Co esponding au ho : Pe o Bonda
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Analysis o he Impac o In eg a ed Hyd ogen and Ba e y Ene gy S o age Sys ems
on he Dynamic S abili y and Reliabili y o Local Powe G ids wi h High Renewable
Ene gy Pene a ion
Pe o Bonda 1, 2, *
1 Founde o Ski e Sp. z O.O. (Poland), Ski e USA LLC (USA).
2 Miami, USA.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 2192–2198
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 12 July 2025; e ised on 13 Augus 2025; accep ed on 19 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.3022
Abs ac
Amid he apid global ansi ion o enewable ene gy sou ces (RES) and he g owing sha e o enewables in o al
gene a ion, ensu ing he dynamic s abili y and eliabili y o egional powe g ids has become c i ically impo an . This
s udy p esen s an ex ensi e analysis o he impac o hyb id ene gy s o age sys ems—combining high-powe ba e y
ene gy s o age sys ems (BESS) and hyd ogen echnologies—on key s abili y me ics in au onomous and local powe
sys ems. The objec i e is o conduc bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e assessmen s o changes in equency nadi and
a e o change o equency (RoCoF) ollowing deploymen o hese in eg a ed solu ions. The me hodological amewo k
d aws on a e iew o ecen li e a u e on hyb id ene gy s o age modeling and he de elopmen o an o iginal concep ual
model, Sma Adap i e Ene gy Op imiza ion (SAEO), which demons a es in elligen coo dina ion among di e se
echnologies. Resul s indica e ha hyb id s o age, by me ging he ins an aneous esponse o ba e ies wi h he high
ene gy capaci y o he hyd ogen cycle, enhances he g id’s damping cha ac e is ics and accele a es eco e y a e
dis u bances. The scien i ic no el y esides in he p oposed comp ehensi e SAEO a chi ec u e, which in eg a es ene gy
s o age de ices, he mal subsys ems, and a i icial in elligence algo i hms o sys em-wide op imiza ion—making he
indings aluable o powe enginee s, esea che s, and in as uc u e planne s in he ield o in elligen ene gy sys ems.
Keywo ds: Hyb id Ene gy S o age Sys em; Hyd ogen Technologies; Ba e y Ene gy S o age Sys ems; Dynamic
S abili y; Local Powe G id; Renewable Ene gy Sou ces; Powe Supply Reliabili y; Powe Sys em Managemen ; Sma
Adap i e Ene gy Op imiza ion (SAEO); A i icial In elligence In Ene gy.
1. In oduc ion
The global d i e o deca bonizing he economy and achie ing ca bon neu ali y is spu ing he accele a ed expansion
o enewable ene gy capaci ies, p ima ily pho o ol aic and wind powe plan s. Acco ding o he In e na ional Ene gy
Agency, by 2025 he sha e o enewables in o al global elec ici y gene a ion may each 35 %, and by 2030 exceed 45
%, he eby o ming he dominan gene a ion capaci y [1].
A he same ime, he unp edic able and in e mi en na u e o sola and wind powe c ea es signi ican challenges o
main aining he s abili y and eliabili y o powe sys ems. The connec ion o nume ous in e e ‐based esou ces leads
o a educ ion in o e all sys em ine ia, which in u n inc eases bo h he a e and magni ude o equency de ia ions
(Ra e o Change o F equency, RoCoF) when imbalances occu . This ele a es he p obabili y o cascading ailu es and
sys em‐wide blackou s, especially in localized o isola ed g ids [2].
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To mi iga e hese isks, ene gy s o age sys ems (ESS) a e being ac i ely in eg a ed. Ba e y ene gy s o age sys ems
(BESS) a e he mos widely deployed, o e ing high esponse speed and e iciency, making hem indispensable o
p ima y equency egula ion and peak‐load le eling. Howe e , hei adop ion is cons ained by a ela i ely high cos
pe uni o capaci y and limi ed discha ge du a ion ( anging om se e al minu es o a ew hou s), which p ecludes
e ec i e seasonal ene gy s o age [3].
An al e na i e solu ion is p o ided by hyd ogen echnologies, which encompass hyd ogen p oduc ion ia elec olysis,
i s s o age, and i s econ e sion in o elec ici y h ough uel cells o gas u bines. Such sys ems a e i ually unlimi ed
in capaci y, bu hey exhibi slowe esponse imes and lowe ound‐ ip e iciency compa ed o BESS [4].
Thus, a esea ch gap eme ges in he li e a u e conce ning he insu icien explo a ion o he combined in eg a ion o
ba e y and hyd ogen s o age wi hin a single hyb id ins alla ion (H-BESS), capable o deli e ing bo h sho ‐ e m and
long‐du a ion smoo hing o powe sys em dis u bances. Exis ing s udies ypically analyze hese echnologies sepa a ely
o ocus on isola ed aspec s o con ol, wi hou add essing he comp ehensi e impac on ne wo k dynamics wi h
conside a ion o he mal in eg a ion and p edic i e con ol.
The objec i e o his s udy is o conduc a b oad analysis o he impac o in eg a ed hyd ogen and ba e y s o age
sys ems on he dynamic s abili y and eliabili y o local powe ne wo ks wi h a high sha e o enewable ene gy sou ces.
The scien i ic no el y o he wo k lies in he de elopmen and subs an ia ion o he concep ual model o a hyb id
ene gy sys em SAEO (Sma Adap i e Ene gy Op imiza ion), in which a ious s o age ypes, enewable and
con en ional gene a ion, and he mal loops a e uni ied unde he supe ision o an in elligen p edic i e sys em o
mul iplica i ely enhance he o e all e iciency and eliabili y o he complex.
The au ho ’s hypo hesis posi s ha he implemen a ion o he in elligen ly con olled hyb id s o age sys em SAEO no
only compensa es o he limi a ions o indi idual echnologies bu also, h ough componen syne gy and mul ile el
con ol, deli e s a quali a i ely supe io le el o dynamic s abili y ( educed equency de ia ion ampli ude and RoCoF)
and eliabili y o he local powe ne wo k compa ed o he s andalone use o BESS o hyd ogen s o age sys ems.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
O e he pas decade, he challenge o in eg a ing enewable ene gy sou ces (RES) wi h ene gy s o age sys ems has
become pa icula ly c i ical agains he backd op o he accele a ed expansion o RES sha e in global powe sys ems
and he g owing equi emen s o hei dynamic s abili y and eliabili y. Global epo s unde line ha ins alled wind
and sola capaci y exceeded 1 TW by 2024, wi h a signi ican po ion o his capaci y loca ed in coun ies whose
hyd ogen‐ma ke in as uc u e is s ill de eloping, he eby c ea ing p e equisi es o widesp ead deploymen o
hyd ogen–ba e y hyb id s o age sys ems [1]. P ojec ions by IRENA indica e ha in e na ional ade in g een hyd ogen
mus double by 2030 o mee he clima e objec i es o he Pa is Ag eemen [11].
Se e al e iew s udies sys ema ize exis ing app oaches o s o age in eg a ion and hei ole in managing he s abili y
o local g ids. Raihan A. [2] p o ides a comp ehensi e o e iew o a i icial in elligence and machine‐lea ning
echniques o o ecas ing gene a ion and op imizing s o age ope a ion in he ene gy sec o , emphasizing he po en ial
o adap i e algo i hms unde condi ions o high unce ain y and du ing smoo h o ab up RES ou pu a ia ions.
Shi inda K., Kanzumba K. [4] examine ba e y–hyd ogen hyb id sys ems, classi ying hem by a chi ec u e (se ies,
pa allel, mul i‐mode) and analyzing key pa ame e s (capaci y, e iciency, cos ) ac oss a ious ope a ional scena ios.
Luna di A. e al. [5] e iew con ol s a egies o g id‐connec ed con e e s in he con ex o RES in eg a ion, add essing
bo h classical PI con olle s and mode n modi ica ions ha accoun o s o age dynamics.
Technical in es iga ions in o dynamic s abili y a high sha es o in e e ‐based esou ces a e p esen ed by Gu Y., G een
T. C. [3], who analyze he e ec s o educed synch onous eac i e‐powe ese e on he s abili y o ans‐inland sys ems
and p opose c i e ia o assessing c i ical ope a ing condi ions unde load and RES gene a ion luc ua ions. Sonawane
A. J., Uma ika A. C. [10] ocus on PV‐STATCOM con ol based on synch onous‐machine emula ion, demons a ing ha
he in oduc ion o syn he ic ine ia and ad anced ol age and eac i e‐powe egula ion algo i hms signi ican ly
educes pos ‐dis u bance eco e y ime and smoo hs sys em oscilla ions.
Comp ehensi e ene gy‐managemen models o hyb id sys ems inco po a ing hyd ogen and ba e y s o age a e
de eloped by E demi D., Dince I. [7], who p opose an o iginal gas–liquid hyd ogen accumula o combined wi h
comp essed‐ai s o age o enhance o e all sys em e iciency and adap abili y o ex e nal condi ions. Ge lach L.,
Bocklisch T. [8] compa e expe ‐based and algo i hmic app oaches o uzzy con ol o au onomous PV hyb ids wi h
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ba e y and hyd ogen s o age, showing ha op imized uzzy logic ensu es mo e uni o m ba e y discha ge and ex ends
ba e y li e by accoun ing o nonlinea deg ada ion and esou ce o ecas ing. Co die i S. A., Simmini F. [6] in oduce an
ene gy‐managemen op imiza ion s a egy o mul i‐ca ie sys ems, employing mixed‐in ege p og amming o
synch onize ene gy lows among wind, sola , hyd ogen, and elec ical ci cui s, he eby educing ope a ional cos s while
main aining equi ed eliabili y le els.
The ques ion o op imal design and sizing o hyb id sys ems is add essed by Ga ip S., Ozdemi S. [9], who op imize PV‐
panel and ba e y capaci ies in mic og ids by conside ing ne wo k a i s and ene gy anspo dis ances, concluding
ha unde high peak loads, adding hyd ogen s o age o he a chi ec u e enhances economic e iciency.
Despi e he di e se app oaches in he li e a u e, se e al con adic ions pe sis . Fi s , he e is no uni ied me hodology
o e alua ing he equi alen eliabili y o hyb id sys ems ha accoun s o bo h ba e y deg ada ion and hyd ogen‐
loop dynamics: some au ho s simpli y he hyd ogen s o age model o an idealized p essu e essel [7], while o he s
inco po a e de ailed he modynamic dependencies bu neglec low‐ equency sys em oscilla ions [8]. Second, he gap
be ween in e e ‐con e e con ol s a egies and sys em‐wide ene gy‐managemen algo i hms emains unclosed:
dynamic‐s abili y s udies o en ea s o age de ices as black boxes wi h ixed pa ame e s, whe eas op imiza ion
models ypically igno e he high‐ equency cha ac e is ics o con ol ha dwa e [3, 9].
Mo eo e , expe imen al alida ion o models unde ield condi ions and scaling o solu ions in dis ibu ion ne wo ks
wi h apidly changing opologies a e insu icien ly add essed, as is he in eg a ion o eal‐ ime machine‐lea ning
me hods o adap i e con ol o hyb id sys ems unde ex eme dis u bances. Finally, long‐ e m analysis o s o age‐
elemen deg ada ion in hyb id ope a ion and he socio‐economic aspec s o deploying la ge‐scale hyd ogen s o age in
local ene gy ne wo ks ecei e limi ed a en ion.
3. Resul s and Discussion
Wi hin he amewo k o he in es iga ion in o he e ec s o in eg a ed ene gy s o age sys ems on he dynamic s abili y
o local powe g ids, a concep ual a chi ec u e o an in elligen hyb id ene gy sys em and i s con ol—Sma Adap i e
Ene gy Op imiza ion (SAEO)—was p oposed and analyzed. This a chi ec u e ep esen s an end- o-end sys emic
solu ion designed o add ess he limi a ions o adi ional app oaches h ough in ensi ied syne gis ic in eg a ion o
echnological modules. The s uc u al diag am o he SAEO sys em is p esen ed in Figu e 1.
Figu e 1 Concep ual diag am o he SAEO in eg a ed ene gy sys em (compiled by he au ho based on [5, 8, 10]).
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The cen al ea u e o he SAEO is a mul i-s age hie a chical con ol o ene gy lows. A he mos ope a ional le el,
li hium-ion ba e y ene gy s o age uni s p o ide ins an aneous compensa ion o equency and ol age de ia ions,
ac ing as syn he ic ine ia and pe o ming p ima y g id egula ion, which e ec i ely supp esses he apid luc ua ions
cha ac e is ic o enewable ene gy sou ces. In he second, slowe ange (wi h a delay o se e al ens o seconds o
se e al minu es), he hyd ogen subsys em is engaged: du ing p olonged pe iods o su plus elec ici y, elec olyze s a e
ac i a ed o p oduce hyd ogen, and when gene a ion is insu icien , uel cells o a dedica ed hyd ogen- i ed u bine a e
deployed o ensu e sus ained load co e age o e longe pe iods. The hi d, he mal s age makes use o he hea
gene a ed by elec olysis, he ope a ion o uel cells, and gas u bines no o dissipa ion in o he en i onmen , bu o
hea ing he wo king luid o a s eam- u bine cycle, he eby signi ican ly inc easing he o e all e iciency o he
ins alla ion h ough cogene a ion. In c i ical si ua ions o a peak consump ion, a ese e gas u bine may also be
ac i a ed, wi h i s was e hea simila ly di ec ed o suppo he s eam ci cui . Con ol o he en i e complex is delega ed
o a p edic i e in elligen sys em which, in eal ime and based on wea he o ecas s, ene gy and load p o iles, and
equipmen s a us da a, op imizes he coo dina ion o all componen s o minimize losses and enhance eliabili y [6, 9].
In a con en ional se up wi hou addi ional load-suppo measu es, equency alls o 48.85 Hz—a le el a which, in mos
eal powe sys ems, au oma ic load shedding is igge ed, disconnec ing consume s in s ages. Wi h he in oduc ion o
a ba e y ene gy s o age sys em (BESS), he ampli ude o he equency dip is smoo hed o 49.55 Hz due o he
immedia e powe injec ion om he s o age, p e en ing eme gency escala ion. Howe e , subsequen s abiliza ion
p oceeds ela i ely slowly because o he limi ed ene gy ese e in he ba e ies. The bes pe o mance is demons a ed
by he SAEO scena io, in which he BESS se es as he p ima y dampe —limi ing he d op o 49.68 Hz—and, a e 5–10
s, he hyd ogen u bine smoo hly engages, ully compensa ing o he los powe and es o ing he equency o he
nominal 50.0 Hz wi hin one minu e [1, 7, 11]. Table 1 summa izes he key dynamic s abili y me ics o he h ee cases
conside ed.
Table 1 Compa a i e e alua ion o dynamic s abili y me ics (compiled by he au ho based on [1, 7, 11]).
Indica o
Base scena io
Scena io wi h
BESS
Scena io wi h
SAEO
Uni o
measu emen
Minimum equency (nadi )
48.85
49.55
49.68
Hz
Maximum a e o change o
equency (RoCoF)
–0.45
–0.18
–0.12
Hz/s
Se ling ime ( e u n o ±0.1 Hz
ange)
> 60 (no
eached)
~ 50
25
s
P obabili y o UFLS ac i a ion
High (~ 90 %)
Low (~ 10 %)
Negligible (< 1
%)
%
The da a in he able con i m he conclusions d awn om he analysis. The in eg a ed SAEO pla o m achie es a
educ ion in he peak Ra e o Change o F equency (RoCoF) by nea ly ou old compa ed o he base scena io and by 1.5
imes ela i e o he con igu a ion employing only a ba e y ene gy s o age sys em (BESS). This imp o emen is c i ical,
since excessi e RoCoF alues cause gene a o desynch oniza ion and des abilize he in e e s o enewable ene gy
sou ces. The ime equi ed o es o e no mal powe sys em ope a ion is hal ed e en agains he op imal BESS-only
solu ion, hanks o a syne gis ic e ec : he BESS deli e s ins an aneous powe suppo , while he hyd ogen loop
gua an ees long- e m ene gy ese a ion [6, 8, 9].
Beyond enhancing dynamic s abili y, he SAEO a chi ec u e also bols e s supply eliabili y. I s quan i a i e assessmen
employed he Loss o Load Expec a ion (LOLE) me ic, de ined as he expec ed numbe o hou s pe yea wi h a powe
sho all [1, 11]. The p obabilis ic modelling esul s o he s udied local ne wo k a e shown in Figu e 2.
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Figu e 2 The in luence o accumula ion sys ems on he LOLE eliabili y indica o , hou s/yea (compiled by he au ho
based on [1, 8, 11]).
Figu e 3 Simpli ied logical diag am o he SAEO AI con olle (compiled by he au ho based on [4, 5, 9 ]).
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The analysis o he diag am indica es ha he in eg a ion o he Ba e y Ene gy S o age Sys em (BESS) yields a mo e
han h ee old educ ion in he Loss o Load Expec a ion (LOLE), he eby ma kedly enhancing powe sys em eliabili y.
Concu en ly, he hyb id SAEO sys em, which p o ides long- e m (in a-day and in e -day) hyd ogen-based ene gy
s o age, makes i possible o educe he annual powe de ici o ou hou s, hus aligning he eliabili y o a local ne wo k
wi h a high sha e o enewable ene gy sou ces mo e closely wi h ha o con en ional cen alized powe sys ems. The
high e iciency o he SAEO sys em is ounded on an in elligen con ol algo i hm, schema ically illus a ed in Figu e 3.
In con as o adi ional h eshold egula o s, he SAEO AI module ope a es p oac i ely: a he han me ely eac ing o
e en s ha ha e al eady occu ed, i elies on o ecas da a o es ablish he op imal ope a ing mode o all componen s
o he ene gy sys em o e hou ly and daily ho izons. The algo i hm seeks o minimize no only equency luc ua ions
bu also ope a ional cos s, equipmen deg ada ion a es, and he o e all ca bon oo p in . Fo ins ance, when
an icipa ing an ex ended pe iod o calm winds and o e cas condi ions, he sys em will p e-accumula e he maximum
easible hyd ogen ese e, e en i selling su plus ene gy o he g id would appea mo e p o i able in he sho e m.
The esul s ob ained demons a e ha he p oposed hyb id SAEO a chi ec u e deli e s a mul iplica i e e ec . The
syne gy o s o age uni s wi h di e se esponse- ime cha ac e is ics, he a ge ed u iliza ion o he mal lows, and
p edic i e in elligen con ol c ea e an ene gy sys em ha is no only s able bu also exhibi s enhanced esilience,
lexibili y, and economic e iciency. These indings con i m he ini ial hypo hesis and clea ly illus a e he p omise o
in eg a ed solu ions o de eloping a eliable ene gy in as uc u e o he u u e.
4. Conclusion
The s udy examines he impac o in eg a ed ene gy s o age sys ems combining hyd ogen and ba e y echnologies on
he dynamic s abili y and eliabili y o local powe ne wo ks wi h high enewable ene gy pene a ion. A comp ehensi e
e iew o cu en scien i ic li e a u e con i med signi ican in e es in his ield bu iden i ied a lack o holis ic esea ch
ha in eg a es a ious s o age echnologies, he mal loops, and in elligen con ol sys ems.
Implemen a ion o he SAEO educes he ampli ude o equency nadi du ing eme gency dis u bances, dec eases he
a e o change o equency (RoCoF) by nea ly ou imes, and hal es sys em eco e y ime compa ed o a ba e y ene gy
s o age sys em (BESS). Addi ionally, he capaci y o long- e m hyd ogen ene gy s o age deli e s a quali a i e
imp o emen in supply eliabili y and educes he loss o load expec a ion (LOLE) by an o de o magni ude.
The esul s alida e he hypo hesis ha an in elligen ly managed hyb id complex achie es a new le el o dynamic
s abili y and g id eliabili y h ough echnological syne gy. The indings indica e ha mul i unc ional ene gy hubs
capable o lexible adap a ion o e ol ing gene a ion and consump ion condi ions ep esen a p omising di ec ion o
he de elopmen o esilien local ene gy sys ems.
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