Imp o ing he mal ene gy e iciency in a No wegian dai y u ilising
in eg a ed CO
2
e ige a ion sys ems: pe o mance da a and ene gy
e iciency imp o emen possibili ies
Lukas K¨
OSTER
a,b,*
, Jan BENGSCH
a,b,*
, K is ina No ne WIDELL
a
a
SINTEF Ocean, Dep. Fishe ies and New Bioma ine Indus y, 7465, T ondheim, No way
b
NTNU, Depa men o Ene gy and P ocess Enginee ing, Kolbjø n Hejes ei 1B, 7491 T ondheim, No way
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
CO
2
Re ige a ion
Hea pumps
Dai y
Dai y p ocessing
Na u al e ige an s
ABSTRACT
Dai ies a e conside ed e y ene gy in ensi e due o he high demand o he mal ene gy a di e en empe a u e
le els. This s udy in es iga es he he mal ene gy demand o he la ges o ganic dai y in cen al No way, which
u ilises a ully in eg a ed CO
2
e ige a ion sys em o co e hei cooling and ho wa e demand and an elec ic
s eam boile o pas eu isa ion, s e ilisa ion and cleaning in place (CIP). The speci ic ene gy lows o 2024 we e
analysed mon hly and he mal demand p o iles c ea ed. The speci ic ene gy consump ions we e ound o be
be ween 27.5 Wh/l o 43.0 Wh/l o cooling and 34.3 Wh/l and 48.4 Wh/l o ho wa e hea ing. The elec ic
s eam boile accoun ed o 36.4% o he plan ’s elec ici y consump ion in 2024. The ewi h, he s udy aims o
p esen eal wo ld da a o he ( he mal) ene gy consump ion o a dai y and he eby lay g ound o u he sys em
de elopmen s, which a e concep ualised in his pape .
1. In oduc ion
Acco ding o (Meh a e al., 2024), No wegian g eenhouse gas
emissions (Scope 1 +2) associa ed wi h ene gy use in he ood alue
chain accoun ed o 4.07 M CO
2
e in 2019: a ound 13 % o his was
a ibu able o ood and be e age p oduc ion. Acco ding o (Egas e al.,
2021), he dai y supply chain is es ima ed o be esponsible o 3–4 % o
he global an h opogenic GHG emissions. The OECD-FAO Ag icul u al
Ou look (OECD and Food, 2022) o ecas s he milk p oduc ion o in-
c ease 4.6 % in he Eu opean Union om 2019–2021 o 2031, while he
p oduc ion in India and Pakis an is o ecas ed o inc ease by 42 % and
44 %, espec i ely.
The ood p ocessing indus y, especially dai ies, has seen a signi i-
can inc ease in ene gy and wa e consump ion in ecen yea s, d i en
by s ic e hygiene and cleaning s anda ds (Ladha-Sabu e al., 2019).
The high ene gy demand is due o he need o he mal ene gy a
di e en empe a u e le els (B iam e al., 2015), which is his o ically
associa ed wi h high g eenhouse gas emissions (GHG) (Sel nes e al.,
2023). Wi h No way and he Eu opean Union aiming o be clima e
neu al by 2050, measu es o educe GHG emission mus be aken
(Eu opean Commission, 2020).
(Üç u˘
g, 2019) compa ed 31 li e cycle assessmen s udies o he
p oduc ion o dai y p oduc s and ound ha aw milk p oduc ion had
he highes sha e in en i onmen al impac . Fo he impac ac o “en-
e gy use” in milk p ocessing, he sha e was ound close o aw milk
p oduc ion. Gene ally, s o age and use o dai y p oduc s we e ound o
ha e mino e ec s on he en i onmen al oo p in . Mo e han hal o he
ecommenda ions we e abou milk p ocessing and 10 o 31 s udies
sugges ed he use o mo e ene gy e icien equipmen . (Üç u˘
g, 2019)
T adi ionally, sepa a e sys ems a e used o co e he mal demands a
di e en empe a u e le els: comp ession e ige a ion sys ems o
cooling and ossil uel based sys ems o hea ing (Sel nes e al., 2022).
Hence, he deca bonisa ion o p ocess hea and he inc eased in eg a ion
o hea eco e y om e ige a ion sys ems a e p omising solu ions o
educing he en i onmen al impac (Sel nes e al., 2022); (Ah ens e al.,
2021); (Schlemminge e al., 2022).
De ailed measu emen s o he main he mal ene gy consume s a e
essen ial o unde s and bo h he cooling and p ocess hea equi emen s
in he dai y indus y h oughou he p oduc ion day, as well as seasonal
luc ua ions. Such measu emen da a can be applied in a ious ways,
including he op imisa ion o ene gy e iciency wi hin dai ies, he
de elopmen o accu a e load p o iles o sys em simula ions, and
nume ous o he applica ions. Howe e , he e is a clea gap in he
a ailabili y o open-access, eal-wo ld da a on he mal ene gy con-
sump ion in dai ies and he wide ood indus y. This in o ma ion is
* Co esponding au ho s.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (L. K¨
OSTER), [email p o ec ed] (J. BENGSCH), [email p o ec ed] (K.N. WIDELL).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ij e ig
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ij e ig.2025.10.001
Recei ed 19 May 2025; Recei ed in e ised o m 2 Sep embe 2025; Accep ed 1 Oc obe 2025
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion 180 (2025) 564–571
A ailable online 2 Oc obe 2025
0140-7007/© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
c ucial o designing e icien deca bonisa ion s a egies and o he
alida ion o simula ion models. (Jespe e al., 2021); (Sandhaas e al.,
2022); (Mise occhi e al., 2024)
The e o e, he aim o his s udy is o showcase he ene gy con-
sump ion and he mal demand pa e ns o an en i ely ossil uel ee
dai y ha uses na u al e ige an s only. The dai y is loca ed in sou he n
No way and is he la ges o ganic dai y in No way wi h a p oduc ion
olume o 20.5 million li e o p ocessed milk in 2024. Ene gy e iciency
measu es ha e been ongoing since 2015 and wo k has been documen ed
by (Sel nes e al., 2023); (Sel nes e al., 2022); (Bengsch e al., 2024);
(Bengsch e al., 2023); (K¨
os e e al., 2024). This s udy is he culmina ion
o p e ious e o s, wi h senso s being ins alled h ough se e al p ojec s.
Th ough in eg a ing CO
2
e ige a ion sys ems wi h hea eco e y,
in oducing an elec ic s eam boile and o he measu es, he dai y was
able o educe i s GHG emissions by 41 % om 2018 o 2024, while
inc easing he olume o p ocessed milk by 56 %. O e he same pe iod,
his led o a 49 % educ ion in he speci ic ene gy consump ion pe li e
o milk p ocessed o 118 Wh/l.
A i s , he sys em con igu a ion and me hods a e in oduced. Sub-
sequen ly, he speci ic he mal ene gy consump ion and key pe o -
mance indica o s o he he mal ene gy sys em a e p esen ed. Following,
he daily he mal ene gy pa e ns o he cooling demand, ho wa e
demand and s eam demand du ing p oduc ion days a e e alua ed.
Fu he mo e, imp o emen oppo uni ies o he he mal ene gy sys em
a e showcased, depending on he empe a u e le el. The unde lying
da a o he s udy is made a ailable unde he DOI: 10.5281/
zenodo.15111145.
2. Sys em desc ip ion
The he mal ene gy sys em o he dai y consis s o wo main sys ems:
a e ige a ion sys em o mee cooling and ho wa e demand, and a
s eam boile o supply high- empe a u e he mal ene gy o p ocesses
such as pas eu isa ion and s e ilisa ion. Fi e CO
2
e ige a ion sys ems
a e ins alled in pa allel wi h s agge ed capaci y, as shown in Fig. 1. In
o al, he nominal ins alled cooling capaci y is 350 kW, howe e , he
CO
2
uni 1 & 2 a e p o o ypes om 2015 and a e expec ed o go ou o
se ice. P opylene glycol is used as a seconda y luid o CO
2
uni s 2, 3 &
5 on he cold side wi h an in eg a ed sensible ene gy s o age o 5 m
3
and
a capaci y o 27 kWh. The empe a u e o he supplied glycol is −3.5 o
−5 ◦C. The e om, he cold he mal demand o se e al cooling ooms
and cold s o ages is co e ed. The p ocess cooling consume uses wa e as
a cooling medium and a 9 m
3
sensible ene gy s o age wi h a capaci y o
15 kWh is ins alled. In June 2024, he CO
2
uni 4 was di ec ly in eg a ed
in o he e u n line o he p ocess cooling consume s and CO
2
uni 1 & 4
supplied chilled wa e o he he mal ene gy s o age. Be o ehand, he
CO
2
uni 4 was in eg a ed in o he glycol loop, pa allel o CO
2
uni 2, 3 &
5. The se poin empe a u e o he supplied p ocess wa e is app ox. 1
◦C. Fo edundancy, he p ocess cooling consume loop is connec ed
h ough a hea exchange o he glycol cooling loop.
The hea sink o he CO
2
uni s is a hyd onic sys em, which p oduces
ho wa e up o 65 ◦C o co e ing ho wa e demands. Only CO
2
uni 5
u ilises an ambien gas coole in pa allel o he wa e -cooled gas coole .
The hyd onic sys em is o open ype and u ilises cold ap wa e , wi h
inle empe a u es o 6.5 ◦C on a e age. Ho wa e om he CO
2
e ige a ion sys ems is s o ed a app oxima ely 65 ◦C in sensible ho
wa e s o ages o wo se s o 12 ×400 l s o age anks. The ho wa e
sys em supplies se e al ho wa e and CIP consume s, as indica ed in
Nomencla u e
AC Ai condi ioning
a g a e age
CIP Cleaning in Place
COP Coe icien o pe o mance
DH Dis ic hea ing
QEne gy (J)
˙
QHea (W)
GC Glycol
GHG G eenhouse gas emissions
H CR Hea ing o cooling a io
HTHP High empe a u e hea pump
HW Ho wa e
˙
mmass low a e (kg/s)
MP Measu emen poin
pP essu e (Pa)
PC P ocess cooling
cpSpeci ic hea capaci y (kJ/kg-K)
T Tempe a u e (K)
Fig. 1. Simpli ied P&ID o he he mal ene gy sys em o he dai y including he ins alled measu emen poin s.
L. K¨
OSTER e al.
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion 180 (2025) 564–571
565
Fig. 1, and supplies eedwa e o he elec ic boile . CIP uck hall (HW-
05) is a CIP s a ion loca ed in he milk deli e y hall o cleaning o he
milk deli e y ucks and CIP p ocess (HW-07) is a CIP s a ion used o
cleaning p ocess equipmen , such as he pas eu ise s. The measu emen
poin o o he ho wa e consume s (HW-06) includes consume s o
insing o p ocessing equipmen , bu e p oduc ion and o he uses.
The elec ic boile has a se capaci y o 500 kW
el
and main ains 6 ba
in he s eam sys em du ing he day and 4 ba o e nigh . The elec ic
boile co e s hea ing demands o pas eu isa ion, s e ilisa ion and CIP a
empe a u es be ween 65 ◦C o 100 ◦C. In addi ion, he dai y is coupled
o he dis ic hea ing g id o co e ing hei AC and space hea ing de-
mands o he o ice and p oduc ion buildings.
3. Ma e ial and me hods
In Fig. 1, he measu emen poin s o he ene gy low and mass low
me e s a e ma ked and hei co esponding senso ypes de ined in
Table 1. The e m ene gy low me e e e s o a measu emen de ice,
which measu es empe a u es and mass low o a gi en luid and cal-
cula es he hea low a e based on Eq. (1). Da a was collec ed a one-
minu e in e als and a Sa i zky-Golay Fil e was applied wi h a 15-min-
u e in e al and a hi d deg ee polynomial o he calcula ed hea loads.
The modynamic p ope ies o he seconda y luids a e e alua ed using
he Coolp op lib a y based on (Bell e al., 2014). Da a o he elec ic
boile was collec ed om he elec ici y p o ide in an hou ly in e al.
Cooling and he mal loads o he hea sink o he CO
2
machines we e
calcula ed a e Eq. (1) o each measu emen poin (MP), based on
(Inc ope a e al., 2017).
˙
QMP =˙
mMP⋅cp, luid(Ta g,MP,p)⋅ΔTMP (1)
Un il Oc obe 2024, ci y wa e was u ilised o cool yoghu a e
incuba ion, whe eas a e Oc obe 2024, yoghu cooling was ca ied
ou h ough in eg a ion in o he cold p ocess wa e loop (as shown in
Fig. 1). The e o e, un il Oc obe 2024, he cooling demand o yoghu
was calcula ed based on he mon hly p oduc ion, a cons an speci ic
hea capaci y o cp=3.3 kJ/kgK and a empe a u e di e ence o 25 K
based on Eq. (1). Di ec p ocess wa e cooling by he CO
2
uni 1 & 4 was
calcula ed as ollowing: Since he cooling load on CO
2
uni 1 was no
measu ed by he ins alled senso s, i was assumed ha i ope a ed a a
cooling capaci y o 35 kW pe p oduc ion day o 8 h om 07:00 – 15:00,
based on in o ma ion o he plan ope a o . The cooling load o CO
2
uni
4 was calcula ed by an ene gy balance om he condense (HW-02) and
elec ici y consump ion.
The measu emen equipmen o he ho wa e consume s (HW-05,
HW-06, HW-07) measu ed mass low only, he e o e, he ene gy low
was es ima ed based on a ailable in o ma ion om he plan ope a o
ega ding he supply empe a u e. The supply empe a u e o he con-
sume s was es ima ed a 65 ◦C and he ci y wa e inle empe a u e a
6.5 ◦C on a e age and Eq. (2) calcula es he ho wa e consume he mal
demands, based on (Inc ope a e al., 2017).
˙
QMP =˙
mMP⋅cp, luid(Ta g,p)⋅(Tsupply −Tci y wa e )(2)
The hea ing o cooling a io (H CR) was de ined acco ding o Eq. (3)
and is in oduced as a new pa ame e :
H CR =(Qhea ing consump ion +Qs eam demand )
Qcooling consump ion
(3)
The ewi h, he H CR desc ibed he a io be ween he hea ing de-
mand o he cooling demand and indica es whe he he dai y can be in
i s cu en con igu a ion sel -su icien in e ms o i s he mal ene gy
demand. The H CR showcased whe he he dai y can, by o example he
usage o a hea pump, u ilise i s excess hea om e ige a ion sys ems,
o co e hea ing demands o o he p ocesses wi hou he need o
ex e nal hea sou ces.
The combined Coe icien o Pe o mance (COP
comb.
) pe CO
2
ma-
chine is de ined as:
COPcomb.=COPhea ing +COPcooling =2⋅
˙
Qgas coole
˙
Wcomp esso
−1 (4)
and he cooling COP
cooling
is de ined as:
COPcooling =
˙
Qgas coole −
˙
Wcomp esso
˙
Wcomp esso
(5)
4. Resul s and discussion
In his sec ion, he ene gy lows and demand pa e ns o he dai y in
2024 a e p esen ed and analysed. Sec ion 4.1 showcases he speci ic
mon hly-agg ega ed he mal ene gy consump ion o di e en con-
sume s. Fu he mo e, seasonal in luences a e p esen ed by compa ing
daily ene gy demand pa e ns o a summe and win e mon h.
Since he e we e changes in he he mal sys em du ing he yea and
he p oduc ion s a egy was changed om "make o o de " o a mix o
"s ock-based p oduc ion" and "make o o de ", he mon hs o Augus
(summe ) and Decembe (win e ) we e compa ed. This means ha he
same bounda y condi ions apply o he p oduc ion me hod and he se up
o he he mal ene gy sys em. This compa ison is in ended o cla i y he
seasonal luc ua ions based on he in luence o he ambien empe a u e
on he he mal loads. I is only necessa y o keep in mind ha be o e
Oc obe yoghu was cooled wi h ap wa e (applies o he summe
mon h o Augus unde conside a ion) and his was hen swi ched o he
cold p ocess wa e loop (applies o he win e mon h o Decembe ). As
he he mal load p o iles o wo king days and weekends and bank hol-
idays di e g ea ly, only wo king days a e shown in he compa ison o
summe mon hs (Augus ) and win e mon hs (Decembe ) in Sec ions
4.2, 4.3 and 4.4.
Table 1
O e iew o e u ilised senso s and indica ed accu acy. All senso s measu e
supply and e u n empe a u e o he consume , as well as he mass low. Ho
wa e senso s HW-05, HW-06 and HW-07 measu ed mass low only.
Measu emen
poin s – sub-
sys ems
Abb e ia ion Medium Senso - ype Indica ed
accu acy
P ocess Cooling PC-01, PC-02 Wa e Badge
M1000
±0.3 %
Glycol cooling
loop –
cooling
ooms, glycol
– ice wa e
hea
exchange ,
hea load o
CO
2
uni s
GC-01, GC-
02, GC-03,
GC04
P opylene
glycol (35
%)
KROHNE
Op isonic
3400
±0.3 % +2
mm/s
Ho wa e –
CO
2
uni 2, 3,
& 5, HW CIP
p ocess, HW
CIP uck
hall, HW
p oduc ion
HW-01, HW-
02, HW-03,
HW-04, HW-
05, HW-06,
HW-07
Wa e Kams up
Ul a low 54/
24
±(2+
0.02⋅qp/q)%
Bu smalle
han ±5 %
Dis ic hea ing
– AHU 1,
AHU 2, uck
hall,
en ila ion
H-01, DH-02,
DH-03, DH-
04
Wa e Kams up
Ul a low 24 ±(2+
0.02⋅qp/q)%
Bu smalle
han ±5 %
All
Tempe a u e
senso s
All ene gy
low me e s
Wa e /
P opylene
glycol (35
%)
Kas up
Tempe a u e
Senso 63
(PT500)
±0.08 K
L. K¨
OSTER e al.
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion 180 (2025) 564–571
566
4.1. The mal ene gy demand – plan le el
The mon hly he mal ene gy consump ion is shown in Fig. 2 as a
speci ic ene gy consump ion pe li e p ocessed milk. The he mal
consume s a e g ouped depending on hei ype o supply (cooling, ho
wa e and s eam) and espec i e u ilisa ion. Addi ionally, he consumed
wa e and p ocessed milk pe mon h a e shown. Th oughou he yea ,
he speci ic ene gy consump ion o he cold s o age cooling & AC (GC-
03) anges be ween 7.5 Wh/l in Janua y and 18.7 Wh/l in May 2024.
Gene ally, a highe cooling demand o he cold s o ages was obse ed
du ing he summe mon hs May – Sep embe . Seasonal a ia ions a e
u he in es iga ed in Sec ion 4.2. P ocess cooling, consis ing o he
indica ed column “glycol p ocess cooling” (GC-02) and he “di ec wa e
p ocess cooling” a ied be ween 18.0 Wh/l in Ap il and 25.0 Wh/l in
July 2024. The consume “di ec wa e p ocess cooling” accoun ed o
he cooling demand on CO
2
uni 1 & 4.
Fo he ho wa e consume , he HW CIP p ocess (HW-07) in he i s
se en mon h o he yea had a he mal consump ion be ween 14.4 and
18.1 Wh/l in Feb ua y o July 2024. In July 2024, he p oduc ion plan
was changed o a hyb id p oduc ion plan, consis ing o a “s ock-based
p oduc ion” and a “make- o-o de p oduc ion”. As a esul , he HW CIP
p ocess demand dec eased om 13.8 Wh/l in Augus o 12.3 Wh/l in
Decembe 2024. La ge ba ch sizes and he e o e a educed in e media e
insing is ound as he eason.
The speci ic ene gy consump ion o CIP in he uck hall (HW-05)
was ound o be be ween 6.7 Wh/l in Ma ch 2024 and 9.6 Wh/l in May
2024. CIP in he uck hall is dependen on he numbe o milk deli e ies
pe day. The o he ho wa e consume s (HW-06) we e ound be ween
9.7 Wh/l and 11.5 Wh/l in Feb ua y and Janua y 2024, espec i ely.
The speci ic he mal ene gy consump ion o wa e lowing o he
accumula ion ank and he e om ei he o he d ain o being u ilised o
p eCIP ac i i ies (“HW o e p oduc ion / p eCIP”, HW-04), anged om
Janua y o July be ween 10.1 Wh/l in Ap il and 13.9 Wh/l in Ma ch
2024, wi h an ou lie in May 2024 o 21.1 Wh/l. In May 2024, due o
public holidays, he p oduc ion was shi ed empo a ily om i e o ou
p oduc ion days pe week a a simila amoun o p ocessed milk
compa ed o Ma ch 2024. Fo his eason, he p oduc ion was ca ied
ou in la ge ba ch sizes, which led o educed CIP and insing ac i i ies.
Addi ionally, a high a e age ambien empe a u e o 15.3 ◦C in May,
wi h a consequen ly highe cooling load led in o al o a highe o e -
p oduc ion o ho wa e om hea eco e y in May 2024.
The speci ic s eam boile elec ici y demand is shown as wo con-
sump ions: A baseload and a s eam demand. The baseload was de ined
as he load p esen ou side o p oduc ion hou s, speci ically be ween
00:00 – 03:00. The mean alue was ound a 35.8 kW
el,
he median a
31.0 kW
el
and he i s and hi d quan ile a 29.0 kW
el
and 33.5 kW
el,
espec i ely. The baseload was due o hea losses o he ambien om
he s eam sys em. The speci ic s eam baseload anges be ween 13.3 Wh/
l and 17.4 Wh/l in Oc obe and May 2024, espec i ely. On a e age, he
speci ic s eam baseload is esponsible o 36.4 % o he s eam boile
elec ici y consump ion.
O e all, he s eam boile ene gy consump ion was ound o consume
35 – 40 % o he plan s elec ici y consump ion. Fu he mo e, CO
2
uni
3, 4 & 5 consumed be ween 8 – 18 % o he plan s elec ici y con-
sump ion. The H CR was ound be ween 1.9 in Augus 2024 and 2.9 in
Feb ua y 2024 and on a e age, he H CR o 2024 was 2.2. Hence, he
dai y was, in i s cu en ope a ion, elian on addi ional, ex e nal ene gy
sou ces o co e he hea ing demand, which was co e ed h ough di ec
elec ici y o hea con e sion in he el. s eam boile .
As indica ed in Fig. 1, dis ic hea ing was used o space hea ing o
he dai y including he o ice buildings. I consumed up o 29 % o he
o al hea ing demand (excluding s eam) in Janua y 2024. In he summe
om May o Augus 2024, he dis ic hea ing demand educed down o
<5 % o he o al hea ing demand. Dis ic hea ing is excluded om
Fig. 2, since i is no a speci ic he mal ene gy consump ion pe li e o
milk.
4.2. Cold side
F om Fig. 2, a seasonal dependency could be linked o he cooling
load. To con i m his, he daily he mal ene gy demand pa e n o
Augus (summe ) and Decembe (win e ) in 2024 a e compa ed in his
sec ion o he cooling load (GC-01 & Di ec p ocess wa e cooling). These
mon hs we e selec ed, since he only sys em change wi hin his pe iod
was he in eg a ion o yoghu cooling in o he consume p ocess cooling
loop. Fig. 3 shows he combined cooling load o he sys em, including
p ocess cooling and cooling ooms and AC o p oduc ion days. The
illus a ion is a hal iolin plo , which con ains minu ely alues o he
Fig. 2. Speci ic ( he mal) ene gy consump ion pe mon h o he dai y plan as well as he mon hly p ocessed milk and mon hly wa e consump ion.
L. K¨
OSTER e al.
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion 180 (2025) 564–571
567
wo king days o a mon h. The iolin plo is based on a gaussian ke nel
densi y es ima ion and he densi y es ima ion is plo ed pe hou o he
day and highligh s he a iabili y and endency o he cooling demand.
A highe bandwid h indica es a highe p obabili y o alues a a gi en
cooling demand.
When compa ing he cooling demand be ween Augus and Decembe
2024 in Fig. 3, one can see clea ly ha bo h ollow a simila end. The
demand ises wi h he s a o he p oduc ion day be ween 04:00 o
05:00, has a main p oduc ion ime be ween 07:00 and 14:00 o’clock and
a small peak in he e ening be ween 18:00 and 21:00. The smalle peak
in he e ening is due o milk deli e y. While he a e age cooling demand
in Augus du ing nigh imes (23:00 – 04:00) is be ween 39 kW o 56 kW,
he a e age demand in Decembe is be ween 21 kW o 41 kW. Du ing
he wo king hou s, he di e ence be ween he a e age cooling load o
he summe and win e mon hs becomes wi h up o 52 kW e en g ea e .
When compa ing he di e ences in he a e age he mal ene gy con-
sump ion du ing p oduc ion days, Augus is consuming wi h 2898 kWh
nea ly 25 % mo e ene gy han Decembe wi h a alue o 2302 kWh.
To in es iga e he eason o highe cooling demands du ing sum-
me , Fig. 4 shows he cooling demand o he cooling ooms and AC
only, combined wi h he ambien empe a u e on he 2nd y-axis. The
a e age ambien empe a u e was ound a 15.5 ◦C in Augus and 0.1 ◦C
in Decembe .
I is isible ha he hou ly a e age o he cooling demand and he
ambien empe a u e in Augus a e ollowing he same end. The
a e age cooling demand in Decembe 2024 is qui e cons an , wi h
alues be ween 11 kW o 30 kW. Highe alues we e obse ed du ing
p oduc ion hou s be ween 08:00 o 17:00. Du ing Augus 2024, he
a e age cooling demand o he cooling ooms and AC luc ua ed be-
ween 26 kW and 62 kW pe hou . Based on Fig. 2, he speci ic he mal
ene gy consump ion o cooling ooms and AC pe mon h was ound a
40.2 Wh/l and 27.8 Wh/l o Augus and Decembe 2024, espec i ely.
Fu he mo e, he daily a e age he mal ene gy consump ion o he
cooling ooms and AC was 1098.9 kWh in Augus and 519 kWh in
Decembe 2024. This unde lines he dependency on he ambien em-
pe a u e. Besides ambien empe a u e, he cooling demand o he
cooling ooms is dependen on he quan i y and ype o s o ed p oduc s.
As s a ed in Sec ion 2, he he mal ene gy sys em was pa ly ea -
anged in June 2024. This was done o change he 80 kW CO
2
uni 4
om cooling glycol o di ec cold p ocess wa e cooling as sugges ed by
(Sel nes e al., 2022). Hence, he e apo a ion empe a u e could be
li ed, which in e u n inc eased he cooling COP by 0.83 om June o
July 2024, as i can be seen om Table 2. When compa ing he a e age
cooling COP o he i s six mon hs o 2024 o he second six mon hs, he
COP inc eased by o e 40 %. The combined hea ing and cooling COP o
he 80 kW uni 3 was on a e age 4.3. Be o e he in eg a ion o he 80 kW
uni 4 in o he ice wa e ci cui , he combined COP was ound a 4.5 and
a e he in eg a ion a 5.94. I should be no ed ha he COPs o he
p essu e a io (23 ba o 89 ba s be o e con e sion) in bo h uni s a e
e y low. This is due o a e y la ge empe a u e app oach be ween
Fig. 3. Seasonal in luence on he combined p ocess cooling, cooling ooms and AC cooling demand. A compa ison be ween Augus (summe ) and Decembe (win e )
in 2024 displayed o all wo king days in he mon h as a hal iolin plo and an a e age cooling demand o e he ime o he day.
Fig. 4. Seasonal in luence on he cooling demand o he cooling ooms and AC oge he wi h he a e age hou ly ambien empe a u e. A compa ison be ween Augus
(summe ) and Decembe (win e ) in 2024 displayed o all wo king days in he mon h as a hal iolin plo and an a e age cooling demand o e he ime o he day.
L. K¨
OSTER e al.
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion 180 (2025) 564–571
568
wa e inle and CO
2
ou le empe a u e om he gas coole o abou 20
K. This was due o a blockage caused by limescale deposi s, a leas o
he CO
2
uni 3, which has now been ec i ied so ha he cu en COP-
cooling
is abou 3.
Imp o emen oppo uni ies cold side
Acco ding o he heo e ical s udy done by (Sel nes e al., 2022) on
his dai y, inc easing he e apo a ion empe a u e o di e en con-
sume s by e.g. mo ing away om glycol as he seconda y luid o AC
and he cooling ooms can cu he annual elec ical ene gy consump ion
o cooling by o e 20 %. As seen in Table 2, he in eg a ion o he CO
2
uni 4 in o he consume p ocess cooling ci cui inc eased he COP
cooling
by a ound 40 %.
Since ood quali y and sa e y is one o he main goals o a dai y, i is
impo an ha all imp o emen solu ions ensu e a quick cool down o
he milk below 4 ◦C o slow down he bac e ia g ow h (Mu phy e al.,
2013). Wi h high olumes o milk being deli e ed o inc eased p o-
duc ion, he e migh no be enough cooling and hea ing capaci y
a ailable. In ha case, an oppo uni y is o ins all a he mal ene gy
s o age, ei he on he ho o cold side. The eby, an inc ease in he u i-
lisa ion o elec ici y o a combined p oduc ion o bo h hea ing and
cooling, and he e o e ene gy e iciency, can be achie ed by decoupling
supply and demand (Ah ens e al., 2021).
Ice banks used as a cold he mal ene gy s o age a e common in a lo
o dai ies and p o ide a educ ion in he necessa y ins alled peak
e ige a ion capaci y (Ch is ensen and Kau eld, 1998); (Fine e al.,
1993); (Kuma e al., 2001); (Song e al., 2024). Howe e , hei wo king
p inciple, wi h ice building up on coils o s o e he mal ene gy, leads o a
educed e apo a ion empe a u es when he ice hickness is inc easing,
and he e o e lowe COPs (Fine e al., 1993); (Mađe i´
c e al., 2022). A
educed e apo a ion empe a u e can also be seen when looking a he
sc aped su ace gene a o o ice slu y p oduc ion, which has acco ding
o Kau eld and Gund (Kau eld and Gund, 2019) a 7 - 10 K lowe
e apo a ion empe a u e han he so called supe cooling ice slu y
p oduc ion me hod. Wi h he supe cooling me hod he e apo a ion
empe a u e s ays nea ly cons an du ing slu y p oduc ion, as shown in
(B´
ed´
eca a s e al., 2010), which esul s in a highe ene gy e iciency
han he o he cold he mal ene gy s o age solu ions discussed.
4.3. Ho wa e side
The he mal demand o he ho wa e consume s (HW CIP p ocess -
HW07, HW CIP uck hall -HW-05, HW o he consume s - HW-06) is
shown in Fig. 5 du ing p oduc ion days o Augus 2024 agains
Decembe 2024. As i is no cu en ly measu ed how la ge he u ilised
p opo ion o ‘HW o e p oduc ion/ p eCIP’ is, i is excluded om Fig. 5.
Th oughou he nigh - ime (24:00 – 4:00), he a e age hea ing demand
is ound o be be ween 5 – 35 kW du ing Augus 2024 and 9 – 30 kW in
Decembe 2024. A he s a o he p oduc ion day a 5:00, he a e age
hea ing demand inc eased o 147 kW and 158 kW o Augus and
Decembe 2024, espec i ely. CIP and p e-washing ac i i ies p io o
p oduc ion a e ound o be esponsible o he inc ease in hea ing de-
mand. The dis ibu ion o he ke nel densi y a 5:00 indica es a wide-
sp ead dis ibu ion o da a and upon u he in es iga ion, i can be
concluded ha he e is no ixed, bu a day-by-day he mal ene gy de-
mand pa e n a he s a o he p oduc ion. Th oughou wo king hou s,
he a e age ho wa e consume he mal demand inc eases and peaks a
16:00 wi h 202 kW in Augus 2024 and wi h 192 kW a 17:00 in
Decembe 2024. Du ing 12:00 – 19:00, he dis ibu ion o ho wa e
consume hea ing demand is widesp ead, wi h peaks highe han 600
kW, bu wi h he highes ke nel densi y es ima ion o hea ing demands
below 100 kW. Hence, he dis ibu ion indica es a dependency on he
p oduced p oduc s and hei espec i e hea ing and cleaning demands.
F om 17:00, he a e age hea ing demand dec eases un il nigh ime. A
compa ison be ween Augus and Decembe 2024 shows ha he daily
hea ing demand pa e n o he ho wa e consume s closely align.
Hence, he seasonal in luence is mino , and he he mal ene gy pa e n
and consump ion is dependen on he p oduced p oduc s. Tha can also
be seen when compa ing he a e age ene gy consump ion du ing p o-
duc ion days o ho wa e wi h 2506 kWh in Augus and 2753 kWh in
Decembe 2024. The speci ic mon hly ene gy consump ion o he ho
wa e hea ing demand o 32.7 Wh/l in Augus and 31.1 Wh/l in
Decembe 2024 unde lines hese indings.
Imp o emen oppo uni ies ho wa e side
As he HW consume s a e CIP p ocesses, manual insing and o he
consume s, i is di icul o assess o wha ex en s a aining o
Table 2
Mon hly cooling COPs o he 80 kW CO
2
uni s 3 & 4 in 2024.
COP
cooling
Mon h CO
2
Uni 3 CO
2
Uni 4
Janua y 1.85 1.77
Feb ua y 1.84 1.77
Ma ch 1.82 1.77
Ap il 1.72 1.73
May 1.65 1.82
June 1.39 1.62
July 1.65 2.45
Augus 1.60 2.51
Sep embe 1.57 2.49
Oc obe 1.63 2.46
No embe 1.61 2.43
Decembe 1.53 2.48
Fig. 5. Seasonal in luence on he ho wa e consume he mal demand. A compa ison be ween Augus (summe ) and Decembe (win e ) in 2024 displayed o all
wo king days in he mon h as a hal iolin plo o e he ime o he day.
L. K¨
OSTER e al.
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion 180 (2025) 564–571
569
au oma ion can educe HW consump ion and is beyond he scope o his
pape . I was shown ha a change in he p oduc ion schedule esul ing
in la ge ba ch sizes can educe he need o CIP and he e o e wa e
consump ion.
Al hough i is known ha on some days, no HW goes di ec ly in o he
d ain as o e p oduc ion, he e a e also days, especially in summe , when
mo e HW is a ailable han equi ed. The e o e, he possibili y o a la ge
HW s o age o a con ol sys em ha dissipa es he excess hea ia he ai -
cooled gas coole o he CO
2
uni 5, when he HW s o age is ull, should
be in es iga ed.
4.4. S eam side
F om he he mal ene gy demand on he plan le el in Fig. 2, i could
be seen ha mo e han 50 % o he o al hea ing demand was p o ided
by s eam in 2024 (unde he assump ion o a elec ici y o hea con-
e sion o one). Fu he mo e, 35 – 40 % o he o al elec ici y ene gy
demand is consumed by he elec ic boile . The e o e, he s eam demand
du ing wo king days and he seasonal in luence on i a e shown in Fig. 6.
I p esen s he compa ison be ween he s eam demand in Augus
(summe ) and Decembe (win e ) o all measu ed alues (hal iolin
plo ) and he hou ly a e age. Du ing nigh hou s, he he mal ene gy
consump ion o he s eam boile a e ages o bo h cases be ween 33 kW
and 37 kW. Be ween 03:00 and 05:00, he p essu e in he boile is
inc eased om 4 o 6 ba o i s ope a ional p essu e o s a wi h s e i-
lisa ion and disin ec ion o p ocessing equipmen om 05:00 o 06:00.
This leads o he highes peak in he hou ly a e age s eam demand. In
Augus 2024, his peak occu s a 06:00 wi h an a e age alue o 246 kW
and a maximum alue o 328 kW. In Decembe 2024, he s eam boile
s a ed up on a e age one hou ea lie , wi h an a e age and maximum
s eam demand o 232 kW and 334 kW, espec i ely. Du ing he p o-
duc ion day, he s eam demand s ayed cons an ly high, wi h a e age
alues a ound 200 kW, whe e he maximum measu ed alue in Augus
occu ed a 16:00 wi h 427 kW and in Decembe a 13:00 wi h 449 kW.
A e ha , he s eam demand is con inuously dec easing un il i eaches
i s baseload o 35.8 kW on a e age, ou side o p oduc ion hou s.
The a e age and maximal daily he mal ene gy consump ion du ing
p oduc ion days o he s eam demand in Augus 2024 was 2979 kWh
and 3929 kWh, espec i ely. Fo Decembe 2024, he a e age and
maximal ene gy consump ion was sligh ly highe wi h 3318 kWh and
3983 kWh.
Imp o emen oppo uni ies o he mal demands wi h empe a u es
la ge han 70 ◦C
As p esen ed in Sec ion 4.1, he s eam boile is esponsible o 35 –
40 % o he dai y’s elec ici y consump ion. In combina ion wi h he
he mal e iciency o he s eam boile o close o 1, he e is a s ong case
o ene gy e iciency imp o emen s. Unde he p emise ha hea sou ces
a e a ailable, (high) empe a u e hea pumps (HTHP) p o ide e icien
solu ions o eplace he s eam boile . Possible hea sou ces a e excess ho
wa e om o e p oduc ion o he CO2 sys ems and g eywa e a e CIP.
De elopmen in he HTHP sec o is highly dynamic and inno a i e.
The comp ehensi e epo by (Zühlsdo , 2023) collec ed manu ac u e s
da a on hei HTHP p oduc s, including empe a u e and echnical
eadiness le el (TRL) le els and maximum supply empe a u e. The e, i
shows ha especially o a maximum supply empe a u e o below 110
◦C, sys ems a high TRL le el a e comme cially a ailable. (Zühlsdo ,
2023)
(Ah ens e al., 2021) de eloped an in eg a ed ene gy sys em o a
dai y o co e ing he he mal cooling and hea ing demands a a ious
empe a u e le els. The pape epo ed an o e all sys em COPs o 4.1,
o a limi ed pe iod o one week. Du ing he in es iga ed pe iod, he
ammonia/wa e hea pump achie ed a COP o 5.9 o hea sou ce
empe a u es o 67/60 ◦C and hea sink empe a u es o 73/95 ◦C.
(Ah ens e al., 2021)
The choice o sys em and ene gy e iciency is highly dependen on
he a ailable hea sou ce, and he e o e, gene alised s a emen s a e
di icul o make. Howe e , simila applica ions ha e shown hea ing
COPs o 2.2 o 2.9 (Zühlsdo , 2023), and he e o e, he in eg a ion o a
HTHP is ega ded as a s ong case o ene gy e iciency and helps o cu
GHG emissions u he , especially when swi ching om ossil uel s eam
gene a ion o HTHP.
5. Conclusion
This s udy p esen ed he ene gy consump ion o a No wegian dai y
plan o he yea 2024. The he mal ene gy sys em consis ed o pa allel
in eg a ed CO
2
e ige a ion sys ems, which co e he cooling and ho
wa e demands. A s eam boile wi h a capaci y o 500 kW
el
co e ed
hea ing demands o empe a u es abo e 65 ◦C, namely pas eu isa ion,
s e ilisa ion and cleaning in place (CIP). The speci ic cooling ene gy
consump ion was ound be ween 27.5 Wh/l in Ap il and 43.0 Wh/l in
July 2024, while he speci ic ho wa e hea ing ene gy consump ion
a ied be ween 34.3 Wh/l in Decembe 2024 and 56.0 Wh/l in July
2024. The speci ic s eam consump ion was ound a 38.3 Wh/l in
Oc obe 2024 and 48.4 Wh/l in July 2024. A baseload o he s eam
boile was p esen a a mean alue o 35.8 kW
el
due o hea losses.
O e all, he s eam boile was esponsible o 36.4 % o he plan s elec-
ici y consump ion in 2024. Daily he mal ene gy pa e ns (wo king
days) we e ob ained o he cooling demand, ho wa e demand and
s eam demand and he dis inc i e pa e ns analysed o Augus and
Fig. 6. Seasonal in luence on he s eam demand om he elec ic s eam boile . A compa ison be ween Augus (summe ) and Decembe (win e ) in 2024 displayed o
all wo king days in he mon h as a hal iolin plo o e he ime o he day.
L. K¨
OSTER e al.
In e na ional Jou nal o Re ige a ion 180 (2025) 564–571
570
Decembe 2024. The da a on which he s udy is based is a ailable in
Zenodo (see DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.15111145) o ill he gap in eal-
wo ld da a. Based on he o e all speci ic ene gy consump ion and he
daily ene gy pa e ns, he po en ial o imp o emen s in he dai y was
shown. The implemen a ion o a high empe a u e hea pump was
iden i ied as a iable case o a educ ion in ene gy consump ion, unde
he p emise ha a hea sou ce is a ailable. Fu he mo e, he in eg a ion
o a cold he mal ene gy s o age as a sys em o mi iga e peak cooling
demands was ound as an e ec i e sys em imp o emen , which can in
addi ion p o ide g ea e lexibili y o he plan ope a o s.
Funding sou ces
The ac i i y desc ibed in his manusc ip has been pe o med wi hin
he p ojec ENOUGH. ENOUGH has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean
Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og amme unde g an
ag eemen No 101036588.
Da a s a emen
Da a u ilised wi hin he p esen ed igu es will be made a ailable in
he Zenodo ENOUGH communi y unde he DOI: 10.5281/
zenodo.15111145.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Lukas K¨
OSTER: W i ing – o iginal d a , Me hodology, Da a cu a-
ion, Concep ualiza ion. Jan BENGSCH: W i ing – o iginal d a ,
Me hodology, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. K is ina No ne
WIDELL: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, P ojec adminis a ion, Funding
acquisi ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
The au ho is an Edi o ial Boa d Membe /Edi o -in-Chie /Associa e
Edi o /Gues Edi o o his jou nal and was no in ol ed in he edi o-
ial e iew o he decision o publish his a icle.
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