion. (Gue ino e al,
2011). Recen s udies also emphasize ha ein eg a ion mus be unde s ood h ough he lens o b oade social
de e minan s, including housing, income, educa ion, and access o heal hca e se ices (Lawanson, Abu-Halimeh, &
Aji e uke, 2025),which collec i ely impac pos - inca ce a ion ou comes and s abili y.
Upon elease, o me ly inca ce a ed indi iduals con on nume ous obs acles ha signi ican ly hinde hei success ul
ein eg a ion in o socie y (Human Righ s Wa ch, 2012; Mu hee, 2020; Papaioannou & Anagnou, 2019). Fo me ly
inca ce a ed indi iduals o en ace long- e m housing ins abili y (Cho e al. 2002; Vishe e al. 2004; Roman and T a is
2004; Vishe and Fa ell 2005; T a is, 2005). Many also ace p oblems ela ed o subs ance abuse (Al schule and B ash
2004; Teplin e al. 2002). The s igma iza ion o inca ce a ion can pose addi ional challenges, as i can lead o
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 2077-2083
2078
psychological dis ess (Rose and Clea 2003). This can lead indi iduals een e ing socie y o ques ion hei capaci y o
success (Mea s and T a is 2004; Sulli an 1989) and esul in sel -imposed isola ion om people, esou ces, and hei
su oundings when hey e u n home (Rose and Clea 2003).
Gi en hese challenges, i is pe haps unsu p ising ha a subs an ial po ion o p e iously inca ce a ed indi iduals a e
ea es ed wi hin h ee yea s o being eleased (Le in, 2002). In an analysis o 30 s a es, Du ose and colleagues (2014)
ound ha 67.8% o eleased indi iduals we e ea es ed. Among indi iduals eleased om p ison in 2005,
app oxima ely 49.7% expe ienced pa ole o p oba ion iola ion o we e a es ed o a new o ense wi hin h ee yea s,
esul ing in imp isonmen (Du ose e al, 2014). Addi ionally, wi hin a i e-yea ime ame, app oxima ely 55.1% o
eleased indi iduals aced pa ole o p oba ion iola ions o we e a es ed, leading o imp isonmen . O en he new
a es was di ec ly ela ed o ein eg a ion challenges (Du ose, Coope & Snyde , 2014).
Gende di e ences in e-o ense a es in he c iminal jus ice sys em a e well-documen ed (Spjeldnes & Goodkind,
2009). S udies show ha men end o ha e highe a es o ecidi ism compa ed o women (Smi h, 2019). In an analysis
o ea es , econ ic ion, and einca ce a ion o inca ce a ed indi iduals eleased in i een s a es in 1994, Langan and
Le in (2002) ound ha males end o demons a e highe a es o ecidi ism compa ed o emales wi hin he c iminal
jus ice sys em. In an examina ion o een y ba ie s ac oss gende , Jones and colleagues (2002) ound ha success ul
een y o men ended o be d i en by ins umen al ac o s like job oppo uni ies, educa ion, and exis ing skills. A he
same ime, women we e mo e in luenced by ela ional ac o s and suppo ne wo ks. One possible eason o he
a ia ions ac oss gende s is di e ences in he sou ces and quan i ies o social suppo men and women expe ience
du ing een y.
Social suppo e e s o he emo ional and ins umen al assis ance ha pee s, ne wo ks, and he communi y can p o ide
o ecen ly eleased c iminals (Taylo & Becke, 2015). Social suppo is a undamen al concep in he s udy o
ein eg a ion because i lowe s he psychological issues and s igma aced by people who ha e se ed ime in p ison,
which in u n lessens he challenges o ein eg a ion. Social suppo is linked o he likelihood o inding pe manen
wo k and housing (Fon aine, Gilch is -Sco , & Den e , 2011), as well as educing ecidi ism, e en among high- isk
sexual o ende s (Wilson, Co oni, & McWhinnie, 2009). Ex an esea ch has highligh ed he impo ance o social
suppo o een y success while also demons a ing he gende ed di e ences in social suppo (Jiang & Win ee, 2006;
McCoy & Mille , 2013; Pe us-Da is e al., 2017). P io s udies ha e also iden i ied emales as placing g ea e alue on
social suppo a e p ison han males (Ba ick, La imo e, & Vishe , 2014; Cobbina e al., 2012) and emales elying
mo e hea ily on social suppo a e elease om p ison han males (Clone & DeHa , 2014). Howe e , he e is s ill a
gap in he s udy o social suppo and how i may di e en ially impac men and women een e ing socie y. This cu en
s udy will ocus on in o mal social suppo , and his includes amily membe s, iends, and neighbo s (Jiang & Win ee,
2006; McCoy & Mille , 2013; Pe us-Da is e al., 2017). This will un a el a pe spec i e o he s udy ye o be analyzed,
as i di e s om wha had been ca ied ou by p e ious au ho s and goes deep in o un a eling he quali y and deg ee
o suppo ecei ed by p e iously inca ce a ed indi iduals by hei amilies. Fu he mo e, his esea ch builds on and
enhances ea lie s udies on he ein eg a ion o p e iously inca ce a ed men and women wi h a speci ic ocus on he
gende ed di e ences in he le el o social suppo ecei ed (Rose and Clea 2003). The scope o social suppo will be
es ic ed o amilial emo ional suppo , amilial ins umen al suppo , and pee ins umen al suppo . The e o e, o
asce ain how hese suppo s con ibu e o he decline in ecidi ism a es, he s udy will in es iga e hese suppo s and
hei e ec on he likelihood ha o me ly inca ce a ed indi iduals would success ully ein eg a e in o socie y. I is on
he back heel o hese a iables ha his s udy seeks o un a el whe he gende mode a es he ela ionship be ween
pee ins umen al suppo , amilial ins umen al suppo , and amilial emo ional suppo and he likelihood o secu ing
independen housing wi hin h ee mon hs o elease he e o e making necessa y ecommenda ions ha can aid he
de elopmen o new policies o imp o e hei s abili y expe ience.
2. Me hods
The da a o his s udy was sou ced om he Se ious and Violen O ende Reen y Ini ia i e (SVORI)—a ede al
ini ia i e aimed a imp o ing he een y expe ience o indi iduals ansi ioning om inca ce a ion back in o hei
communi ies. By he end o 2003, 69 agencies se ing bo h adul and ju enile o ende s ecei ed g an s be ween
$500,000 and $2 million o implemen comp ehensi e een y sys ems. These sys ems included diagnos ic e alua ions,
indi idualized een y plans, and ansi ion eams o e ing con inuous suppo om p e-inca ce a ion h ough
communi y ein eg a ion.
This s udy speci ically u ilized da a om Wa e 2, which ep esen s he 3-mon h ollow-up pe iod—a c i ical window
o e alua ing ea ly een y ou comes. The exclusi e use o Wa e 2 da a allows o a ocused in es iga ion in o how
amilial and pee social suppo a ec immedia e ein eg a ion success, pa icula ly in he a eas o housing s abili y.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 2077-2083
2079
The i s h ee mon hs pos - elease a e widely ecognized as a high- isk pe iod o o me ly inca ce a ed indi iduals,
du ing which hei access o social suppo plays a pi o al ole in de e mining whe he hey can secu e s able housing.
By concen a ing on his ea ly phase, he s udy cap u es he sho - e m e ec o social suppo , as opposed o he
g adual adjus men s obse ed o e ex ended pe iods. While he b oade SVORI da ase includes mul iple wa es, his
analysis delibe a ely ocuses on Wa e 2 o assess he immedia e in luence o social suppo on key een y ou comes.
The analy ic sample used o his s udy consis ed o 1,122 pa icipan s d awn om he SVORI da ase . Acco ding o sel -
epo ed da a, he ull SVORI da ase includes a o al o 2,054 adul pa icipan s, comp ising 1,697 men (Pa 1) and 337
women (Pa 2). To be included in he analy ic sample, indi iduals had o mee he ollowing inclusion c i e ia: hey
mus ha e been 18 yea s o olde a he ime o he in e iew, pa o he SVORI p og am e alua ion, and ha e comple e
da a o he key a iables used in he analysis. The inal sample was 80% male and 20% emale. In e ms o acial and
e hnic composi ion, 36% iden i ied as Whi e, 51% as Black/A ican Ame ican, and 13% as Hispanic o ano he ace.
Ma i al s a us da a showed ha 90% o pa icipan s we e no ma ied a he ime o he in e iew, a ca ego y ha
includes indi iduals who we e sepa a ed, di o ced, widowed, o ne e ma ied. The SVORI da ase classi ies ma i al
s a us as “Ma ied,” “Sepa a ed,” “Di o ced,” “Widowed,” o “Ne e Ma ied.” Fo he pu poses o his s udy, anyone no
legally ma ied a he ime o he in e iew was conside ed “unma ied.” App oxima ely 68% o pa icipan s epo ed
ha ing a leas one child, and 48% had ei he ob ained a high school diploma o we e cu en ly en olled in educa ional
p og ams, such as GED cou ses. The SVORI da ase p o ides de ailed b eakdowns o educa ional a ainmen ,
dis inguishing be ween high school diplomas, GEDs, oca ional aining, and o he ypes o schooling
The analysis ocused on wo key ou comes. The i s ou come is housing s abili y, de ined as ha ing esided in only one
place du ing he e e ence pe iod, o wo places i he mo e was o secu e one's place o a be e one (La imo e e al.,
2012). App oxima ely 25% o pa icipan s (𝑆𝐷 = 0.43) had secu ed s able housing wi hin h ee mon hs o elease om
p ison. The second dependen a iable in he analysis was s able employmen a he h ee-mon h ma k (yes=1).
Employmen was de ined as ha ing a job o being gain ully employed a he ime o he ollow-up su ey. The mean
employmen a e was: 0.72 (SD = 0.45). App oxima ely 72.2% o he indi iduals we e employed du ing he hi d da a
wa e.
Table 1 Desc ip ion o Sample
mean /
sd / %
Min
Max
Housing @ 3
0.25
0.43
0
1
Employmen @ 3
0.73
0.44
0
1
Pee Ins umen al Suppo
0.01
0.97
-2
1
Family Ins umen al Suppo
-0.01
0.93
-1
3
Family Emo ional Suppo
-0.01
0.94
-1
4
Gende
0.80
0.40
0
1
Ma i al S a us
0.33
0.47
0
1
Child en
0.69
0.46
0
1
High School Diploma
0.48
0.50
0
1
D ug O ende
0.30
0.46
0
1
Cu en Gang Membe
0.04
0.19
0
1
# o Yea s Inca ce a ed
2.44
2.49
0
26
Family C iminal His o y
0.76
0.43
0
1
Pee C iminal His o y
0.79
0.41
0
1
Race/E hnici y
Whi e
411
36.63%
Black
568
50.62%
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 2077-2083
2080
Hispanic/O he
143
12.75%
N = 1122
The analysis ocused on h ee ypes o social suppo : pee ins umen al, amilial ins umen al, and amilial emo ional
suppo . Pee ins umen al suppo was measu ed using i e Like - ype i ems. The i e i ems indica ed s ong in e nal
consis ency. (𝛼 = 0.93). Explo a o y ac o analysis indica ed ha all i e i ems we e loaded on o a single ac o .
S anda dized ac o sco es we e calcula ed, esul ing in a measu e o pee ins umen al suppo wi h a mean o 0.00
and a s anda d de ia ion o 0.96. Family ins umen al suppo was measu ed using i e Like - ype i ems designed o
cap u e he p ac ical suppo p o ided by amily membe s. The i ems exhibi ed s ong in e nal consis ency. (𝛼 =
0.87)An explo a o y ac o analysis con i med ha hey loaded on o a single ac o . S anda dized ac o sco es we e
calcula ed o his measu e, esul ing in a mean o 0.00 and a s anda d de ia ion o 0.94. Family Emo ional Suppo : This
a iable measu ed he emo ional suppo p o ided by amily membe s. Like he o he suppo measu es, amily
emo ional suppo was assessed i e using Like - ype i ems ha demons a ed s ong in e nal consis ency.(𝛼 = 0.89).
An explo a o y ac o analysis con i med ha he i ems we e loaded on o a single ac o . The s anda dized ac o sco es
o his measu e esul ed in a mean o 0.00 and a s anda d de ia ion o 0.95
3. Resul s and Discussion
A ou logis ic eg ession model was es ima ed o examine whe he gende mode a es he ela ionship be ween pee
ins umen al suppo , amilial ins umen al suppo , and amilial emo ional suppo and he likelihood o secu ing
independen housing wi hin h ee mon hs o elease. The esul s o hese models a e p esen ed in Table 2
3.1. Baseline Model
The i s model in Table 2 es ima es he ela ionship be ween he h ee social suppo a iables and he likelihood o
ha ing s able housing o 3 mon hs while con olling gende and o he ele an a iables. Resul s indica e no signi ican
di e ences in he possibili y o ha ing s able housing a he 3-mon h ma k be ween men and women. Howe e , a
signi ican ela ionship exis s be ween amily emo ional suppo and he likelihood o s able housing. Speci ically, a one-
uni inc ease on he amily emo ional suppo scale is associa ed wi h a 29% dec ease in he likelihood o ha ing
independen housing wi hin 3 mon hs o elease. This nega i e ela ionship may exis because independen housing did
no include e u ning inma es s aying wi h ela i es. I is possible ha he nega i e ela ionship exis s because
indi iduals wi h highe le els o amilial emo ional suppo we e mo e likely o be li ing wi h amily membe s a he
han s iking ou on hei own.
Con ol a iables p o ide addi ional insigh s. Being ma ied o pa ne ed signi ican ly inc eases he likelihood o
secu ing housing, wi h ma ied indi iduals being nea ly h ee imes mo e likely o secu e s able housing (OR=2.89).
Ha ing child en also imp o es housing ou comes, inc easing he likelihood o housing by 49% (OR=1.49). Educa ion
o e s modes bene i s, wi h indi iduals holding a high school diploma being 34% mo e likely o secu e housing
(OR=1.34). Howe e , yea s o inca ce a ion and c iminal his o y show no signi ican e ec s.
No ably, acial dispa i ies eme ge as a signi ican ac o . Black pa icipan s a e 44% less likely o secu e housing
compa ed o o he g oups (OR=0.56), unde sco ing he pe sis en sys emic ba ie s aced by his popula ion. Hispanic
and O he acial/e hnic g oups do no show signi ican di e ences in housing ou comes compa ed o he e e ence
g oup (OR=0.95).
3.2. Pee Ins umen al Suppo
The second model in Table 2 adds an in e ac ion e m o assess he mode a ing e ec o gende on he ela ionship
be ween pee ins umen al suppo and he likelihood o secu ing independen housing wi hin 3 mon hs o elease. As
wi h he baseline model, he di ec e ec o gende is non-signi ican ; howe e , he e is a signi ican di ec e ec o pee
ins umen al suppo on likelihood o secu ing housing. Speci ically, a one-uni change on he pee ins umen al suppo
scale is associa ed wi h a 33% educ ion in he likelihood o secu ing independen housing wi hin 3 mon hs. Mo e
impo an ly, he signi ican in e ac ion e m indica es ha his ela ionship is mode a ed by gende . Speci ically, while
he 33% educ ion in likelihood holds o emale inma es, a one-uni change is associa ed wi h a 3% inc ease in he
p obabili y o secu ing independen housing o male inma es een e ing socie y.1
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2081
1 The ne e ec o a con inuous a iable wi h an in e ac ion wi h a bina y indica o is equal o he di ec e ec o he
con inuous a iable o he e e ence g oup and equal o he sum o he di ec e ec o he con inuous a iable and he
in e ac ion e m o he ea men g oup (Aiken & Wes , 1991). In his ins ance, he ne e ec o pee ins umen al
suppo o emales is -0.41 while he ne e ec o pee ins umen al suppo o males is -0.41 + 0.44 = 0.03
This sugges s ha he ole o pee ins umen al suppo in pos - elease housing ou comes is gende ed. Fo women,
eliance on pee ins umen al suppo may indica e weake amily o ins i u ional connec ions, which could make
secu ing independen housing mo e di icul . In con as , o men, s onge pee ins umen al suppo may se e as a
esou ce ha acili a es access o housing oppo uni ies, pe haps h ough employmen ne wo ks, in o mal housing
a angemen s, o o he een y esou ces. This inding highligh s he impo ance o conside ing gende di e ences in
how social suppo ne wo ks unc ion du ing een y, as he same ype o suppo may ha e opposi e e ec s o
di e en g oups.
3.3. Family Ins umen al Suppo
The hi d model in Table 2 assesses whe he gende mode a es he ela ionship be ween amilial ins umen al suppo
and he likelihood o secu ing s able housing wi hin 3 mon hs o elease. Resul s indica e ha a one-uni inc ease in
amilial ins umen al suppo is associa ed wi h an 18% inc ease in he likelihood o secu ing s able housing wi hin 3
mon hs (OR=1.18). Howe e , his ela ionship is no s a is ically signi ican , sugges ing ha amilial ins umen al
suppo alone does no ha e a meaning ul impac on housing s abili y o indi iduals in he sample.
The in e ac ion e m o gende and amilial ins umen al suppo (OR=0.92) is also no s a is ically signi ican ,
indica ing no meaning ul di e ences in he ela ionship be ween amilial ins umen al suppo and housing s abili y o
men and women.
Table 2 Logis ic eg ession p edic ing housing s abili y a 3 mon hs
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3.4. Family Emo ional Suppo
The ou h model in Table 2 examines whe he gende mode a es he ela ionship be ween amilial emo ional suppo
and he likelihood o secu ing s able housing wi hin h ee mon hs o elease. Resul s indica e ha amilial emo ional
suppo is no signi ican ly associa ed wi h housing s abili y. This lack o signi icance sugges s ha amilial emo ional
suppo alone does no eliably p edic housing ou comes wi hin his sample. Addi ionally, he in e ac ion e m be ween
gende and amilial emo ional suppo is no s a is ically signi ican . This indica es no meaning ul di e ences in he
in luence o amilial emo ional suppo on housing s abili y be ween men and women.
4. Conclusion and Recommenda ion
The esul s o he logis ic eg ession models indica e ha pee ins umen al suppo has a signi ican impac on housing
s abili y, wi h no able di e ences by gende . Fo men, g ea e pee suppo is linked o a 3% inc ease in he likelihood
o secu ing independen housing wi hin h ee mon hs o elease. In con as , o women, inc eased pee suppo is
associa ed wi h a 33% dec ease in his likelihood. This sugges s ha pee suppo may unc ion as a bene icial esou ce
o men, bu o women, i migh signal a lack o o he suppo i e ela ionships. In compa ison, nei he amilial
ins umen al suppo no amilial emo ional suppo signi ican ly p edic housing s abili y, and hei e ec s do no
di e by gende . These indings emphasize he ole o gende in shaping how social suppo in luences housing
ou comes and poin o he impo ance o ailo ing een y p og ams o add ess he dis inc ways pee and amilial
suppo a ec men and women. I is ecommended ha :
• Reen y suppo p og ams ha speci ically add ess he di e ing needs o men and women be designed and
implemen ed
• Access o o mal suppo se ices o women een e ing he communi y, including housing assis ance,
counseling, and amily euni ica ion se ices should be inc eased.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
S a emen o in o med consen
In o med consen was ob ained om all indi idual pa icipan s included in he s udy.
Re e ences
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ecidi ism. Women & C iminal Jus ice, 24(1), 1–21.
[3] Cho, R., Ga y, D., Ball, L., & Lado , M. (2002). A guide o een y suppo i e housing. Co po a ion o Suppo i e
Housing.
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