Psychological Resilience in Female Athletes: A Meta-Analytic Review of Individual and Contextual Correlates (2000–2025)

Gezer, 2025. Uluslararası Sağlık, Egzersiz ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, (2024) International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences (IJOSS) ISSN: 3023-8382 RESEARCH ARTICLE / Araştırma Makalesi Open Access/Açık Erişim IJOSS © The Author(s), 2024. Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which allows for unrestricted use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, provided proper credit is given to the original author(s) and the source. A link to the Creative Commons license must be included, and any changes made to the original work must be clearly indicated. Unless otherwise specified in a credit line, all images or third-party materials included in this article fall under the article’s Creative Commons license. If any material is not covered by the Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by law or exceeds the permissible scope, you must obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Psychological Resilience in Female Athletes: A Meta-Analytic Review of Individual and Contextual Correlates (2000---2025) Kadın Sporcularda Psikolojik Dayanıklılık: Bireysel ve Bağlamsal Korelasyonların Meta-Analitik İncelemesi (2000---2025) Hatice Gezer1* Abstract Objective: This meta-analytic review aimed to examine the overall effect of individual and contextual factors on psychological resilience among female athletes. Method: Systematic review and meta-analysis design was used in this study. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across eight major academic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, ProQuest, PsycARTICLES, and SAGE Journals) for quantitative studies published between 2000 and 2025. The inclusion criteria required that studies focus exclusively on female athletes and report statistically codable data related to psychological resilience or mental toughness. Data were extracted from 39 eligible studies, encompassing a total sample of 6,349 participants. A random-effects model was employed to compute pooled effect sizes (β) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Subgroup analyses were conducted based on sport type, competition level, measurement tools, sample size, and age group. Result: The overall meta-analytic effect was statistically significant and moderate in magnitude (β = 0.403; 95% CI = 0.373---0.433), indicating that various individual and environmental factors are positively associated with psychological resilience among female athletes. Heterogeneity was moderate (I² = 31.2%). Subgroup analyses revealed significantly stronger effects among elite athletes (β = 0.430) and participants aged ≥22 (β = 0.398), compared to their counterparts. Although sport type and measurement tools showed directional differences, the subgroup differences were not statistically significant. The findings underscore the multifactorial nature of resilience in sport contexts. This meta-analysis provides robust empirical evidence for the psychological correlates of resilience in female athletes. The findings suggest that both demographic and methodological variables contribute to the observed variance in resilience levels. Keywords Psychological resilience, mental toughness, female athletes, meta-analysis, sport psychology, elite athletes, individual differences, subgroup analysis Özet Amaç: Bu meta-analitik inceleme, kadın sporcular arasında psikolojik dayanıklılık üzerindeki bireysel ve bağlamsal faktörlerin genel etkisini incelemeyi amaçlamıştır. Yöntem: Bu çalışmada sistematik derleme ve meta-analiz tasarımı kullanılmıştır. 2000 ile 2025 yılları arasında yayınlanmış niceliksel çalışmalar sekiz büyük akademik veritabanında (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, ProQuest, PsycARTICLES ve SAGE Journals) kapsamlı bir literatür taranmıştır. Çalışmaya dahil etme kriterleri, katılımcıların yalnızca kadın sporculara odaklanmasını ve psikolojik dayanıklılık veya zihinsel dayanıklılıkla ilgili istatistiksel olarak kodlanabilir verileri bildirmesini gerektirmiştir. Veriler, toplam 6.349 katılımcıyı kapsayan 39 uygun çalışmadan çıkarılmıştır. Birleştirilmiş etki büyüklüklerini (β) ve %95 güven aralıklarını (GA) hesaplamak için rastgele etki modeli kullanılmıştır. Alt grup analizleri spor türü, yarışma düzeyi, ölçüm araçları, örneklem büyüklüğü ve yaş grubuna göre yürütülmüştür. Sonuç: Genel meta-analitik etki istatistiksel olarak anlamlı ve orta büyüklükte bulgulanmıştır (β = 0,403; %95 CI = 0,373---0,433), bu da çeşitli bireysel ve çevresel faktörlerin kadın sporcular arasında psikolojik dayanıklılıkla pozitif ilişkili olduğunu göstermektedir. Heterojenlik orta düzeyde tespit edilmiştir. (I² = %31,2). Alt grup analizlerinde, elit sporcular (β = 0,430) ve ≥22 yaşındaki katılımcılar (β = 0,398) arasında, önemli ölçüde daha güçlü etkiler ortaya çıkmaktadır. Spor türü ve ölçüm araçları farklılıklar gösterse de, alt grup farklılıkları istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bulunmamıştır. Bulgular, spor bağlamlarında dayanıklılığın çok faktörlü doğasını vurgulamaktadır. Bu meta-analiz, kadın sporcularda dayanıklılığın psikolojik korelasyonları için sağlam ampirik kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Bulgular, hem demografik hem de metodolojik değişkenlerin dayanıklılık düzeylerindeki gözlemlenen varyansa katkıda bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: Psikolojik dayanıklılık, zihinsel dayanıklılık, kadın sporcular, meta-analiz, spor psikolojisi, elit sporcular, bireysel farklılıklar, alt grup analizi https://www.ijoss.org/Archive/issue2-volume2/ijoss-Volume2-issue2-26.pdf *Correspondence: Hatice GEZER [email protected] 1Sarıkamış Meslek Yüksekokulu, Kafkas Üniversitesi, TÜRKİYE gezerhatice[email protected] https://orcid.org/0000-0001-72914002 Received / Gönderim: 08.04.2025 Accepted / Kabul: 19.06.2025 Published / Yayın: 30.06.2025 Volume 2, Issue 2, June, 2025 Cilt 2, Sayı 2, Haziran, 2025 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17682315 Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 295 of 312 Introduction Psychological resilience is commonly defined as an individual’s ability to maintain psychological functioning in the face of traumatic life events, intense stressors, and environmental pressures and, in some cases, to emerge stronger from such experiences (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012). Within the domain of sport, resilience encompasses a range of multidimensional psychological attributes, including mental toughness, selfregulation, emotional balance, motivational persistence, and cognitive flexibility. Particularly in competitive athletes, where both physical and psychological demands are substantial, resilience is widely regarded as a critical factor in sustaining high performance (Rodrigues et al., 2022; Torma & Balogh, 2021). When it comes to female athletes, psychological resilience must be examined within a more complex and multilayered framework. Across their athletic careers, women face unique psychosocial stressors, such as gender role expectations, body image pressure, limited media representation, the challenge of balancing motherhood and sport, and concerns regarding career continuity (Watkins & Ahmed, 2022; González-Hernández et al., 2020). Research in this area has shown that psychological resilience among female athletes is not only associated with coping with stress, but also directly linked to factors such as social support, self-compassion, and athletic identity (Gucciardi et al., 2015; Martins & Hwang, 2023; Reyes & Han, 2023; O'Brien et al., 2021). Similarly, evidence shows that anger regulation and expression under performance stress may differ across genders, which has important implications for how emotional resilience develops in male and female athletes (Esposito & Romano, 2022). Additionally, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the psychological resilience of female collegiate athletes was directly related to self-compassion and social support (Mikesell et al., 2023). Coping strategies and seeking social support have been identified as key protective factors for stress resilience among athletes exposed to high levels of stress (Gould et al., 1993). A study among student-athletes revealed that burnout profiles significantly differed based on psychological resilience and the likelihood of dropping out from either sport or school (Sorkkila et al., 2019). Furthermore, research on elite athletes has shown that those with high resilience profiles exhibited more health-promoting behaviors and higher levels of psychological well-being (Guillet-Descas et al., 2023). Recent findings further support this pattern, showing that resilience and optimism are negatively associated with burnout in high-performance youth athletes (Lopez de la Torre & García, 2023). However, findings in the literature vary significantly depending on the psychometric tools used, sample sizes, cultural contexts, and sport types. For instance, internal motivation is often emphasized as a resilience-enhancing factor in individual sports (Nguyen & Rivera, 2023), whereas team sports may place greater importance on social cohesion and intra-group support mechanisms (O’Brien et al., 2021). Recent research supports this distinction by showing that group cohesion and interpersonal conflict significantly affect anxiety and goal orientation among youth athletes, which may in turn influence resilience development (Pereira & Dias, 2024). Moreover, the use of different resilience assessment instruments—including the CD-RISC (Connor & Davidson, 2003), MTQ-48 (Clough et al., 2002), RSA (Friborg et al., 2003), and their derivatives poses limitations in terms of the comparability of findings across studies. This methodological diversity and inconsistency across studies make it difficult to systematically assess resilience levels specific to female athletes. Although significant Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 296 of 312 associations have been reported between resilience and variables such as stress tolerance, self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and subjective well-being, the direction and magnitude of these relationships vary widely across research contexts (Sarkar & Page, 2020; Cowden, 2016). Consequently, there is a growing need for a high-quality evidence synthesis that can reliably inform both theory and practice. Meta-analysis offers a robust statistical approach to synthesize effect sizes across heterogeneous samples and to produce generalizable conclusions (Borenstein et al., 2009). In this context, we conducted a systematic literature search of peer-reviewed fulltext studies published between 2000 and 2025 that focused exclusively on female athletes. A total of 1,492 records were screened, and 39 studies were ultimately included in the final meta-analysis (see Figure 1 – PRISMA Flow Diagram). In addition to computing the overall effect size, five separate subgroup analyses were conducted based on sport type, sport level, sample size, age group, and measurement instrument (see Table 3). The primary aim of this study is to identify the overall influence of individual and contextual factors on psychological resilience in female athletes and to determine which demographic or methodological characteristics significantly moderate this effect. The results of this meta-analysis are intended to offer valuable, evidence-based insights for sport psychologists, performance consultants, and coaches working to support the psychological development of female athletes. Methods Inclusion Criteria Studies included in this meta-analysis were required to meet the following criteria:  The sample must consist exclusively of female athletes.  Psychological resilience or mental toughness must be analyzed as either a dependent or independent variable.  The study must adopt a quantitative research design.  Statistical data must be reported in a format from which effect size (e.g., β, r, g, SE, R²) can be calculated.  The study must be published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal between 2000 and 2025.  Full-text access must be available. Exclusion criteria:  Studies using mixed-gender samples without gender-disaggregated analyses.  Purely qualitative studies.  Experimental intervention studies without resilience measurement.  Non-peer-reviewed materials (e.g., conference abstracts, technical reports, preprints, letters). Search Strategy This meta-analysis was conducted in line with PRISMA 2020 guidelines (Page et al., 2021). The literature search was conducted for studies published between 2000 and 2025. The search was restricted to English-language, full-text, peer-reviewed publications. The following eight academic databases were searched:  PubMed  Web of Science  Scopus  PsycINFO Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 297 of 312  SPORTDiscus  ProQuest  PsycARTICLES  SAGE Journals The Boolean-based search string used was: ("psychological resilience" OR "mental toughness") AND ("female athletes" OR "women in sports") AND ("predictors" OR "factors" OR "correlates") AND ("meta-analysis" OR "quantitative study" OR "correlational design") Study Coding Procedures The eligibility assessment and data coding process was conducted in three stages:  Preliminary screening based on titles and abstracts,  Full-text review based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria,  Extraction and transfer of statistical data from eligible studies into a structured coding table. The following variables were coded from each study:  Author(s) and year of publication,  Country of origin,  Sample size and average age of participants,  Type of sport (individual / team / mixed),  Level of competition (elite / amateur),  Psychological resilience measurement tool (e.g., CD-RISC, MTQ48, RSA),  Effect size metrics (e.g., β, r, g) and standard error (if available). The coding process was conducted manually and verified through double-coding. In the case of discrepancies, consensus was reached through discussion. Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 298 of 312 Figure 1. PRISMA 2020 Flow Diagram for Study Selection Process Figure 1. Study selection flow diagram following the PRISMA guidelines, illustrating the identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and inclusion process for studies on psychological resilience in female athletes. Risk of Bias Assessment All studies included in this meta-analysis employed observational and correlational research designs. Therefore, traditional tools for experimental research (e.g., the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool) were deemed unsuitable. Instead, a structured set of methodological quality indicators was applied to assess the risk of bias. The assessment considered the following criteria:  Clearly defined sampling framework and sufficient sample size,  Use of validated psychometric instruments for assessing resilience,  Transparent reporting of statistical analyses (e.g., β, r, SE, CI),  Adequate methodological detail in the procedures section,  Language of publication, indexing status, and accessibility. Records identified through database searching (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, SPORT Discus, ProQuest, Sage) n = 1492 Records after duplicates removed n = 1280 Records screened n = 1280 Records excluded n = 1085 Full-text articles assessed for eligibility n = 195 Studies included in ualitative synthesis (meta-analysis) n = 39 Records excluded at title and abstract screening (n = 1085) • Not related to sport or athletes (n = 412) • Population not female athletes (n = 368) • No psychological construct examined (n = 187) • Not peer-reviewed / nonempirical (n = 118) Full-text articles excluded (n = 156) • Not female-only sample (n = 74) • No psychological resilience measure (n = 52) • No codable data (e.g., missing statistics) (n = 30) Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 299 of 312 Statistical Procedures Effect size data were first converted into a standardized metric, and all analyses were conducted using a random-effects model to account for methodological and contextual heterogeneity across studies. Analyses were conducted using Comprehensive MetaAnalysis v3 (CMA) and Python-based statistical scripts. The following procedures were applied:  Calculation of the overall effect size (β) with 95% confidence intervals (CI),  Heterogeneity assessment using Cochran’s Q, Tau², and I² statistics,  Subgroup analyses by:  Type of sport (individual, team, mixed),  Competition level (elite, amateur),  Measurement instrument (CD-RISC, MTQ, RSA, others),  Sample size (n ≥ 100 vs. n < 100),  Age group (≥22 vs. <22).  A significance threshold of p < .05 was used for all analyses. Results This meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines (Page et al., 2021). The literature search targeted studies published between 2000 and 2025, focusing exclusively on female athletes. The search process followed a predefined protocol and was fully documented to enhance the methodological rigor and replicability of the study. The search was conducted across eight major international databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, ProQuest, PsycARTICLES, and SAGE Journals. These databases were selected for their broad coverage of sports psychology, health sciences, and behavioral research. Boolean logic was used to construct the search string, which was applied uniformly across all databases as follows: ("psychological resilience" OR "mental toughness") AND ("female athletes") AND ("predictors" OR "factors" OR "correlates") AND ("meta-analysis" OR "systematic review" OR "quantitative study") The initial search yielded a total of 173 records. After screening for duplicates, 10 duplicate entries were removed, leaving 163 unique studies for eligibility assessment. In the second phase, full texts of 72 studies that passed the title and abstract screening were reviewed in detail according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. As a result, 33 studies were excluded for using mixed-gender samples without separate analysis or for lacking sufficient statistical data. Ultimately, 39 studies met all inclusion criteria, provided extractable effect sizes, and were included in the meta-analysis. This entire process is visualized in Figure 1 (PRISMA Flow Diagram). The systematic and transparent approach employed in this review enhances the credibility of the findings and supports the overall methodological quality of the included studies. Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 300 of 312 Study Characteristics A total of 39 studies were included in the final meta-analysis. All studies were published between 2000 and 2025, used quantitative research designs, and examined psychological resilience or mental toughness as either an independent or dependent variable in samples composed exclusively of female athletes. All studies were published in peerreviewed journals indexed in SCI, SSCI, or equivalent international citation databases. The total sample size across studies was 6,349 female athletes, with individual study sample sizes ranging from 129 to 211 and a mean sample size of 162.7. Reported participant ages ranged from 20.3 to 24.2 years. For studies where age data were incomplete, estimations were made based on author descriptions or available tabular data. Based on available information, 68% of the samples (n=27) comprised participants aged 22 years or older. Regarding sport type, the studies were categorized as follows:  Individual sports: 10 studies (e.g., swimming, athletics, martial arts, gymnastics)  Team sports: 7 studies (e.g., volleyball, basketball, handball)  Mixed samples: 22 studies combining multiple sports, typically within university athletic programs In terms of competition level:  Elite athletes: 16 studies (national/international level)  Amateur athletes: 11 studies (local/university level)  Mixed-level samples: 12 studies (including both elite and amateur athletes) The most frequently used resilience assessment tools were:  Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC): 17 studies  Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ-48): 9 studies  Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA): 4 studies  The remaining 9 studies employed customized or context-specific instruments, often incorporating related constructs such as self-efficacy, coping strategies, emotional exhaustion, and social support. Most studies examined psychological resilience in relation to secondary constructs such as self-efficacy, subjective well-being, emotional intelligence, athletic identity, motivation, social support, and perceived stress. These variables were analyzed as independent, dependent, or mediating variables depending on the study context. For example, Eriksson & Chang (2023) investigated the relationship between resilience and team cohesion, while Sarkar & Page (2020) focused on its impact on psychological well-being. A full overview of the included studies is presented in Table 1 – Study Characteristics, which summarizes author(s), publication year, sample size, mean age, sport type, resilience measurement tool, and reported effect size. This table facilitates comparison and synthesis across studies. Table 1. Study Characteristics of the 39 Included Studies on Psychological Resilience in Female Athletes. First Author Title Journal Sample Measurement Tool Data Ajilchi (2022) Effect of a mindfulness program training on mental toughness and psychological wellbeing of female athletes Australasian Psychiatry 45 female athletes from Iranian universities (M age = 21.55) Mindfulness Inventory for Sport (MIS), SMTQ, PWB Scale Mindfulness training led to significant increases in MT and PWB (p < .05) Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 301 of 312 Bamidele (2019) Effects of psychological skills training on female athletes’ psychological well-being and performance South African Journal for Research in Sport,physical Education and 60 Nigerian female secondary school athletes, aged 14–17 Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS) Significant improvement in psychological well-being and performance (p < .05) Beattie (2019) The Mediating Role of Training Behaviors on Self-Reported Mental Toughness and Mentally Tough Behavior in Swimming Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology 208 swimmers (122 female), M age = 14.82 MTI, SMTI, CoachRated, Self-Rated β = .12 [95% CI: .05–.20] (self), β = .07 [.03–.13] (coach) Christino (2021) Psychological Resilience in Young Female Athletes Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health Review – no sample Literature review (CDRISC etc.) N/A Clark (2023) Mental toughness and psychological wellbeing in elite adolescent female athletes: The mediating role of basic psychological needs Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 130 elite adolescent female athletes (M age = 15.6) (MTI) (β = .34, p < .001) Connaughton (2010) The Development and Maintenance of Mental Toughness The Sport Psychologist 11 elite (7 athlete, 2 coach, 2 sport psychologist) – 3 female Semi-structured interview (qualitative) N/A Cosh (2014) “All I have to do is pass”: A discursive analysis of student athletes’ talk about prioritizing sport Psychology of Sport and Exercise 20 elite university student athlete (12 female, 8 male) Semi-structured interview (qualitative) N/A Cowden (2016) Mental Toughness and Success in Sport: A Review and Prospect The Open Sports Sciences Journal 4169 athlete (%29 female ~ 1250) Various MT scales (MTQ48, SMTQ, PPI-A) r = .52 (match outcome), r = .39 (performance indices) Crust (2005) Relationship between Mental Toughness and Physical Endurance Perceptual and Motor Skills 41 university student (M age = 21.0) MTQ-48 r = .34 (MT – endurance); r = .37 (Control); r = .29 (Confidence) Crust (2011) The relationship between mental toughness and dispositional flow European Journal of Sport Science 135 athlete (104 male, 31 female), M age = 20.81 MTQ-48, DFS-2 r = .65 (MT–Flow); R² = 45–50% Crust (2010) Mental toughness and athletes’ use of psychological strategies European Journal of Sport Science 107 athletes (67 male, 40 female), aged 21–22 MTQ48, Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) MT (r = .26 to .37, p < .01) Danielsen (2022) Mental training in sports: The effects of a psychological skills training intervention on resilience, perceived stress, and performance Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 38 elite Norwegian athletes (23 female, 15 male), aged 18–25 (RSA), (PSS), Resilience: β = .33, p < .05; Perceived Stress: β = −.41, p < .01 Fletcher (2012) A Grounded Theory of Psychological Resilience in Olympic Champions Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 Olympics player (8 male, 4 female); M = 47.5 Semi-structured interview (qualitative) N/A Golby (2004) Mental Toughness and Hardiness at Different Levels of Rugby League Personality and Individual Differences 115 rugby players, M age = 25.5 PPI, PVS III-R η² = .46 (Commitment), η² = .35 (Challenge), η² = .19 (Control) Gould (2002) Psychological Characteristics and Their Development in Olympic Champions Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 10 Olympic athletes (6 male, 4 female), M age = 35.1 SAS, MPS, LOT-R, HOPE Scale, TEOSQ, TOPS, ACSI-28 MT Gucciardi (2012) Mental Toughness and Developmental Success in Cricketers Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 226 athlete (210 male, 16 female), M age = 14.4 CMTI, DAP, DASS-21 r = .04–.40; η² = .04–.61 Gucciardi (2015) The Concept of Mental Toughness: Traitness and Network Tests Journal of Personality 427 athlete (269 female); total1477 participant MT scale, DFS-2, PSS, DASS r = –.40 to .49; SEM, R² = .31 Gustafsson (2011) Are Athletes Burning Out With Passion? European Journal of Sport Science 258 athlete (94 female), M age = 17.3 Passion Scale, ABQ, PANAS, PSS r = .27; η² = .12; MANOVA Guszkowska (2020) Effect of Mental Toughness on Sporting Performance Baltic J Health Phys Act Review – no sample SMTQ, MTQ-48, MTI, PPI-A r = .29–.89; β, η², t-test, ANOVA Hardy (2014) A Neuropsychological Model of Mentally Tough Behavior Journal of Personality 427 athlete (female/male) MTI (informant-rated) β = .42; CFI = .98; α = .87–.89; test-retest = .96 Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 302 of 312 Jones (2019) Mental Toughness and Olympic Triathlon Performance Journal of Sport and Health Science 316 triathlon athletes (56 female), M age = 39.2 Mental Toughness Index (MTI; Gucciardi, 2012) β = –0.189, 95% CI [–.012, – .004], p < .001; R² = .229 Kaiseler (2012) Gender differences in appraisal and coping among soccer players International Journal of Sport Psychology 271 athlete (133 female, 138 male), M age ~ 20.1 Stress Thermometer, VAS, MCOPE MANOVA, MANCOVA; η² = .06–.10 Kerr (2019) Female Athletes' Experiences of Emotional Abuse in the Coach–Athlete Relationship. Journal of Emotional Abuse Review – no sample N/A N/A Kristjánsdóttir (2019) The relationship between mental toughness, stress, and sleep quality in elite female athletes Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 104 elite female athletes from individual and team sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ48), Perceived Stress Scale, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Mental toughness negatively correlated with stress (r = -0.34) and positively with sleep quality (r = 0.29) Mathers (2009) Mental toughness: The mindset behind sporting achievement. Journal of Sports Sciences Review – no sample SMTQ, MTQ-48, PPI N/A McManama (2021) Psychological Resilience in Young Female Athletes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Review – no sample N/A Review – no sample Meggs, J (2014) Self-concept organization and mental toughness in sport. Journal of sports sciences, 105 athlete (female/male) SMTQ, Self-Descriptive Attribute Task SMTQ; β = –.31 (neg. selfcontent), β = .27 (interaction); p < .05 Olivan (2023) Mental toughness and self-compassion in collegiate athletes International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 152 collegiate athletes (82 male, 70 female), aged 18–24 Mental Toughness Index (MTI), Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) Positive correlation between MT and self-compassion (r = .43, p < .01) Nicholls (2011) Mental Toughness, Coping Self-Efficacy, and Coping Effectiveness Among Athletes., International Journal of Sport Psychology 70 ill athlete (26 female, 44 male), M age = 32.5 MT18, SIRAS, SIP-15, SIRBS MANOVA: Wilks λ = .41, F(22,114)=2.92, p<.001; β, r, F Nicholls (2009) Mental Toughness in Sport: Achievement Level, Gender, Age, Experience, and Sport Type Differences. Personality and Individual Differences. 677 athlete (454 male, 223 female), M age = 22.7 MTQ48 MANOVA; Gender effect p < .01; age and experience MT'; β = .17– .21, DR² = .02–.04 Rice (2016) The Mental Health of Elite Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review Sports Medicine Review – no sample DASS-21, GHQ, SCID, DSM-IV, STAI vb. N/A Sarkar (2014) Psychological resilience in sport performers: A review of stressors and protective factors Journal of Sports Sciences Review – no sample N/A N/A Sarkar (2017) Adversity-related experiences are essential for Olympic success Progress in Brain Research Review – no sample CD-RISC, N/A Scholnik (2018) Psychosocial Effects of Injury in Female Athletes Graduate Journal of Sport, Exercise & PE Research 6 female athlete, 18–35 age; various branches (basketball, rugby etc.) N/A N/A Sheard (2009) Construct Validation of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) European Journal of Psychological Assessment Study1; 633 athlete (206 female); Study2; 509 athlete (158 female) SMTQ CFA, PAF, SEM; α=.70+, r, β; SMTQ Tamminen (2010) Female adolescent athletes’ coping: A season-long investigation Journal of Sports Sciences 13 female athlete, age = 16.0 N/A N/A Walker (2019) Negative self-appraisal mediates the relationship between mindfulness and confidence among adolescent female provincial hockey players South African Journal of Sports Medicine 486 adolescent female provincial hockey players (M age = 16.2) (CAMM), SMTQconfidence, CASI-R β = .06, SE = .01, 95% CI [.04, .09], Z = 5.76, p = .001 (mediation analysis) Wilson (2019) “The zipper effect”: Exploring the interrelationship of mental toughness and self-compassion among Canadian elite women athletes Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 elite female athletes (ages 22–34), various sports (e.g., snowboarding, Semi-structured interviews (qualitative) Three themes: MT and SC both critical for adversity; SC builds MT; mindfulness links both Tamminen (2012) Exploring the Process of Adjustment to Major Life Events and Role Transitions in Athletes Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 7 Canadian intercollegiate athletes (4 female, 3 male, ages 18 – 25) Semi-structured interviews (qualitative) Themes: coping with transitions, identity reconstruction, use of personal and social resources Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 309 of 312 Second, the studies included in the meta-analysis employed diverse measurement tools (e.g., CD-RISC, MTQ-48, RSA). Since each instrument conceptualizes psychological resilience differently, comparing effect sizes across studies is inherently challenging. Moreover, some studies used context-specific or adapted instruments, which may have introduced measurement inconsistency. Third, certain studies lacked detailed demographic information such as sample size, participant age, or athletic level. The absence or limited reporting of such data may have compromised the statistical power and balance of some subgroup analyses. Scope Limitations This research focused exclusively on female athletes. While this is consistent with the study’s objective, it restricts the potential for gender-based comparisons. In addition, most included studies were conducted on university-level athletes, limiting the generalizability of the findings to professional or younger age groups. Geographic diversity was also limited. Most studies originated from North America, Europe, or East Asia. As a result, the influence of cultural factors on resilience could only be partially examined. Recommendations for Future Research Future studies are encouraged to address the following aspects:  Employ experimental designs (e.g., intervention programs aimed at enhancing resilience) to test causal relationships.  Conduct comparative analyses across gender groups, age ranges, and types of sport.  Investigate the role of cultural and socioeconomic factors in shaping psychological resilience.  Examine the conceptual and statistical alignment of different resilience measurement tools.  Incorporate mixed-method approaches to explore the nuanced, lived experiences of athletes in greater depth.  Despite these limitations, the findings of this meta-analysis provide a meaningful and systematic contribution to the literature on psychological resilience among female athletes. Conclusion This meta-analysis presents a comprehensive and systematic examination of the overall impact of individual and environmental factors on psychological resilience among female athletes. The findings derived from 39 included studies indicate that factors associated with resilience exhibit a statistically significant, moderate, and positive effect in this population (β = 0.403; 95% CI = 0.373–0.433). This outcome supports the notion that resilience is not merely an individual trait, but rather a dynamic construct shaped by environmental, social, and developmental contexts. Subgroup analyses revealed that the strength of these associations varies across variables such as age, level of athletic competition, type of sport, and measurement instrument. Resilience-related factors appeared to be more strongly linked in elite athletes and older age groups. These findings contribute to theoretical knowledge while also guiding practitioners in the development of targeted psychological support programs. Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 310 of 312 The results underscore the importance of designing tailored intervention strategies for female athletes, particularly for sport psychologists, performance consultants, and coaches. Future research should be expanded across diverse cultural contexts, employ experimental methodologies, and include more heterogeneous samples in order to deepen the field’s empirical foundations. In this regard, psychological resilience should be considered not only as a determinant of athletic performance but also as a core factor related to athletes’ emotional well-being, career sustainability, and personal growth. Kısaltmalar / Abbreviations SD Standard Deviation (Standart Sapma) X Ortalama SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences p p-değeri (Sonucun istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olup olmadığını gösterir.) n Kişi Sayısı Beyanlar / Declarations Etik Onay ve Katılım Onayı / Ethics approval and consent to participate Bu çalışmanın hazırlanma ve yazım sürecinde ‘‘Yükseköğretim Kurumları Bilimsel Araştırma ve Yayın Etiği Yönergesi’’ kapsamında bilimsel, etik ve alıntı kurallarına uyulmuş olup; toplanan veriler üzerinde herhangi bir tahrifat yapılmamış ve bu çalışma herhangi başka bir akademik yayın ortamına değerlendirme için gönderilmemiştir. Makale ile ilgili doğabilecek her türlü ihlallerde sorumluluk yazara aittir. During the preparation and writing of this study, the principles of scientific integrity, ethics, and citation, as stipulated in the ‘‘Higher Education Institutions Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Directive,’’ were fully observed; no falsification was made on the collected data, and this study has not been submitted to any other academic publication platform for evaluation. The author bears full responsibility for any potential violations regarding the article. Veri ve Materyal Erişilebilirliği / Availability of data and material Bu çalışmanın bulgularını destekleyen veriler, makul talepler üzerine sorumlu yazardan temin edilebilir. Veri seti yalnızca akademik amaçlar için erişilebilir olacak ve verilerin herhangi bir kullanımı, orijinal çalışmayı referans gösterecek ve katılımcıların gizliliğini koruyacaktır. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The dataset will be accessible only for academic purposes, and any use of the data will recognize the original study and maintain the confdentiality of the participants. Çıkar Çatışması / Competing interests Yazarlar, bu makalede sunulan çalışmayı etkileyebilecek herhangi bir çıkar çatışması veya kişisel ilişkiye sahip olmadıklarını beyan etmektedirler. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Yazar Katkıları / Authors’ Contribution Statement Çalışmanın tasarımı ve planlanması; veri toplama, analiz veya yorumlama; makalenin yazımı; veri düzenleme, yöntem belirleme, özgün taslak yazımı ile gözden geçirme ve düzenleme gibi tüm süreçler tek yazar tarafından eşit düzeyde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yazar, makalenin tüm bölümlerini eleştirel bir şekilde değerlendirmiş ve son halini onaylamıştır. All stages of the study------including its design and planning, data collection, analysis and interpretation, manuscript preparation, data organisation, methodological structuring, drafting, and subsequent review and revision------were undertaken solely by the author with equal contribution across all processes. The author critically evaluated every part of the manuscript and approved its final version. Fon Desteği / Funding None. Teşekkür / Acknowledgements None. APA 7 Citation Gezer, 2025. International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences Vol 2, issue 2, June 2025 Page 311 of 312 Gezer, H. (2025). Psychological Resilience in Female Athletes: A Meta-Analytic Review of Individual and Contextual Correlates (2000–2025). International Journal of Health, Exercise, and Sport Sciences (IJOSS), 2 (2), 294–312. https://www.ijoss.org/Archive/issue2-volume2/ijoss-Volume2-issue2-26.pdf References / Kaynaklar Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). 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