Co esponding au ho : EHOUNOU P isca Gnanda
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Rea ing subs a e in luence on g ow h pe o mance and nu i ional composi ion o
Rhynchopho us phoenicis La ae (Coleop e a: Cu culionidae)
P isca Gnanda EHOUNOU 1, *, Naomie Melinand Ehikpa N'GUESSAN 1, YAÂH Aimée Emmanuelle KOUAME 1,
Kouassi Pa ick YAO 1 and Mau ice e San-Whouly OUALI N’GORAN 2
1 Alassane Oua a a Uni e si y o Bouaké, Facul y o Science and Technology, Bouaké, Cô e d'I oi e PO BOX V 1801.
2 Félix Houphouë -Boigny Uni e si y o Cocody-Abidjan, Facul y o Biosciences, 22 PO BOX V 582, Abidjan 22, Cô e d’I oi e.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 2095-2101
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 20 July 2025; e ised on 26 Augus 2025; accep ed on 28 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.3091
Abs ac
The palm wee il, Rhynchopho us phoenicis, is ecognized as a aluable esou ce o bo h human and animal nu i ion.
Despi e i s po en ial, limi ed esea ch has in es iga ed how he choice o ea ing subs a e a ec s i s nu i ional p o ile
and g ow h pe o mance. This s udy sough o assess he in luence o h ee locally a ailable subs a es on he g ow h
me ics and nu i ional a ibu es o R. phoenicis la ae. Conduc ed o e h ee mon hs a he Science and Technology
Labo a o y o Alassane Oua a a Uni e si y, la ae we e aised unde con olled condi ions in plas ic con aine s wi h
one o h ee subs a es : palm s ipe (T1), suga cane s alk (T2), and maize cobs (T3). Key zoo echnical indica o s and
nu i ional pa ame e s we e measu ed. La ae ea ed on suga cane s alks displayed he highes p o ein con en (32.1%
d y ma e ), supe io diges ibili y (82.7%), and a bene icial mine al composi ion (calcium : 1.8% DM ; i on: 380 mg/kg
DM). Those ed on palm s ipes showed ele a ed lipid le els (45.7%) alongside a high su i al a e (88.4%). The maize
cob subs a e p o ided a well-balanced ade-o be ween nu i ional quali y and eed e iciency, e idenced by an
op imal eed con e sion a io o 2.5. These indings con i m ha he ea ing subs a e signi ican ly a ec s bo h he
nu i ional quali y and g ow h pe o mance o R. phoenicis la ae. Op imizing eeding s a egies could hus pa e he
way o sus ainable and cos -e ec i e insec a ming sys ems in Cô e d’I oi e.
Keywo ds: Rhynchopho us phoenicis; Rea ing Subs a e; Edible Insec s; G ow h Pe o mance; Nu i ional Quali y;
Insec Fa ming; Cô e d’I oi e
1. In oduc ion
Rapid popula ion g ow h and p essing challenges ela ed o global ood secu i y ha e b ough edible insec s in o he
spo ligh as a p omising and sus ainable al e na i e o adi ional animal p o ein sou ces, especially in Sub-Saha an
A ica whe e ood demand con inues o inc ease [1]. These insec s p o ide signi ican nu i ional bene i s while
equi ing ewe en i onmen al inpu s such as wa e , land, and g eenhouse gas emissions, making insec a ming an
inno a i e solu ion in he con ex o oday’s ag oecological ansi ion. Among hese edible insec s, he la ae o
Rhynchopho us phoenicis commonly known as palm wee il la ae hold a signi ican place in he adi ional die s o many
Wes A ican egions, no ably Cô e d’I oi e, due o hei ich nu i ional con en and wide cul u al accep ance [2,3]. This
longs anding consump ion e lec s aluable local knowledge ha could be u he de eloped and op imized h ough
con olled ea ing me hods. Insec a ming, de ined as he con olled b eeding o insec s, is inc easingly ecognized as
a s a egic app oach o simul aneously add ess ising p o ein demands, enhance he alo iza ion o ag icul u al by-
p oduc s, and educe he en i onmen al impac s linked o con en ional li es ock p oduc ion [4,5]. Indeed, his sec o
acili a es he inco po a ion o o ganic was e and by-p oduc s in o ci cula p oduc ion sys ems, hus educing was e
and suppo ing sus ainabili y. Mul iple s udies ha e shown ha insec s can be success ully ea ed on a a ie y o
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subs a es, including ag o-indus ial esidues, wi hou sac i icing he nu i ional quali y o he esul ing p oduc s [6,7].
This die a y lexibili y enables insec a ming o adap e ec i ely o local condi ions, pa icula ly in u al a eas whe e
ag icul u al by-p oduc s a e plen i ul bu o en unde used. Such an app oach aligns pe ec ly wi h ci cula economy
p inciples, ans o ming o ganic was e in o aluable biomass and he eby con ibu ing o imp o ed ag icul u al income
and local ood secu i y [8]. Al hough R. phoenicis is mainly ha es ed om he wild, i has ecen ly a ac ed g owing
scien i ic in e es due o i s po en ial o con olled ea ing and i s abili y o u ilize di e se subs a es [9]. Recen s udies
conduc ed in Wes A ica ha e demons a ed ha he nu i ional composi ion o he la ae a ies acco ding o he
subs a e used, emphasizing he need o iden i y op imal ea ing ma e ials adap ed o local ag oecological se ings
[10,11]. Howe e , only a ew s udies ha e speci ically a ge ed he alo iza ion o local ag icul u al esidues such as
suga cane s alks and maize cobs, which a e abundan in u al a eas o Cô e d’I oi e. These by-p oduc s a e equen ly
neglec ed o le unused in he ields, ep esen ing an un apped esou ce ha could play a pi o al ole in he sus ainable
de elopmen o egional insec a ming [12]. This s udy aims o assess he e ec s o h ee local ag icul u al subs a es
on he zoo echnical pe o mance, diges ibili y, and chemical, mine al, and lipid nu i ional composi ion o R. phoenicis
la ae. The goal is o iden i y he mos sui able subs a es o sus ainable and p o i able a ming o his species while
p omo ing he alo iza ion o local ag icul u al esidues, he eby con ibu ing o he de elopmen o in eg a ed and
esilien ood sys ems essen ial o add essing ood secu i y challenges in Sub-Saha an A ica.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy Si e
The expe imen was conduc ed a he Alassane Oua a a Uni e si y o Bouaké (Cô e d’I oi e), wi hin he Labo a o y o
Science and Technology, loca ed a 7°41′ N and 5°02′ W. The egion ea u es a opical sa anna clima e cha ac e ized
by an a e age annual empe a u e o 27 °C and wo dis inc seasons.
2.2. Biological Ma e ial
The s udy ocused on 10-day-old la ae o Rhynchopho us phoenicis collec ed and ea ed a he Labo a o y o Animal
Biology and Physiology. These la ae we e ea ed on h ee di e en local ag icul u al subs a es: T1: palm s ipe, T2:
suga cane s alk, and T3 : maize b an. These subs a es we e selec ed based on hei local a ailabili y and po en ial
nu i ional alue o la al ea ing.
2.3. Technical Ma e ial
La ae we e housed in plas ic con aine s measu ing 40 cm × 30 cm × 25 cm. Each con aine was equipped wi h
pe o a ions on he lid co e ed by a ine mesh o ensu e adequa e en ila ion, p e en excessi e mois u e accumula ion,
and a oid la al escape. The con aine s we e placed in a labo a o y oom main ained a 28 ± 2 °C and 70 ± 5 % ela i e
humidi y. Each con aine con ained only one ype o subs a e (palm s ipe, suga cane s alk, o maize b an) o e alua e
he e ec o subs a e ype on la al g ow h and nu i ional composi ion. Fo analyses, p ecision scales, d ying o ens,
an elec ic g inde (Tecnal TE-650), and s anda d labo a o y equipmen (glasswa e, spa ulas, unnels) we e used.
2.4. Expe imen al P ocedu es
2.4.1. Rea ing o R. phoenicis La ae
App oxima ely 10-day-old la ae we e collec ed om elled palm ees in he Sakassou a ea (Gbêkê egion). Heal hy,
ac i e la ae wi h an ini ial weigh o app oxima ely 1 g each we e selec ed and andomly dis ibu ed in o plas ic ea ing
con aine s (50 × 30 × 30 cm) wi h pe o a ed lids o en ila ion. Each subs a e was es ed on h ee independen
ba ches o 100 la ae each. The con aine s we e kep unde a en ila ed shel e wi h con olled empe a u e (28 ± 2 °C)
and ela i e humidi y (70 %). Subs a es we e enewed e e y i e days, and dead la ae we e emo ed daily. A e 30
days, su i ing la ae we e ha es ed, insed wi h dis illed wa e , killed by eezing a –20 °C, hen d ied a 60 °C o 48
hou s be o e being g ound in o powde using a mechanical g inde . The esul ing powde was used o subsequen
analyses.
2.4.2. Nu i ional Composi ion Analyses
Mois u e con en was de e mined by d ying samples a 105 °C in a en ila ed o en un il cons an weigh . P o ein
con en was measu ed by he Kjeldahl me hod : diges ion o samples in concen a ed sul u ic acid wi h ca alys s (CuSO₄
+ K₂SO₄), dis illa ion o eleased ammonia, and i a ion wi h 0.1 N hyd ochlo ic acid. Lipid con en was ex ac ed
con inuously o six hou s using a Soxhle appa a us wi h pe oleum e he . Ash con en was de e mined a e
incine a ion in a mu le u nace a 550 °C o six hou s. Fa y acid p o iles we e analyzed by anses e i ica ion o
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ex ac ed lipids o me hyl es e s, ollowed by gas ch oma og aphy wi h lame ioniza ion de ec ion. Amino acid p o iles
we e es ablished a e p o ein hyd olysis (6 N HCl, 110 °C, 24 h unde ni ogen a mosphe e), il a ion, and injec ion
in o an HPLC sys em equipped wi h an ion exchange column and UV de ec o . Mine als (calcium, i on, zinc) we e
quan i ied by a omic abso p ion spec opho ome y a e dissol ing ash in 2 N hyd ochlo ic acid.
2.4.3. In i o diges ibili y
Diges ibili y o la al lou was assessed by incuba ing 1 g o sample in pepsin solu ion (pH 2.0) a 39 °C o wo hou s,
ollowed by panc ea in diges ion (pH 7.0) o ou hou s. Undiges ed esidue was sepa a ed and weighed. Diges ibili y
(%) was calcula ed as:
Diges ibili y (%) = [(Ini ial ma e – Undiges ed esidue) / Ini ial ma e ] × 100
2.5. Rea ing pe o mance pa ame e s
Su i al a e was calcula ed as :
The eed con e sion a io (FCR) was de e mined by :
2.6. S a is ical analysis
Da a we e subjec ed o one-way analysis o a iance (ANOVA) o assess he e ec o subs a e ype on measu ed
pa ame e s. When signi ican di e ences we e de ec ed, means we e compa ed using Tukey’s HSD es a a 5%
signi icance le el (p < 0.05). All measu emen s we e pe o med in iplica e, and esul s a e p esen ed as mean ±
s anda d de ia ion.
3. Resul s
The nu i ional composi ion analysis o Rhynchopho us phoenicis la al lou ea ed on he h ee es ed subs a es
e ealed s a is ically signi ican di e ences (p < 0.05) among ea men s o mos e alua ed pa ame e s. Va ia ions
we e pa icula ly obse ed in p o ein, lipid, ash, and d y ma e con en s, highligh ing he in luence o subs a e ype
on he nu i ional quali y o he p oduced la ae. The indings sugges ha ce ain locally a ailable ag icul u al by-
p oduc s may be mo e sui able o op imizing la al nu i i e alue.
3.1. O e all chemical composi ion o la ae
S a is ical analysis indica ed signi ican di e ences (p < 0.05) be ween la ae ea ed on he di e en subs a es. La ae
ea ed on oil palm unk issues exhibi ed he highes lipid con en , eaching 45.7 % o d y ma e , whe eas hei p o ein
con en was lowe (28.4 %). In con as , la ae ea ed on suga cane s ems displayed he highes p o ein le el (32.1 %)
and he g ea es ash con en (4.1 %), indica ing a no able mine al ichness. La ae ea ed on maize cobs showed
in e media e alues, wi h p o ein and lipid con en s o 30.0 % and 40.5 %, espec i ely, hus p esen ing a balanced
nu i ional p o ile (Table 1).
Table 1 E ec o ea ing subs a e on he biochemical composi ion o R. phoenicis la ae (pe cen age o d y ma e )
Rea ing subs a e
P o ein (%)
Lipid (%)
Ash (%)
Palm unk
28.4 ± 1.2ᵇ
45.7 ± 1.0ᵃ
3.5 ± 0.3ᵇ
Suga cane s em
32.1 ± 1.5ᵃ
38.3 ± 1.1ᶜ
4.1 ± 0.4ᵃ
Maize cobs
30.0 ± 1.0ᵃᵇ
40.5 ± 0.9ᵇ
3.9 ± 0.2ᵃᵇ
Di e en supe sc ip le e s (a, b, c) indica e signi ican di e ences (p < 0.05) be ween means wi hin he same column.
Su i al a e (%) = (Numbe o su i ing la ae / Ini ial numbe o la ae) × 100
FCR = To al mass o subs a e consumed / To al mass o la ae p oduced
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3.2. Mine al composi ion
S a is ical analysis e ealed signi ican di e ences (p < 0.05) in he mine al con en o la ae depending on he ea ing
subs a e. La ae ea ed on suga cane s alks showed highe calcium (1.8 % DM) and i on (380 mg/kg DM) le els. Those
om maize cobs displayed a e age alues o all mine als, while la ae ea ed on palm unks exhibi ed he lowes
mine al alues, pa icula ly o zinc (45 mg/kg DM).
Table 2 E ec o ea ing subs a e on he mine al con en o R. phoenicis la ae.
Rea ing subs a e
Calcium (%)
I on (mg/kg DM)
Zinc (mg/kg DM)
Palm unk
1.2 ± 0.1ᶜ
280 ± 15ᶜ
45 ± 5ᶜ
Suga cane s alk
1.8 ± 0.1ᵃ
380 ± 18ᵃ
65 ± 6ᵇ
Maize cobs
1.5 ± 0.1ᵇ
340 ± 12ᵇ
70 ± 7ᵃ
Di e en supe sc ip le e s (a, b, c) indica e signi ican di e ences (p < 0.05) be ween means in he same column.
3.3. Fa y acid p o ile
Ch oma og aphic analysis o he lipid ex ac s om he di e en Rhynchopho us phoenicis la al lou s e ealed a
p edominance o unsa u a ed a y acids in all samples. La ae ea ed on maize cob subs a e showed he highes
linoleic acid (C18 : 2) con en , ep esen ing 28.4 % o he o al lipid ac ion. Those om suga cane s alk subs a e we e
dis inguished by a highe concen a ion o oleic acid (C18 : 1), eaching 30.1 %. In con as , la ae ed wi h palm unks
displayed an in e media e lipid p o ile, cha ac e ized by mode a e p opo ions o he wo dominan a y acids.
Table 3 E ec o ea ing subs a e on he a y acid p o ile o R. phoenicis la ae
Rea ing Subs a e
Palmi ic Acid C16:0 (%)
Oleic Acid C18:1 (%)
Linoleic Acid C18:2 (%)
Oil palm s ipe
26.0 ± 1.1ᵃ
28.5 ± 1.2ᵇ
24.3 ± 0.9ᵇ
Suga cane s alk
24.5 ± 1.0ᵇ
30.1 ± 1.3ᵃ
25.0 ± 1.0ᵇ
Maize cobs
25.2 ± 1.2ᵃᵇ
27.9 ± 1.1ᵇ
28.4 ± 1.4ᵃ
Di e en supe sc ip le e s (a, b, c) indica e signi ican di e ences (p < 0.05) be ween means wi hin he same column.
3.4. Diges ibili y and Rea ing Pe o mance
In i o diges ibili y was signi ican ly in luenced by he ea ing subs a e. Flou s ob ained om la ae ea ed on
suga cane s ems showed he highes diges ibili y (82.7%), ollowed by hose ea ed on maize cobs (81.0%) and inally
hose ea ed on palm unks (78.2%). In e ms o zoo echnical pe o mance, la ae ed on palm unks achie ed he
highes su i al a e (88.4%), while hose ea ed on maize cobs displayed he bes eed con e sion a io (FCR), eaching
2.5, indica ing g ea e subs a e u iliza ion e iciency. La ae ea ed on suga cane also showed a good comp omise, wi h
an FCR o 2.6 and a su i al a e o 81.2% (Table 2).
Table 4 E ec o ea ing subs a e on diges ibili y, su i al, and eed con e sion a io (FCR) o R. phoenicis la ae.
Rea ing subs a e
Diges ibili y (%)
La al su i al a e (%)
FCR
Palm unk
78.2 ± 1.3ᵇ
88.4 ± 2.0ᵃ
3.1 ± 0.1ᵃ
Suga cane s em
82.7 ± 1.4ᵃ
81.2 ± 1.5ᵇ
2.6 ± 0.1ᵇ
Maize cobs
81.0 ± 1.2ᵃᵇ
85.0 ± 1.8ᵃᵇ
2.5 ± 0.1ᵇ
Di e en supe sc ip le e s (a, b, c) indica e signi ican di e ences (p < 0.05) be ween means wi hin he same column.
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Figu e 1 Feed Con e sion Ra io (FCR) o R. phoenicis la ae on he h ee ea ing subs a es
4. Discussion
The esul s clea ly indica e ha he ype o ea ing subs a e has a signi ican impac on bo h he nu i ional
composi ion and g ow h pe o mance o Rhynchopho us phoenicis la ae. These indings align well wi h p e ious
s udies conduc ed on o he edible insec species [13,14]. The obse ed di e ences in p o ein, lipid, and ash con en s
among la ae aised on palm s ipes, suga cane s alks, and maize cobs sugges ha he physico-chemical p ope ies o
he subs a e di ec ly in luence la al me abolism [15]. This e ec can be a ibu ed o he complex in e ac ions
be ween subs a e chemical composi ion and he diges i e physiology o he la ae, which modula e he abso p ion o
essen ial nu ien s. La ae ed on suga cane s alks showed highe p o ein con en , indica ing be e assimila ion o
ni ogenous nu ien s. This ele a ed p o ein le el likely s ems om he abundance o simple suga s in suga cane s alks,
which p omo e apid g ow h and e icien p o ein con e sion [16]. This subs a e he e o e appea s o p o ide a
pa icula ly a o able nu i ional en i onmen by combining easily mobilizable ene gy sou ces wi h essen ial nu ien s
needed o p o ein syn hesis. This hypo hesis is suppo ed by he high diges ibili y a e (82.7%) obse ed wi h his
subs a e, compa able o alues epo ed o o he insec s ea ed on suga y esidues [17]. Inc eased diges ibili y likely
allows la ae o maximize nu ien ex ac ion and op imize hei de elopmen . Con e sely, la ae ea ed on palm s ipes
exhibi ed a highe lipid con en (45.7%) bu lowe p o ein le els. This lipid p o ile may be explained by he in insic
ichness o he subs a e in esidual a s [18]. I is also possible ha la ae adjus hei me abolism o s o e mo e lipids
when he subs a e is ich in a s, which could se e as an impo an ene gy ese e. Such cha ac e is ics may be
pa icula ly in e es ing when conside ing he o mula ion o oods en iched wi h a y acids o animal o human
nu i ion, as demons a ed by [19]. Rega ding mine al p o iles, la ae ed on suga cane s alks had he highes
concen a ions o calcium and i on— wo mine als essen ial o human heal h. Zinc was mos abundan in la ae g own
on maize cobs, con i ming ha each subs a e can in luence he biosyn hesis o e en ion o speci ic mine als [20]. This
mine al a iabili y sugges s ha selec ing subs a es could help ailo p oduc ion owa ds a ge ed nu i ional p o iles
based on die a y needs. These esul s a e consis en wi h obse a ions by [21] on he in luence o subs a e on mine al
con en in insec s. Fa y acid analysis e ealed a p edominance o unsa u a ed a y acids, especially oleic (C18 :1) and
linoleic (C18 :2) acids, wi h concen a ions a ying by subs a e. La ae aised on maize cobs con ained he highes
le els o linoleic acid, an essen ial a y acid known o help p e en ca dio ascula diseases [22]. The abili y o la ae o
modula e hei lipid p o ile acco ding o subs a e demons a es hei me abolic lexibili y and highligh s hei po en ial
alue in human o animal die s. Simila lipid p o iles ha e been epo ed in Teneb io moli o and He me ia illucens
ea ed on plan -based subs a es [23, 24] Zoo echnical pe o mances we e also a ec ed by he subs a e ype. Palm
s ipes esul ed in a high su i al a e (88.4%), indica ing good la al adap a ion, bu came wi h a less e icien eed
con e sion a io (FCR). This may e lec a highe ole ance o subs a e condi ions, e en i eed- o-biomass con e sion
is educed. In con as , maize cobs yielded be e subs a e u iliza ion e iciency, wi h an FCR o 2.5, which is
ad an ageous o in ensi e p oduc ion sys ems [25]. These indings sugges ha ag icul u al esidues can be selec ed
and used acco ding o p oduc ion goals—whe he p io i izing p o ein o lipid con en , op imizing eed con e sion, o
enhancing mine al con en . Mo eo e , hese subs a es a e inexpensi e and locally a ailable, making hei use in insec
a ming a p omising way o educe p oduc ion cos s while con ibu ing o sus ainable ag icul u al was e managemen
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[26]. This app oach i s well wi hin ci cula economy p inciples and local esou ce alo iza ion, suppo ing he
sus ainabili y o p oduc ion sys ems. O e all, his s udy highligh s he po en ial o ag icul u al by-p oduc s as
subs a es o Rhynchopho us phoenicis ea ing and opens a enues o de eloping al e na i e, sus ainable ood sys ems
in Sub-Saha an A ica. The la ae’s me abolic adap abili y and abili y o op imize hei nu i ional composi ion
depending on he subs a e ep esen majo ad an ages o hei in eg a ion in o inno a i e ag o- ood s a egies.
5. Conclusion
This s udy highligh ed he signi ican in luence o he ea ing subs a e on he zoo echnical pe o mance, diges ibili y,
and nu i ional quali y o Rhynchopho us phoenicis la ae. Suga cane s alks p omo ed be e diges ibili y and highe
p o ein con en , while maize cobs p o ided a balanced ou come be ween g ow h, eed e iciency, and lipid p o ile.
Al hough palm oil s ipes ensu ed high su i al a es, hei nu i ional pe o mance was compa a i ely lowe . These
esul s con i m he po en ial o local ag icul u al by-p oduc s as sus ainable subs a es in insec a ming, while
emphasizing he impo ance o choosing esidues based on he a ge ed objec i e (nu i ional quali y, yield, cos ).
Op imizing he die o edible insec s could hus signi ican ly con ibu e o alo izing ag icul u al was e and imp o ing
ood secu i y in Cô e d’I oi e and Sub-Saha an A ica. Fu he esea ch ocusing on senso y e alua ion, pos -p ocessing
s abili y, and social accep abili y o de i ed p oduc s is necessa y o acili a e hei in eg a ion in o local ood sys ems.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s exp ess hei deep g a i ude o Alassane Oua a a Uni e si y o Bouaké o i s scien i ic and logis ical
suppo . Ou since e hanks also go o he CAMAP Coope a i e o hei echnical assis ance du ing he expe imen al
phases.
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es ela ed o his publica ion. No inancial o ins i u ional suppo in luenced
he design, execu ion, analysis, o in e p e a ion o he esul s o his s udy.
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